are the orthographic rules for spelling Japanese in kana. All phonographic systems (of which kana is an example) attempt to account accurately the pronunciation in their spellings. However, pronunciation and accents change over time and phonemic distinctions are often lost. Various systems of ''kanazukai'' were introduced to deal with the disparity between the written and spoken versions of Japanese.

Historical systems

The former mainstream kana usage, or the ''

Kyū-Kanazukai The , or , refers to the in general use until orthographic reforms after World War II; the current orthography was adopted by Cabinet order in 1946. By that point the historical orthography was no longer in accord with Japanese pronunciatio ...

'' (, ‘old kana usage’), is based on classical texts, especially '' man'yōgana''. Created by Keichū in the early Edo period, it is also known as the ''Keichū Kanazukai''. It was the mainstream ''kanazukai'' until the '' Gendai Kanazukai'' was introduced in 1946. There were other minor systems throughout history that are now defunct: * ''

Jōdai Tokushu Kanazukai is an archaic kana orthography system used to write Japanese during the Nara period. Its primary feature is to distinguish between two groups of syllables that later merged. The existence and meaning of this system is a critical point of sch ...

'': a modified '' Man'yōgana'' where /e, je/ are distinct. * ''Teika Kanazukai'': created by Fujiwara no Teika, it distinguishes between /wo, o/, /i, hi, wi/, /e, we, he/, and also (to a lesser degree) /e, je/. /wo, o/ were used to express high and low accent, respectively. * ''Gyōa Kanazukai'' (''Kanamojizukai''): created by

Minamoto no Chikayuki was one of the surnames bestowed by the Emperors of Japan upon members of the imperial family who were excluded from the line of succession and demoted into the ranks of the nobility from 1192 to 1333. The practice was most prevalent during the ...

and Gyōa, which expanded on the ''Teika Kanazukai'' by distinguishing between /ho/, /wa, ha/, /u, hu/, and /mu/. /wo, o/ are still used to distinguish between high and low accent. However, the distinction between /e, je/ is obliterated.

''Gendai Kanazukai''

Derived from the ''Kyū-Kanazukai'', ''gendai kanazukai'' is a revision to more approximate modern pronunciation that is still used currently. As an adaption of the ''Kyū-Kanazukai'', it is still not entirely phonetic, especially in respect to long vowels and particles.

Historical systems

''Gendai Kanazukai''

References

See also