Kalam is a

Kalam language Kalam is a Kalam language of Papua New Guinea. It is closely related to Kobon, and shares many of the features of that language. Kalam is spoken in Middle Ramu District of Madang Province and in Mount Hagen District of Western Highlands Provin ...

Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; , ; tpi, Papua Niugini; ho, Papua Niu Gini), officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea ( tpi, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niugini; ho, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niu Gini), is a country i ...

. It is closely related to Kobon, and shares many of the features of that language. Kalam is spoken in

Middle Ramu District Middle Ramu District is a district in the south-west of Madang Province in Papua New Guinea. It is one of the six administrative districts that make up the province. See also *Middle Ramu languages The Middle Ramu or Annaberg languages are a sm ...

Madang Province Madang is a province of Papua New Guinea. The province is on the northern coast of mainland Papua New Guinea and has many of the country's highest peaks, active volcanoes and its biggest mix of languages. The capital is the town of Madang. D ...

and in

Mount Hagen District Mount Hagen District is a district of the Western Highlands Province of Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; , ; tpi, Papua Niugini; ho, Papua Niu Gini), officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea ( tpi, Indepe ...

Western Highlands Province Western Highlands is a province of Papua New Guinea. The provincial capital is Mount Hagen. The province covers an area of 4,299 km2, and there are 362,850 inhabitants (2011 census), making the Western Highlands the most densely populated pro ...

. Thanks to decades of studies by anthropologists such as

Ralph Bulmer Ralph Neville Hermon Bulmer (3 April 1928 – 18 July 1988) was a twentieth-century ethnobiologist who worked in Papua New Guinea, particularly with the Kalam people. From 1974 he made a radical shift by changing the role of his Kalam inform ...

and others, Kalam is one of the best-studied Trans-New Guinea languages to date.

Dialects

There are two distinct dialects of Kalam that are highly distinguishable from each other. *Etp, with 20,000 speakers, is centered in the Upper Kaironk and Upper Simbai Valleys. *Ti, with 5,000 speakers is centered in the Asai Valley. It includes the

Tai Tai or TAI may refer to: Arts and entertainment *Tai (comics) a fictional Marvel Comics supervillain *Tai Fraiser, a fictional character in the 1995 film ''Clueless'' *Tai Kamiya, a fictional character in ''Digimon'' Businesses and organisations ...

variety. Kobon is closely related. Kalam has an elaborate pandanus avoidance register used during

karuka The karuka (''Pandanus julianettii'', also called karuka nut and ''Pandanus'' nut) is a species of tree in the family Pandanaceae and an important regional food crop in New Guinea. The nuts are more nutritious than coconuts, and are so popular ...

harvest that has been extensively documented. The Kalam pandanus language, called () or (), is also used when eating or cooking

cassowary Cassowaries ( tpi, muruk, id, kasuari) are flightless birds of the genus ''Casuarius'' in the order Casuariiformes. They are classified as ratites (flightless birds without a keel on their sternum bones) and are native to the tropical forest ...

Phonology

Consonants

Vowels

Evolution

Below are some Kalam reflexes of proto-Trans-New Guinea proposed by Pawley (2012, 2018).Note: Data in Pawley (2012) is drawn from Pawley and Bulmer (2011). Data is from the Etp dialect unless otherwise noted. Data from Ti, the other one of the two major dialects is also given when noted.

Verbs

Kalam has eight tense-aspect categories. There are four past tenses, two present tenses, and two future tenses, which are all marked using suffixes: *past habitual *remote past (yesterday or earlier) *today's past *immediate past *present habitual *present progressive *immediate future *future

Intransitive verb In grammar, an intransitive verb is a verb whose context does not entail a direct object. That lack of transitivity distinguishes intransitive verbs from transitive verbs, which entail one or more objects. Additionally, intransitive verbs are ...

s in Kalam can be classified as either active or stative. Some active intransitive verbs are: *- ‘go’ *- ‘sleep’ *- ‘stand, dance’ *- ‘die, cease to function’ Some stative verbs are: *- ‘(of things) break, be broken’ *- ‘(of a fire) go out’ *- ‘burn, be burnt, fully cooked’ *- ‘(of solid objects and surfaces) crack, burst, shatter’

Serial verb constructions

Transitivity is derived using resultative or cause-effect

serial verb construction The serial verb construction, also known as (verb) serialization or verb stacking, is a syntactic phenomenon in which two or more verbs or verb phrases are strung together in a single clause.Tallerman, M. (1998). ''Understanding Syntax''. London: A ...

s. (1) : :‘put out a fire’ (2) : :‘knock something to bits, shatter something’ (3) : :‘blow out a flame’ (4) : :‘prise something open’ (5) : :‘split something by wedging or levering’ (6) : :‘break something off by stepping on it’ (7) : :‘gouge something out’ Other serial verb constructions in Kalam include: *''d ap'' (get come) ‘bring’ *''d am'' (get go) ‘take’ *''am d ap'' (go get come) ‘fetch’ *''d nŋ'' (touch perceive) ‘feel’ *''ñb nŋ'' (eat perceive) ‘taste’ *''tb tk'' (cut sever) ‘cut off’

Nouns

Compounds

Some examples of

nominal compound In linguistics, a compound is a lexeme (less precisely, a word or Sign language, sign) that consists of more than one Word stem, stem. Compounding, composition or nominal composition is the process of word formation that creates compound lexemes. ...

s in Kalam: (1) :bin-b :woman-man :‘person, people’ (2) :ña-pañ :son-daughter :‘child, children’ (3) :aps-basd :grandmother-grandfather :‘grandparents’ (4) :ami-gon bapi-gon :mother-children father-children :‘nuclear family, parents and children’ (5) :kmn-as :game.mammal-small.wild.mammal :‘wild mammals’ (6) :kaj-kayn-kobti :pig-dog-cassowary :‘large animals’ (7) :kmn-kaj-kobti :game.mammal-pig-cassowary :‘animals that provide ceremonially valued meat’ (8) :mñ-mon :vine-tree :‘land, country, territory, world’ (9) : :‘everyday activities’

Animal names

Fauna classification (

folk taxonomy A folk taxonomy is a vernacular naming system, as distinct from scientific taxonomy. Folk biological classification is the way people traditionally describe and organize their natural surroundings/the world around them, typically making generou ...

) in the Kalam language has been extensively studied by

and others. Kalam speakers classify wild mammals into three major categories: * ‘game mammals, larger wild mammals’:

tree kangaroo Tree-kangaroos are marsupials of the genus ''Dendrolagus'', adapted for arboreal locomotion. They inhabit the tropical rainforests of New Guinea and far northeastern Queensland, along with some of the islands in the region. All tree-kangaroos ...

wallabies A wallaby () is a small or middle-sized macropod native to Australia and New Guinea, with introduced populations in New Zealand, Hawaii, the United Kingdom and other countries. They belong to the same taxonomic family as kangaroos and so ...

cuscus Cuscus ( or ) is the common name generally given to the species within the four genera of Australasian possum of the family Phalangeridae with the most tropical distribution: * ''Ailurops'' * ''Phalanger'' * ''Spilocuscus'' * ''Strigocuscus'' ...

es,

ringtail possum Pseudocheiridae is a family of arboreal marsupials containing 17 extant species of ringtailed possums and close relatives. They are found in forested areas and shrublands throughout Australia and New Guinea. Characteristics Physically, they app ...

s, giant rats, and

bandicoot Bandicoots are a group of more than 20 species of small to medium-sized, terrestrial, largely nocturnal marsupial omnivores in the order Peramelemorphia. They are endemic to the Australia–New Guinea region, including the Bismarck Archipelago t ...

s * ‘small wild mammals’: most bush-rats,

sugar glider The sugar glider (''Petaurus breviceps'') is a small, omnivorous, arboreal, and nocturnal gliding possum belonging to the marsupial infraclass. The common name refers to its predilection for sugary foods such as sap and nectar and its ability ...

s, and

pygmy possum The pygmy possums are a family of small possums that together form the marsupial family Burramyidae. The five extant species of pygmy possum are grouped into two genera. Four of the species are endemic to Australia, with one species also co-occu ...

s (including ''

Pogonomys ''Pogonomys'' is a genus of rodent in the family Muridae, found in New Guinea New Guinea (; Hiri Motu: ''Niu Gini''; id, Papua, or , historically ) is the world's second-largest island with an area of . Located in Oceania in the south ...

'' spp., ''

Melomys ''Melomys'' is a genus of rodents in the family Muridae. Members of this genus live in the wet habitats of northern Australia ( Far North Queensland), New Guinea, Torres Strait Islands and islands of the Indonesian archipelago. Species The ge ...

'' spp., and ''

Phascolosorex dorsalis The narrow-striped dasyure or narrow-striped marsupial shrew (''Phascolosorex dorsalis'') is a species of marsupial in the family Dasyuridae found in West Papua and Papua New Guinea. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry forests. N ...

''Bulmer, Ralph N.H. and Michael Tyler. 1968
Karam classification of frogs
''Journal of the Polynesian Society'' 77(4): 621–639.) * ‘dirty rats’ (''

Rattus ''Rattus'' is a genus of muroid rodents, all typically called rats. However, the term rat can also be applied to rodent species outside of this genus. Species and description The best-known ''Rattus'' species are the black rat (''R. rattus'') ...

'' spp.) Other animal categories are: * ‘flying birds and bats’ * ‘

cassowaries Cassowaries ( tpi, muruk, id, kasuari) are flightless birds of the genus ''Casuarius'' in the order Casuariiformes. They are classified as ratites (flightless birds without a keel (bird anatomy), keel on their sternum bones) and are native t ...

’ * ‘pigs’ (formerly including cattle, horses, and goats when first encountered by the Kalam) * ‘dogs’ * ‘certain snakes’ * ‘

skink Skinks are lizards belonging to the family Scincidae, a family in the infraorder Scincomorpha. With more than 1,500 described species across 100 different taxonomic genera, the family Scincidae is one of the most diverse families of lizards. Ski ...

s’ Rodent names include: *House Rat (''

Rattus exulans The Polynesian rat, Pacific rat or little rat (''Rattus exulans''), known to the Māori as ''kiore'', is the third most widespread species of rat in the world behind the brown rat and black rat. The Polynesian rat originated in Southeast Asia, a ...

'', '' Rattus niobe'', '' Rattus ruber'') – ~ *Garden Rat ('' Rattus ruber'') – *Long-snouted Rat ('' Rattus verecundus'') – *Small Mountain Rat ('' Rattus niobe'') – *Prehensile-tailed Rat (Bush-tailed Giant Rat) ('' Pogonomelomys sevia'') – ~ , , *Giant Bamboo Rat (Rothschild's Woolly Rat) (''

Mallomys rothschildi Rothschild's woolly rat (''Mallomys rothschildi'') is a species of rodent in the family Muridae. It is found on the island of New Guinea: both in the West Papua region of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. The species has been known to eat karuka ...

'') – ; , , *Giant Cane Rat ('' Hyomys goliath'') – *Grassland Melomys Rat ('' Melomys rufescens'') – *Lorentz's Rat ('' Melomys lorentzii'', '' Melomys platyops'') – ; (''M. lorentzii'' spreads '' Pandanus julianettii'' () seeds, according to the Kalam) *rat that feeds on

pandanus ''Pandanus'' is a genus of monocots with some 750 accepted species. They are palm-like, dioecious trees and shrubs native to the Old World tropics and subtropics. The greatest number of species are found in Madagascar and Malaysia. Common names ...

nuts ('' Anisomys imitator'') – ~ *Highland Giant Tree Rat ('' Uromys anak'') – *Lowland Giant Tree Rat (''

Uromys caudimaculatus The giant white-tailed rat (''Uromys caudimaculatus'') is an Australian rodent native to tropical rainforest of north Queensland, with subspecies occurring in New Guinea and the Aru Islands. It is one of the largest rodents in Australia, reaching ...

'') – *Mountain Water-rat (''

Hydromys shawmayeri Shaw Mayer's water rat (''Baiyankamys shawmayeri'') is a semiaquatic species of rodent in the family Muridae. It is found in the mountains of Papua New Guinea. Names It is known as kuypep kuykuy-sek in the Kalam language of Papua New Guinea ...

'') – *Waterside Rat ('' Parahydromys asper'') – , *Earless Water Rat ('' Crossomys moncktoni'') – *small rat, found near homesteads – Marsupial names include: *''

Pseudochirops corinnae The plush-coated ringtail possum or golden ringtail possum (''Pseudochirops corinnae'') is a species of marsupial in the family Pseudocheiridae. It is found in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands. Its natural habitat is subtropic ...

'' (Golden or Stationary Ringtail) – *''

Pseudochirops cupreus The coppery ringtail possum (''Pseudochirops cupreus'') is a species of marsupial in the family Pseudocheiridae. It is found in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. It is known as ymduŋ; bald, kagm, kas-gs, tglem-tud in the Kalam language of Papua N ...

'' (Copper Ringtail) – *''

Pseudochirulus forbesi The painted ringtail possum or moss-forest ringtail possum (''Pseudochirulus forbesi'') is a species of marsupial in the family Pseudocheiridae. It is found in Papua New Guinea. Names It is known as skoyd or boñay in the Kalam language of Papua ...

'' – (Painted Ringtail) – *'' Cercartetus caudatus'' (Pygmy Possum) – *'' Dactylopsila palpator'' (Mountain

striped possum The striped possum or common striped possum (''Dactylopsila trivirgata'') is a member of the marsupial family Petauridae. it is found mainly in New Guinea. The species is black with three white stripes running head to tail, and its head has whi ...

, Long-fingered Triok) – *'' Echymipera'' sp. – ? *''

Phalanger carmelitae The mountain cuscus (''Phalanger carmelitae'') is a species of marsupial in the family Phalangeridae found in West Papua, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; , ; tpi, Papua Niugini; ho, Papua Niu Gini), ...

'' (Black Mountain Cuscus) – *''

Phalanger gymnotis The ground cuscus (''Phalanger gymnotis'') is a marsupial from the order Diprotodontia and belongs within the family Phalangeridae, a diverse family consisting of the other cuscus species and the brushtail possums (''Trichosurus'' spp.) and the ...

'' (Ground Cuscus) – *'' Phalanger maculatus'' – *''

Phalanger orientalis The northern common cuscus (''Phalanger orientalis''), also known as the gray cuscus, is a species of marsupial in the family Phalangeridae native to northern New Guinea and adjacent smaller islands, but is now also found in the Bismarck Archipe ...

'' – ? *'' Phalanger permixteo'' – ? *'' Phalanger sericeus'' (Silky Cuscus, Beech Cuscus) – *''

Phalanger ''Phalanger'' (from the Greek ''phalangion'', meaning spider's web, from their webbed (fused) toesChambers English Dictionary) is a genus of possums. Its members are found on New Guinea, the Maluku Islands, other nearby small islands, and Aust ...

'' sp. – *''

Spilocuscus maculatus The common spotted cuscus (''Spilocuscus maculatus''), also known as the white cuscus, is a cuscus, a marsupial that lives in the Cape York region of Australia, New Guinea, and nearby smaller islands. Names It is known as aklang or gabi in the ...

'' – *'' Microperoryctes longicauda'' (Long-tailed Bandicoot) – *'' Peroryctes raffrayana'' (Hunting Bandicoot) – *''

'' – ; may also refer to '' Antechinus melanurus'' (Marsupial Rat) *''

Dasyurus albopunctatus The New Guinean quoll (''Dasyurus albopunctatus''), also known as the New Guinea quoll or New Guinea native cat, is a carnivorous marsupial mammal native to New Guinea. It is the second-largest surviving marsupial carnivore of New Guinea. It is k ...

'' (New Guinea Quoll, Marsupial Cat) – *'' Dendrolagus goodfellowi'' (Tree Kangaroo) - *''

Petaurus breviceps The sugar glider (''Petaurus breviceps'') is a small, omnivorous, arboreal, and nocturnal gliding possum belonging to the marsupial infraclass. The common name refers to its predilection for sugary foods such as sap and nectar and its abili ...

'' (Sugar Glider) – *''

Thylogale brunii The dusky pademelon or dusky wallaby (''Thylogale brunii'') is a species of marsupial in the family Macropodidae. It is found in the Aru and Kai islands and the Trans-Fly savanna and grasslands ecoregion of New Guinea. Its natural habitats are ...

'' (Bush Wallaby) – *'' Dorcopsulus vanheurni'' (Small Forest Wallaby, Common Mountain Forest Wallaby) - Reptile names and folk taxonomy in Kalam:Bulmer, RNH (1975)
Kalam Classification Of Reptiles And Fishes
''Journal of the Polynesian Society'' 84(3): 267–308. *yñ:

reptile Reptiles, as most commonly defined are the animals in the class Reptilia ( ), a paraphyletic grouping comprising all sauropsids except birds. Living reptiles comprise turtles, crocodilians, squamates (lizards and snakes) and rhynchocephalians ( ...

s **yñ yb: familiar small

lizard Lizards are a widespread group of squamate reptiles, with over 7,000 species, ranging across all continents except Antarctica, as well as most oceanic island chains. The group is paraphyletic since it excludes the snakes and Amphisbaenia alt ...

s ***yñ ladk:

gecko Geckos are small, mostly carnivorous lizards that have a wide distribution, found on every continent except Antarctica. Belonging to the infraorder Gekkota, geckos are found in warm climates throughout the world. They range from . Geckos ar ...

***yñ yb:

****yñ yb: colonial skinks *****kls: ''

Papuascincus stanleyanus ''Papuascincus stanleyanus'' is a species of skink, a lizard in the Family (biology), family Scincidae. The species is Endemism, endemic to New Guinea. Etymology The Specific name (zoology), specific name, ''stanleyanus'', refers to the Owen Sta ...

'', Common skink *****mabdagol: ''

'', Red-tailed skink *****mas: ''

Emoia ''Emoia'' is a genus of skinks, lizards in the subfamily Eugongylinae. The genus ''Emoia'' belongs to a group of genera mainly from the southwestern Pacific-Australian region. These small skinks are commonly known as emoias or skinks. Species ...

'' spp., Ant skinks (including '' E. baudini'' ost common '' E. pallidiceps'', and perhaps also '' E. kordoana'') ****yñ ladk: non-colonial skinks *****sydn: ''

Prasinohaema prehensicauda The prehensile green tree skink (''Prasinohaema prehensicauda'') is a species of skink. It is found in Papua New Guinea. Names It is known as in the Kalam language of Papua New Guinea. Green ''P. prehensicauda'' are called , while brown ones ar ...

'', Casuarina skink ******sydn km: Green casuarina skink ******sydn mlep: Brown casuarina skink *****mañmod: ''

Prasinohaema flavipes The common green tree skink (''Papuascincus flavipes'') is a species of skink. It is found in Papua New Guinea. Names It is known as mañmol in the Kalam language of Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; , ; tpi, Papua N ...

'', Tree skink *****pymakol: '' Lobulia elegans'', Beech skink *****mamŋ: '' Sphenomorphus darlingtoni'', Begonia skink *****komñ: ''Sphenomorphus'' sp.nr. ''jobiensis'', Bush skink *****ñgñolom: '' Sphenomorphus leptofasciatus'', Banded skink *****wowy: ''

Lepidodactylus ''Lepidodactylus'' is a large genus of geckos, commonly known as scaly-toed geckos and closely related to house geckos or dtellas. Geographic range Species in the genus ''Lepidodactylus'' are found from Southeast Asia to Indo-Australia and O ...

'' sp., Common gecko **yñ ladk: reptiles other than familiar small lizards ***aypot: '' Hypsilurus nigrigularis'',

Dragon lizard Agamidae is a family of over 300 species of iguanian lizards indigenous to Africa, Asia, Australia, and a few in Southern Europe. Many species are commonly called dragons or dragon lizards. Overview Phylogenetically, they may be sister to the I ...

***wbl: '' Varanus'' spp. ****wbl km: ''

Varanus prasinus The emerald tree monitor (''Varanus prasinus'') or green tree monitor, is a small to medium-sized arboreal monitor lizard. It is known for its unusual coloration, which consists of shades from green to turquoise, topped with dark, transverse d ...

'', Emerald monitor ****wbl yb: ''

Varanus indicus The mangrove monitor, mangrove goanna, or Western Pacific monitor lizard (''Varanus indicus'') is a member of the monitor lizard family with a large distribution from northern Australia and New Guinea to the Moluccas and Solomon Islands. It grows ...

'', Water monitor ***ñom:

snake Snakes are elongated, Limbless vertebrate, limbless, carnivore, carnivorous reptiles of the suborder Serpentes . Like all other Squamata, squamates, snakes are ectothermic, amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping Scale (zoology), scales. Ma ...

s ****soyŋ; ñom: relatively harmless snakes *****klŋan: ''

Chondropython viridis The green tree python (''Morelia viridis'') is a species of snake in the family Pythonidae. The species is native to New Guinea, some islands in Indonesia, and the Cape York Peninsula in Australia. First described by Hermann Schlegel in 1872, it ...

'', Green python *****soyŋ: ordinary snakes, '' Tropidonophis montanus'', '' Toxicocalamus loriae'', etc. ******soyŋ yb ******soyŋ pok: reddish snake ******soyŋ mosb: dark green snake ****sataw: terrifying serpents *****ymgwp: ''

Python Python may refer to: Snakes * Pythonidae, a family of nonvenomous snakes found in Africa, Asia, and Australia ** ''Python'' (genus), a genus of Pythonidae found in Africa and Asia * Python (mythology), a mythical serpent Computing * Python (pro ...

'' spp. *****nm: '' Python amethistinus'', Giant python *****jjoj: snake sp. *****kodkl: ''

Acanthophis laevis The smooth-scaled death adder (''Acanthophis laevis'') is a species of venomous snake in the Family (biology), family Elapidae. The species is Endemism, endemic to Southeast Asia and Oceania. Distribution and habitat ''A. laevis'' is found in In ...

'', Death adder (?) *****sataw: '' Micropechis ikaheca'', Small-eyed snake (?) *****other terrifying reptiles Frog names in Kalam are: *'' Litoria angiana'' (various phenotypes): komnaŋat, jejeg, (jejeg) pkay, kawag **''komnaŋat'': bright green polymorph; usually found in ''

Saurauia ''Saurauia'' is a genus of plants in the family Actinidiaceae. It comprises about over 300 species distributed in the tropics and subtropics of Asia and South and Central America. Genetic evidence and the cell biology of the group support monophy ...

'' spp. and ''

Ficus dammaropsis ''Ficus dammaropsis'', called ''kapiak'' in Tok Pisin, is a tropical fig tree with huge pleated leaves across and up to 90 cm (3 feet) in length. It is native to the highlands and highlands fringe of New Guinea. It generally grows at altitudes ...

'' **''kawag'': dark green or black polymorph **''jejeg'': four types: ***''jejeg pkay'': polymorph with reddish belly ***''jejeg mj-kmab'' or ''jejeg km'': bright green polymorph ***''jejeg mlep'': dull brown polymorph ***''jejeg mosb'': black polymorph *'' Litoria arfakiana'': daŋboŋ *'' Litoria modica'' (or ''

Litoria becki Beck's tree frog (''Litoria becki'') is a species of frog in the subfamily Pelodryadinae. It is endemic to Papua New Guinea. Its natural habitats are tropical moist montane forests, grasslands and streams. It was first described by the British bi ...

''): wyt *'' Litoria micromembrana'': kosoj *'' Litoria bulmeri'': kogop *'' Nyctimystes disruptus'': kwyos, gepgep **''kiwos'': red-bellied polymorphs *'' Nyctimystes foricula'': gojmay (also bin-pk) *'' Nyctimystes kubori'': kwelek *'' Nyctimystes narinosus'': mabas *''

Nyctimystes ''Nyctimystes'' is a genus of tree frogs in the subfamily Pelodryadinae of the family Hylidae. They are principally Papuan species, but also inhabit islands in the Moluccas. All species in this genus have one distinct feature that separates them ...

'' sp.: kabanm *'' Oxydactyla brevicrus'': kabanm *'' Cophixalus parkeri'': kabanm ature lk (including bopnm) mmature*'' Cophixalus riparius'': gwnm *'' Cophixalus shellyi'': gwnm sbmganpygak *'' Choerophryne variegata'': lk (including bopnm) *'' Asterophrys'' sp.: gwnm *'' Xenorhina rostrata'': gwnm *''

Barygenys ''Barygenys'' is a genus of microhylid frogs. They are endemic to New Guinea and the adjacent Louisiade Archipelago. So far only known from Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; , ; tpi, Papua Niugini; ho, Papua Niu Gi ...

'' sp.: gwnm sbmganpygak *'' Papurana grisea'': akpt, cebs Note: '' Cophixalus shellyi'', '' Choerophryne darlingtoni'', and '' Oxydactyla brevicrus'' also tend to be identified by Kalam speakers as ''lk'' if calling from low vegetation, but as ''gwnm'' (usually applied to '' Cophixalus riparius'' and '' Xenorhina rostrata'') if found in daytime hiding spots. Plant categories include: *''mon'' ‘trees and shrubs’ (excluding palms and

pandans ''Pandanus'' is a genus of monocots with some 750 accepted species. They are palm-like, dioecious trees and shrubs native to the Old World tropics and subtropics. The greatest number of species are found in Madagascar and Malaysia. Common names ...

); e.g., ''bljan'' ‘''

Macaranga ''Macaranga'' is a large genus of Old World tropical trees of the family Euphorbiaceae and the only genus in the subtribe Macaranginae (tribe Acalypheae). Native to Africa, Australasia, Asia and various islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, ...

'' spp.’ is a ''mon'' that has four named kinds *''mñ'' ‘vines and robust creepers’ A comprehensive list of Kalam plant and animal names is given below.

Semantics

Colors

Kalam speakers distinguish more than a dozen color categories.Pawley, Andrew and Ralph Bulmer. 2011.
A Dictionary of Kalam with Ethnographic Notes
'. Canberra. Pacific Linguistics. * ‘white, light coloured’ * ‘grey, esp. of hair’ * ‘light grey; ash’ * ‘black, dark coloured’ * ‘red/purple; blood’ * ‘orange/bright reddish-brown/bright yellowish-brown/rich yellow; ripe’ * ‘rather bright red-brown/yellow brown’ * ‘yellow’ * ‘green’ * ‘pale green, yellow-green; unripe (of fruit)’ * ‘rich green, sheeny; succulent or mature (of foliage)’ * ‘dull brown, green or olive’ * ‘straw coloured; withered (of foliage)’ * ‘blue’ * ‘blue-grey, as blue-grey clay’ * ‘striped, spotted, mottled’

Time

Pawley and Bulmer (2011), quoted in Pawley and Hammarström (2018), lists the following temporal adverbs in Kalam. * ‘today’ * ‘tomorrow’ * ‘day after tomorrow’ * ‘yesterday’ * ‘day before yesterday’ * ‘3 days from today’ * ‘3 days ago’ * ‘4 days from today’ * ‘4 days ago’ * ‘5 days from today’ * ‘5 days ago’

Morphology

Rhyming compounds

Kalam, like English, has different types of rhyming compounds. ;alternating consonants *''gadal-badal'' �gándálmbándál‘placed in a disorderly manner, criss-cross, higgledy-piggledy’ *''gley-wley'' �gɨléywuléy‘rattling, clattering’ ;addition of consonants *''adk-madk'' �ndɨkmándɨk‘turned over, reversed’ *''ask-mask'' �sɨkmásɨk‘ritually restricted’ ;alternating vowels *''ñugl-ñagl'' �úŋgɨlɲáŋgɨl‘sound of evening chorus of insects and frogs’ *''gtiŋ-gtoŋ'' �gɨríŋgɨróŋ‘loud noise, din, racket’

References

Andrew Pawley Andrew Kenneth Pawley (born 1941 in Sydney), FRSNZ, FAHA, is Emeritus Professor at the School of Culture, History & Language of the ''College of Asia & the Pacific'' at the Australian National University. Career Pawley was born in Sydney but ...

and

. 2011.
A dictionary of Kalam with ethnographic notes
'. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.