HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

''Juche'' ( ; ), officially the ''Juche'' idea (), is the state
ideology An ideology is a set of beliefs or philosophies attributed to a person or group of persons, especially those held for reasons that are not purely epistemic, in which "practical elements are as prominent as theoretical ones." Formerly applied pri ...
of
North Korea North Korea, officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), is a country in East Asia. It constitutes the northern half of the Korean Peninsula and shares borders with China and Russia to the north, at the Yalu (Amnok) and T ...
and the official ideology of the
Workers' Party of Korea The Workers' Party of Korea (WPK) is the founding and sole ruling party of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, commonly known as North Korea. Founded in 1949 from the merger of the Workers' Party of North Korea and the Workers' Party ...
. North Korean sources attribute its conceptualization to
Kim Il-sung Kim Il-sung (; , ; born Kim Song-ju, ; 15 April 1912 – 8 July 1994) was a North Korean politician and the founder of North Korea, which he ruled from the country's establishment in 1948 until his death in 1994. He held the posts of ...
, the country's founder and first leader. ''Juche'' was originally regarded as a variant of
Marxism–Leninism Marxism–Leninism is a communist ideology which was the main communist movement throughout the 20th century. Developed by the Bolsheviks, it was the state ideology of the Soviet Union, its satellite states in the Eastern Bloc, and vario ...
until
Kim Jong-il Kim Jong-il (; ; ; born Yuri Irsenovich Kim;, 16 February 1941 – 17 December 2011) was a North Korean politician who was the second supreme leader of North Korea from 1994 to 2011. He led North Korea from the 1994 death of his father Ki ...
, Kim Il-sung's son and successor, declared it a distinct ideology in the 1970s. Kim Jong-il further developed ''Juche'' in the 1980s and 1990s by making ideological breaks from Marxism–Leninism and increasing the importance of his father's ideas. ''Juche'' incorporates the historical materialist ideas of Marxism–Leninism but also strongly emphasizes the
individual An individual is that which exists as a distinct entity. Individuality (or self-hood) is the state or quality of being an individual; particularly (in the case of humans) of being a person unique from other people and possessing one's own need ...
, the
nation state A nation state is a political unit where the state and nation are congruent. It is a more precise concept than "country", since a country does not need to have a predominant ethnic group. A nation, in the sense of a common ethnicity, may ...
, and national
sovereignty Sovereignty is the defining authority within individual consciousness, social construct, or territory. Sovereignty entails hierarchy within the state, as well as external autonomy for states. In any state, sovereignty is assigned to the perso ...
. ''Juche'' posits that a country will prosper once it has become self-reliant by achieving political, economic, and military independence. As Kim Jong-il emerged as Kim Il-sung's likely successor in the 1970s, loyalty to the leader was increasingly emphasized as an essential part of ''Juche'', as expressed in the Ten Principles for the Establishment of a Monolithic Ideological System. ''Juche'' has been variously described by critics as a quasi-religion, a
nationalist Nationalism is an idea and movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, nationalism tends to promote the interests of a particular nation (as in a group of people), Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: Th ...
ideology, and a deviation from Marxism–Leninism.


Etymology

''Juche'' comes from the Sino-Japanese word ( modern spelling: ), whose Japanese reading is ''shutai''. The word was coined in 1887 to translate the concept of ' in German philosophy ( subject, meaning "the entity perceiving or acting upon an object or environment") into Japanese. The word migrated to the
Korean language Korean (South Korean: , ''hangugeo''; North Korean: , ''chosŏnmal'') is the native language for about 80 million people, mostly of Korean descent. It is the official and national language of both North Korea and South Korea (geographica ...
at around the turn of the century and retained this meaning. ''Shutai'' went on to appear in Japanese translations of
Karl Marx Karl Heinrich Marx (; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, economist, historian, sociologist, political theorist, journalist, critic of political economy, and socialist revolutionary. His best-known titles are the 1848 ...
's writings. North Korean editions of Marx used the word ''Juche'' even before the word was attributed to Kim Il-sung in its supposedly novel meaning in 1955. In contemporary political discourse on North Korea, ''Juche'' has a connotation of "self-reliance", "autonomy", and "independence". It is often defined in opposition to the Korean concept of ''
Sadae ''Sadae'' (''lit.'' "serving-the-Great," Hangul: 사대 Hanja: ) is a Korean term which is used in pre-modern contexts.Armstrong, Charles K. (2007). ''Sadae'' is a Confucian concept, based on filial piety, that describes a reciprocal hierarchi ...
'', or reliance on the great powers.
South Korea South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK), is a country in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and sharing a Korean Demilitarized Zone, land border with North Korea. Its western border is formed ...
ns use the word without reference to the North Korean ideology. The ideology is officially known as ''Juche sasang'' () in Korean and the ''Juche'' idea in English. ''Juche sasang'' literally means " subject idea" and has also been translated as ''Juche'' thought or Jucheism. Adherents of ''Juche'' are sometimes referred to as "Jucheists".


Development

Official statements by the North Korean government attribute the origin of ''Juche'' to Kim Il-sung's experiences in the
Down-with-Imperialism Union The Down-with-Imperialism Union (DIU) was allegedly founded on 17 October 1926 in Hwatian County, Kirin, China, in order to fight against Japanese imperialism and to promote Marxism–Leninism. It is considered by the Workers' Party of Korea t ...
during Korea's liberation struggle against Japan. However, the first documented reference to ''Juche'' as an ideology did not appear until 1955, when Kim Il-sung delivered a speech entitled " On Eliminating Dogmatism and Formalism and Establishing ''Juche'' in Ideological Work". The speech had been delivered to promote a political
purge In history, religion and political science, a purge is a position removal or execution of people who are considered undesirable by those in power from a government, another organization, their team leaders, or society as a whole. A group undertak ...
similar to the earlier
Yan'an Rectification Movement The Yan'an Rectification Movement (), also known as Zhengfeng or Cheng Feng, was the first ideological mass movement initiated by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), going from 1942 to 1945. The movement took place at the communist base at Yan' ...
in China. It later became known as the "''Juche'' speech" and is considered one of Kim Il-sung's most important works. Western scholars generally agree that Hwang Jang-yop, Kim Il-sung's top adviser on philosophy, was the actual person responsible for the conceptualization and early development of ''Juche''. Hwang rediscovered the ''Juche'' speech sometime in the late 1950s, when Kim Il-sung, having established a
cult of personality A cult of personality, or a cult of the leader, Mudde, Cas and Kaltwasser, Cristóbal Rovira (2017) ''Populism: A Very Short Introduction''. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 63. is the result of an effort which is made to create an id ...
, sought to develop his own version of
Marxism–Leninism Marxism–Leninism is a communist ideology which was the main communist movement throughout the 20th century. Developed by the Bolsheviks, it was the state ideology of the Soviet Union, its satellite states in the Eastern Bloc, and vario ...
and solidify his position within the
Workers' Party of Korea The Workers' Party of Korea (WPK) is the founding and sole ruling party of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, commonly known as North Korea. Founded in 1949 from the merger of the Workers' Party of North Korea and the Workers' Party ...
(WPK). Hwang subsequently expanded upon the meaning of ''Juche'' and rewrote Korean communist history to make it appear as though Kim Il-sung had been the WPK's leader since its inception. Andrei Lankov, a Russian scholar of Korean studies, argues that the first reference to ''Juche'' as an ideology did not come until 14 April 1965, when Kim Il-sung gave a speech in
Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Gui ...
entitled "On Socialist Construction in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the South Korean Revolution". Lankov posits that the 1955 speech "used the word in a different meaning" and that ''Juche'' was not adopted as the "basic ideological principle of North Korean politics" until after the 1965 speech. ''
On the Juche Idea ''On the Juche Idea'' () is a treatise attributed to North Korean leader Kim Jong-il on the North Korean '' Juche'' ideology. It is considered the most authoritative work on ''Juche''. The work, although probably ghostwritten for him, legi ...
'', the principal work on ''Juche'', was published under
Kim Jong-il Kim Jong-il (; ; ; born Yuri Irsenovich Kim;, 16 February 1941 – 17 December 2011) was a North Korean politician who was the second supreme leader of North Korea from 1994 to 2011. He led North Korea from the 1994 death of his father Ki ...
's name in 1982. In North Korea it serves as "the authoritative and comprehensive explanation of ''Juche''". According to the treatise, the WPK is responsible for educating the masses in the ways of ''Juche'' thinking. ''Juche'' is inexorably linked with Kim Il-sung and "represents the guiding idea of the Korean revolution". Although ''Juche'' has its roots in Marxism–Leninism, it is not merely a creative application of the ideas of Marx and Lenin to Korean conditions. Rather, it is a "new phase of revolutionary theory" and represents "a new era in the development of human history". Kim Jong-il also criticized the Korean communists and nationalists of the 1920s for their "elitist posture", claiming that they were "divorced from the masses". The North Korean government issued a decree on 8 July 1997, the third anniversary of the
death of Kim Il-sung Kim Il-sung died of a sudden heart attack on the early morning of 8 July 1994 at age 82. North Korea's government did not report the death for more than 34 hours after it occurred. An official mourning period was declared from 8–17 July, ...
, declaring the adoption of the ''Juche'' calendar. The subsequently promulgated regulations regarding its use in August 1997, and the calendar entered public usage on 9 September 1997, the Day of the Foundation of the Republic.
Gregorian calendar The Gregorian calendar is the calendar used in most parts of the world. It was introduced in October 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII as a modification of, and replacement for, the Julian calendar. The principal change was to space leap years d ...
dates are used for years before 1912 while years from 1912 (the year of Kim Il-sung's birth) onwards are described as "''Juche'' years". The Gregorian year , for example, is "''Juche'' " as − 1911 = . When used, "''Juche'' years" are often accompanied by the Gregorian equivalent, i.e. "''Juche'' , " or "''Juche'' ()".


Core principles

The goal of ''Juche'' is to establish a self-reliant state which independently determines its political, economic, and military affairs. Kim Il-sung summarized the application of this objective to North Korea in a 1967 speech to the
Supreme People's Assembly The Supreme People's Assembly (SPA; ) is the unicameral legislature of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), commonly known as North Korea. It consists of one deputy from each of the DPRK's 687 constituencies, elected to five-year ...
entitled "Let Us Embody the Revolutionary Spirit of Independence, Self-sustenance and Self-defence More Thoroughly in All Fields of State Activity": Political independence () is a core principle of ''Juche''. ''Juche'' stresses equality and mutual respect among nations, asserting that every state has the right to self-determination. Yielding to foreign pressure or intervention would violate the principle of political independence and threaten a country's ability to defend its sovereignty. However, ''Juche'' does not advocate total isolation and encourages cooperation between socialist states. As Kim Jong-il summarizes in his work ''On the Juche Idea'': "Independence is not in conflict with internationalism but is the basis of its strengthening". Kim Il-sung acknowledged that it was important for North Korea to learn from other socialist states, in particular the Soviet Union and China, but he did not want to follow their examples dogmatically. In this regard, Kim Il-sung said that the WPK needed to "resolutely repudiate the tendency to swallow things of others undigested or imitate them mechanically", attributing the early success of North Korea to the WPK's independence in policymaking. Economic self-sufficiency () is required to achieve political independence, according to adherents of ''Juche''. Kim Il-sung believed that excessive foreign aid threatened a country's ability to develop socialism, which only a state with a strong, independent economy could build. In his work ''On the Juche Idea'', Kim Jong-il argued that a state can only achieve economic self-sufficiency once it has created an "independent national economy" based on
heavy industry Heavy industry is an industry that involves one or more characteristics such as large and heavy products; large and heavy equipment and facilities (such as heavy equipment, large machine tools, huge buildings and large-scale infrastructure); o ...
, as this sector would theoretically drive the rest of the economy. Kim Jong-il also emphasized the importance of technological independence and self-sufficiency in resources. However, he stated that this did not rule out "economic cooperation" between socialist states. Military self-reliance () is also crucial for a state to maintain its political independence. To accomplish military self-reliance, states must develop a domestic defence industry to avoid dependence on foreign arms suppliers. Kim Jong-il argued that it was acceptable for socialist states to receive military aid from their allies, but such aid would only be effective if the state is militarily strong in its own right.


''Juche'' in practice


Diplomacy

North Korea maintained close relations with the Soviet Union and China during the Cold War, having emerged from Soviet occupation and a war which it fought alongside Chinese communists. However, North Korea also opposed what it viewed as Soviet and Chinese attempts to interfere in its post-war affairs. For example, a failed challenge against Kim Il-sung's leadership in 1956 led to the purge of both pro-Soviet and pro-Chinese elements from the WPK. Although North Korea rejected the
de-Stalinization De-Stalinization (russian: десталинизация, translit=destalinizatsiya) comprised a series of political reforms in the Soviet Union after the death of long-time leader Joseph Stalin in 1953, and the thaw brought about by ascension ...
efforts of Soviet premier
Nikita Khrushchev Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (– 11 September 1971) was the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 and chairman of the country's Council of Ministers from 1958 to 1964. During his rule, Khrushchev s ...
, it avoided taking sides during the
Sino-Soviet split The Sino-Soviet split was the breaking of political relations between the China, People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union caused by Doctrine, doctrinal divergences that arose from their different interpretations and practical applications ...
. North Korea was admitted to the
Non-Aligned Movement The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a forum of 120 countries that are not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc. After the United Nations, it is the largest grouping of states worldwide. The movement originated in the aftermath ...
in 1975 and has since presented itself as a leader of the
Third World The term "Third World" arose during the Cold War to define countries that remained non-aligned with either NATO or the Warsaw Pact. The United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Western European nations and their allies represented the " First ...
, promoting ''Juche'' as a model for developing countries to follow. National survival has been seen as a guiding principle of North Korea's diplomatic strategy. As countries in the
Eastern Bloc The Eastern Bloc, also known as the Communist Bloc and the Soviet Bloc, was the group of socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa, and Latin America under the influence of the Soviet Union that existed du ...
collapsed and introduced market reforms, North Korea increasingly emphasized ''Juche'' in both theory and practice. Even in the midst of economic and political crises, North Korea continues to emphasize its independence on the world stage.


Economics

After the devastation of the Korean War, North Korea began to rebuild its economy with a base in heavy industry, with the aim of becoming as self-sufficient as possible. As a result, North Korea developed what has been called the "most
autarkic Autarky is the characteristic of self-sufficiency, usually applied to societies, communities, states, and their economic systems. Autarky as an ideal or method has been embraced by a wide range of political ideologies and movements, especially ...
industrial economy in the world". North Korea received a lot of economic aid and technical assistance from the Soviet Union and China, but it did not join
Comecon The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (, ; English abbreviation COMECON, CMEA, CEMA, or CAME) was an economic organization from 1949 to 1991 under the leadership of the Soviet Union that comprised the countries of the Eastern Bloc#List of s ...
, the communist common market. In the 1990s, it had one of the world's lowest rates for dependence on petroleum, using hydroelectric power and coal instead of imported oil. Its textile industry uses
vinylon Vinylon, also known as Vinalon, is a synthetic fiber produced from polyvinyl alcohol, using anthracite and limestone as raw materials. Vinylon was first developed in Japan in 1939 by Ri Sung-gi, Ichiro Sakurada, and H. Kawakami. Trial production ...
, known as the "''Juche'' fiber", which was invented by a Korean and which is made from locally available coal and limestone. The history of the development of vinylon often featured in propaganda that preached the virtues of technological self-reliance. North Korea had 10,000 CNC machines in 2010. The first domestic homemade CNC machine was introduced in 1995 and in 2017 it has around 15,000 machines. Commentators have often pointed out the discrepancy between the principle of self-sufficiency and North Korea's dependence on foreign aid, especially during its economic crisis in the 1990s. The pursuit of economic autarky has been blamed for contributing to the crisis. On this view, attempts at self-sufficiency led to inefficiency and to the neglect of export opportunities in industries where there was a
comparative advantage In an economic model, agents have a comparative advantage over others in producing a particular good if they can produce that good at a lower relative opportunity cost or autarky price, i.e. at a lower relative marginal cost prior to trade. C ...
.


Defence

The
Korean People's Army The Korean People's Army (KPA; ) is the military force of North Korea and the armed wing of the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK). Under the '' Songun'' policy, it is the central institution of North Korean society. Currently, WPK General S ...
is one of the largest on earth and has developed its own nuclear missiles. It produces UDMH fuel for liquid fuelled missiles and
Tumansky RD-9 The Tumansky RD-9 (initially designated Mikulin AM-5) was an early Soviet turbojet engine, not based on pre-existing German or British designs. The AM-5, developed by scaling down the AM-3, was available in 1952 and completed testing in 1953; ...
Turbojet The turbojet is an airbreathing jet engine which is typically used in aircraft. It consists of a gas turbine with a propelling nozzle. The gas turbine has an air inlet which includes inlet guide vanes, a compressor, a combustion chamber, a ...
engines, which power the
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-19 The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-19 (russian: Микоян и Гуревич МиГ-19; NATO reporting name: Farmer) is a Soviet second generation, single-seat, twinjet fighter aircraft, the world's first mass-produced supersonic aircraft. It was the ...
and Shenyang J-6. CNC machines are used for production of missiles and centrifuges. North Korea's propaganda since the Korean War has contrasted its military autonomy with the presence of U.S. forces in the South.


International outreach

Kim Il-sung believed that ''Juche'' principles could be applied around the world, not just in Korea. North Korea has organized international seminars on ''Juche'' since 1976. The International Scientific Seminar on the ''Juche'' Idea took place in
Antananarivo Antananarivo ( French: ''Tananarive'', ), also known by its colonial shorthand form Tana, is the capital and largest city of Madagascar. The administrative area of the city, known as Antananarivo-Renivohitra ("Antananarivo-Mother Hill" or "A ...
,
Madagascar Madagascar (; mg, Madagasikara, ), officially the Republic of Madagascar ( mg, Repoblikan'i Madagasikara, links=no, ; french: République de Madagascar), is an island country in the Indian Ocean, approximately off the coast of East Afric ...
, from 28 to 30 September 1976 under the sponsorship of the Democratic Republic of Madagascar. Many prominent party and government officials, public figures, representatives of revolutionary and progressive organizations, scientists and journalists from more than fifty countries attended. Malagasy President Didier Ratsiraka expressed strong sympathies and support for North Korea. An excerpt from the opening speech says: The North Korean government established the International Institute of the ''Juche'' Idea (initially the International ''Juche'' Research Centre) in
Tokyo Tokyo (; ja, 東京, , ), officially the Tokyo Metropolis ( ja, 東京都, label=none, ), is the capital and largest city of Japan. Formerly known as Edo, its metropolitan area () is the most populous in the world, with an estimated 37.46 ...
in 1978 in order to supervise the activities of international ''Juche'' study groups. Tribute plaques from these groups are contained in the ''Juche'' Tower in
Pyongyang Pyongyang (, , ) is the capital and largest city of North Korea, where it is known as the "Capital of the Revolution". Pyongyang is located on the Taedong River about upstream from its mouth on the Yellow Sea. According to the 2008 populat ...
. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the
Black Panther Party The Black Panther Party (BPP), originally the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense, was a Marxism-Leninism, Marxist-Leninist and Black Power movement, black power political organization founded by college students Bobby Seale and Huey P. New ...
of the United States studied ''Juche''. In 2016, the
Nepal Workers' and Peasants' Party The Nepal Workers Peasants Party (NWPP), also known as the Nepal Workers' and Peasants' Party and the Nepal Majdoor Kisan Party ( ne, नेपाल मजदुर किसान पार्टी; abbr. , ), is a communist political party ...
declared ''Juche'' its guiding idea.


Related concepts


''Songun''

''Songun'' () was first mentioned on 7 April 1997 in ''
Rodong Sinmun ''Rodong Sinmun'' (; ) is a North Korean newspaper that serves as the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea. It was first published on November 1, 1945, as ''Chŏngro'' (), serving as a communication channel ...
'' under the headline "There Is a Victory for Socialism in the Guns and Bombs of the People's Army". Its description in the article echoed the military-centered thinking of the time: " 'Songun'' isthe revolutionary philosophy to safeguard our own style of socialism under any circumstances". The concept was credited to Kim Jong-il, who posited that ''Songun'' was the next stage of development of ''Juche''. In a joint editorial on 16 June 1998 entitled "Our Party's Military-First Politics Will Inevitably Achieve Victory and Will Never Be Defeated" by '' Kulloja'' (the WPK's theoretical magazine) and ''Rodong Sinmun'', it was stated that ''Songun'' meant "the leadership method under the principle of giving priority to the military and resolving the problems that may occur in the course of revolution and construction as well as establishing the military as the main body of the revolution in the course of achieving the total tasks of socialism". While the article often referred to "our Party", this was not a reference to the WPK but rather to the personal leadership of Kim Jong-il. On 5 September 1998, the
North Korean Constitution The Socialist Constitution of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea () is the constitution of North Korea. It was approved by the 6th Supreme People's Assembly at its first session on 27 December 1972, and has been amended and supplemented ...
was revised and it made clear that the National Defence Commission, the highest military body, was the supreme body of the state. This date is considered the beginning of the ''Songun'' era. In late 2021, Kim Jong-un declared that the "military-first" politics of ''Songun'' would be replaced by "people-first" politics guided by himself.


"Great Leader" theory

Unlike Marxism–Leninism, which considers developments in the material conditions of production and exchange as the driving force of historical progress (known as
historical materialism Historical materialism is the term used to describe Karl Marx's theory of history. Marx locates historical change in the rise of class societies and the way humans labor together to make their livelihoods. For Marx and his lifetime collaborat ...
), ''Juche'' considers human beings in general the driving force in history. It is summarized as "the popular masses are placed in the center of everything, and the leader is the center of the masses". ''Juche'', North Korea maintains, is a "man-centered ideology" in which "man is the master of everything and decides everything". In contrast to Marxism–Leninism, in which a people's decisions are conditioned by their relations to the
means of production The means of production is a term which describes land, labor and capital that can be used to produce products (such as goods or services); however, the term can also refer to anything that is used to produce products. It can also be used as a ...
, ''Juche'' argues that people's decisions take consideration of, but are independent from, external factors. Just like Marxism–Leninism, ''Juche'' believes history is law-governed, but that it is only man who drives progress, stating that "the popular masses are the drivers of history". However, for the masses to be successful, they need a "Great Leader". Marxism–Leninism argues that the popular masses will lead (on the basis of their relation to production), but in North Korea the role of a Great Leader should be essential for leadership. This theory allegedly helped Kim Il-sung establish a unitary, one-man rule over North Korea. The theory turns the Great Leader into an absolutist, supreme leader. The
working class The working class (or labouring class) comprises those engaged in manual-labour occupations or industrial work, who are remunerated via waged or salaried contracts. Working-class occupations (see also " Designation of workers by collar colou ...
is not to think for themselves, but instead to think through the Great Leader. The Great Leader is the "top brain" (i.e. "mastermind") of the working class, meaning that he is the only legitimate representative of the working class. Class struggle can be realized only through the Great Leader and difficult tasks in general and revolutionary changes in particular can be introduced only through and by the Great Leader. In historical development, it is the Great Leader who is the leading force of the working class. The Great Leader is also a flawless and incorruptible human being who never commits mistakes, who is always benevolent and who always rules for the masses. For the Great Leader system to function, a unitary ideological system must be in place; the Ten Principles for a Monolithic Ideological System was thus introduced by Kim Jong-il for this purpose.


Socialism of Our Style

Socialism of Our Style, also referred to as Korean-style socialism and our-style socialism within North Korea, is an ideological concept Kim Jong-il introduced on 27 December 1990 in the speech "Socialism of Our Country is a Socialism of Our Style as Embodied by the ''Juche'' idea". Speaking after the
Revolutions of 1989 The Revolutions of 1989, also known as the Fall of Communism, was a revolutionary wave that resulted in the end of most communist states in the world. Sometimes this revolutionary wave is also called the Fall of Nations or the Autumn of Natio ...
that brought down the
Eastern Bloc The Eastern Bloc, also known as the Communist Bloc and the Soviet Bloc, was the group of socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa, and Latin America under the influence of the Soviet Union that existed du ...
countries, Kim Jong-il explicitly stated that North Korea neededand survived because ofSocialism of Our Style. He argued that socialism in Eastern Europe failed because they "imitated the Soviet experience in a mechanical manner". According to Kim, they failed to understand that the Soviet experience was based on specific historical and social circumstances and could not be used by other countries aside from the Soviet Union itself. He added that "if experience is considered absolute and accepted dogmatically it is impossible to build Socialism properly, as the times change and the specific situation of each country is different from another". Kim Jong-il went on to criticize "dogmatic application" of Marxism–Leninism, stating: North Korea would not encounter such difficulties because of the conceiving of ''Juche''. In his words, North Korea was "a backward, colonial semifeudal society" when the communists took over, but since the North Korean communists did not accept
Marxism Marxism is a Left-wing politics, left-wing to Far-left politics, far-left method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a Materialism, materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to understand S ...
, which was based on European experiences with
capitalism Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, price system, private ...
, or
Leninism Leninism is a political ideology developed by Russian Marxist revolutionary Vladimir Lenin that proposes the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat led by a revolutionary vanguard party as the political prelude to the establish ...
, which was based on Russia's experience, they conceived of ''Juche''. He believed the situation in North Korea was more complex because of the nearby American presence in South Korea. Thanks to Kim Il-sung, Kim Jong-il argued, the revolution had "put forward original lines and policies suited to our people's aspirations and the specific situation of our country". "The ''Juche'' idea is a revolutionary theory which occupies the highest stage of development of the revolutionary ideology of the working class", Kim Jong-il said, further stating that the originality and superiority of the ''Juche'' idea defined and strengthened Korean socialism. He then conceded by stating that Socialism of Our Style was "a man-centered Socialism", explicitly making a break with basic Marxist–Leninist thought, which argues that material forces are the driving force of historical progress, not people. Socialism of Our Style was presented as an organic sociopolitical theory, using the language of Marxism–Leninism, saying:


Analysis


Comparisons to religion

A number of scholars have described ''Juche'' as a quasi-religion and compared its facets to those of pre-existing religions in Korea. Jung Tae-il argues that certain elements of
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global popula ...
,
Cheondoism Cheondoism (spelled Chondoism in North Korean sources; ) is a 20th-century Korean pantheistic religion, based on the 19th-century Donghak religious movement founded by Ch'oe Che-u and codified under Son Pyŏng-Hi. Cheondoism has its origins i ...
, and Confucianism were appropriated by and incorporated into ''Juche''. Korean cultural anthropologists Byung Ho Chung and Heonik Kwon liken the commemorations of Kim Il-sung and Kim Jong-il to Confucian ancestor worship. Ju Jun-hui similarly contends that
Korean shamanism Korean shamanism or Mu-ism is a religion from Korea. In the Korean language, alternative terms for the tradition are ''musok'' () and ''mugyo'' (무교, 巫敎). Scholars of religion have classified it as a folk religion. There is no central aut ...
also influenced the development of ''Juche'', comparing the ecstatic state experienced in a shamanic ritual (''gut'') to the enthusiasm and fervor displayed by North Koreans for their supreme leader. Many scholars have also pointed to the presence of a sacred leader, rituals, and familism as tenets of ''Juche'' that make it religious-like.


Presence of a sacred leader

The ideology teaches that the role of a Great Leader is essential for the popular masses to succeed in their revolutionary movement because without leadership they are unable to survive. This is the foundation of the personality cult directed at Kim Il-sung. The personality cult explains how the ''Juche'' ideology has been able to endure until today, even during the North Korean government's undeniable dependence on foreign assistance during its famine in the 1990s. The concept of a "sacred leader" in ''Juche'' as well as the cult around the Kim family has been compared to the
State Shinto was Imperial Japan's ideological use of the Japanese folk religion and traditions of Shinto. The state exercised control of shrine finances and training regimes for priests to strongly encourage Shinto practices that emphasized the Emperor a ...
ideology of
Imperial Japan The also known as the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan, was a historical nation-state and great power that existed from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 until the enactment of the post-World War II 1947 constitution and subsequent forma ...
in which the
Emperor An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ( empress consort), mother ( ...
was seen as a divine being. Through the fundamental belief in the essential role of the Great Leader, the former North Korean leader Kim Il-sung has become the "supreme deity for the people" and the ''Juche'' doctrine is reinforced in North Korea's constitution as the country's guiding principle. The parallel relationship structure between Kim Il-sung and his people to religious founders or leaders and their followers has led many scholars to consider ''Juche'' a religious movement as much as a political ideology. However, those familiar with cults would again posit that ''Juche'' bypasses the tenets of religion completely and instead meets the criteria of a totalitarian cult. ''Juche'' emphasis on the political and sacred role of the leader and the ensuing worshipping by the popular masses has been critiqued by various Western
Marxist Marxism is a left-wing to far-left method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to understand class relations and social conflict and a dialecti ...
intellectuals. They argue that the North Korean working class or the proletariat has been stripped of their honour and therefore call the cult of personality non-Marxist and non-democratic.


Rituals

The religious behaviour of ''Juche'' can also be seen in the perspectives of the North Korean people through refugee interviews from former participants in North Korea's ritual occasions. One pertinent example is the Arirang Festival, which is a gymnastics and artistic festival held in the
Rungrado May Day Stadium The Rungrado 1st of May Stadium is a multi-purpose stadium occupying an area of on Rungra Island, Pyongyang, North Korea. It opened on 1 May 1989, with its first major event being the 13th World Festival of Youth and Students. It is the seco ...
in Pyongyang. All components of the festival, from the selection of performers, mobilization of resources, recruitment of the audience and publicity for the show have been compared to facets of a national religious event. The Arirang Festival has been described to demonstrate the power of the North Korean government to arrange a form of religious gathering. It has done so by "appropriating a mass of bodies for calisthenic and performative arts representing the leader as the father and his faithful followers". The festival's effectiveness in transforming its participants into loyal disciples of ''Juche'' seems to originate from the collectivist principle of "one for all and all for one" and the ensuing emotional bond and loyalty to the leader. According to the accounts of refugees who have been recruited to mass gymnastics, the collectivist principle has been nurtured through physical punishment such as beatings and more importantly the organization of recruits into small units, whose performances were held accountable by larger units. The festival's ritual components of collectivism serve to reinforce a "certain structure of sociality and affect", establishing Kim Il-sung as the "father" in both the body and psyche of the performers.


Familism

American historian
Charles K. Armstrong Charles King Armstrong (born February 11, 1962) is an American historian of North Korea. From 2005 to 2020, he worked as the Korea Foundation Professor of Korean Studies at Columbia University, spending his last year on sabbatical after the unive ...
argues that familism has transformed itself into a kind of
political religion A secular religion is a communal belief system that often rejects or neglects the metaphysical aspects of the supernatural, commonly associated with traditional religion, instead placing typical religious qualities in earthly entities. Among system ...
in the form of ''Juche''. With the emergence of ''Juche'' as North Korea's guiding political principle since the 1960s, the familial relationship within the micro-family unit has been translated into a national, macro-unit with Kim Il-sung representing the father figure and the North Korean people representing his children. ''Juche'' is thus based on the language of family relationships with its East Asian or neo-Confucian "resonances of filial piety and maternal love". Armstrong also notes that North Korea has actually transferred the "
filial piety In Confucianism, Chinese Buddhism, and Daoist ethics, filial piety (, ''xiào'') (Latin: pietas) is a virtue of respect for one's parents, elders, and ancestors. The Confucian '' Classic of Filial Piety'', thought to be written around the lat ...
of nationalism in the family of the leader himself" by positioning Kim Il-sung as the universal
patriarch The highest-ranking bishops in Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, the Catholic Church (above major archbishop and primate), the Hussite Church, Church of the East, and some Independent Catholic Churches are termed patriarchs (and in c ...
. He argues that while the official pursuit of the ''Juche'' ideology in the 1960s signalled North Korea's desire to separate from the "fraternity of international socialism", the ideology also replaced Stalin as the father figure with Kim Il-sung. In effect, North Korea's familial nationalism has supplanted the "rather abstract, class-oriented language of socialism with a more easily understandable and identifiable language of familial connections, love and obligations". After attaining significant positions in the WPK and military in the early 1980s, Kim Jong-il transformed the personality cult surrounding Kim Il-sung into a family cult and became the heir apparent. Armstrong calls this a "family romance", which is a term
Freud Sigmund Freud ( , ; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud; 6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for evaluating and treating pathologies explained as originating in conflicts i ...
had used to describe "the neurotic replacement of a child's real parents with fantasy substitutes". Kim Il-sung's consecration as the "Great Father" has been strengthened by the development of the North Korean family romance with the language, symbols, and rituals associated with familism.


Criticisms

''Juche'' has been described by critics as a
nationalist Nationalism is an idea and movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, nationalism tends to promote the interests of a particular nation (as in a group of people), Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: Th ...
ideology and a departure from Marxist–Leninist principles. B. R. Myers, Michael J. Seth, and Max Fisher go further and argue that ''Juche'' has more in common with Japanese fascism and
ultranationalism Ultranationalism or extreme nationalism is an extreme form of nationalism in which a country asserts or maintains detrimental hegemony, supremacy, or other forms of control over other nations (usually through violent coercion) to pursue its ...
than Marxism–Leninism. Korean political scientist
Suh Dae-sook Suh Dae-sook (22 November 1931 – 13 September 2022) was North Korean professor emeritus of political science and a director of the Centre for Korean Studies at the University of Hawaii. He received his PhD from Columbia University in 1964 ...
argues that Kim Il-sung failed to explain the difference between
socialist patriotism Socialist patriotism is a form of patriotism promoted by Marxist–Leninist movements.Robert A. Jones. ''The Soviet concept of "limited sovereignty" from Lenin to Gorbachev: the Brezhnev Doctrine''. MacMillan, 1990. Pp. 133. Socialist patrioti ...
, which Kim Il-sung stated that he supported, and nationalism, which Kim Il-sung stated that he opposed. Suh also criticized Kim Il-sung's initial conceptualization of ''Juche'', saying that he had failed to explain how Marxism–Leninism had been applied to Korean conditions. American historian Derek R. Ford, by contrast, emphasizes the continuity between Marxism–Leninism and ''Juche'', and credits ''Juche'' as the unique guiding principle which allowed North Korea to survive the
collapse of the Eastern Bloc The Revolutions of 1989, also known as the Fall of Communism, was a revolutionary wave that resulted in the end of most communist states in the world. Sometimes this revolutionary wave is also called the Fall of Nations or the Autumn of Natio ...
. American historian
Charles K. Armstrong Charles King Armstrong (born February 11, 1962) is an American historian of North Korea. From 2005 to 2020, he worked as the Korea Foundation Professor of Korean Studies at Columbia University, spending his last year on sabbatical after the unive ...
argues that North Korea may appear "Stalinist in form" but is "nationalist in content". Shin Gi-wook similarly argues that "there is no trace of Marxism–Leninism or the Stalinist notion of nationhood" in North Korea, and its government instead stresses the importance of the Korean people's blood, soul, and national traits, echoing earlier Korean nationalists such as Sin Chaeho, Yi Kwangsu and
Choe Namson Choe Nam-seon (April 26, 1890 – October 10, 1957), also known by the Japanese pronunciation of his name Sai Nanzen, was a prominent modern Korean historian, pioneering poet, and publisher, and a leading member of the Korean independence movemen ...
. Shin believes that the key difference between Marxism–Leninism and ''Juche'' is that the latter places the primacy of ideology over materialism; the vocabulary of family lineage and nationalism is retained and given primacy over
class struggle Class conflict, also referred to as class struggle and class warfare, is the political tension and economic antagonism that exists in society because of socio-economic competition among the social classes or between rich and poor. The form ...
, while social distinction and hierarchy are supported instead of a
classless society The term classless society refers to a society in which no one is born into a social class. Distinctions of wealth, income, education, culture, or social network might arise and would only be determined by individual experience and achievemen ...
and
egalitarianism Egalitarianism (), or equalitarianism, is a school of thought within political philosophy that builds from the concept of social equality, prioritizing it for all people. Egalitarian doctrines are generally characterized by the idea that all h ...
. A few critics have dismissed the notion that ''Juche'' is an ideology altogether. Myers argues that ''Juche'' cannot be described as a true political ideology because it does not have an underlying
belief system A belief is an attitude that something is the case, or that some proposition is true. In epistemology, philosophers use the term "belief" to refer to attitudes about the world which can be either true or false. To believe something is to take ...
, while Alzo David-West describes it as "meaningless on logical and naturalistic grounds". American political analyst Robert E. Kelly argues that ''Juche'' exists solely to protect the Kim family's monopoly over political power in North Korea. However, Myers dismisses the idea that ''Juche'' is North Korea's leading ideology, regarding its public exaltation as being designed to deceive foreigners. He argues that it exists to be praised and not actually read. Based on his own experiences living in North Korea, Swiss businessman
Felix Abt Felix Abt (born 15 January 1955, Switzerland) is a Swiss business affairs specialist on North Korea and Vietnam. Abt was one of the first foreign entrepreneurs to seek to do business in contemporary North Korea, where he lived between 2002 and ...
describes Myers' arguments as "shaky" and "questionable". Having seen the extent to which North Korean university students actually believe in ''Juche'', Abt says it is "rather absurd" to describe the ideology as "window-dressing" for foreigners. American historian
Bruce Cumings Bruce Cumings (born September 5, 1943) is an American historian of East Asia, professor, lecturer and author. He is the Gustavus F. and Ann M. Swift Distinguished Service Professor in History, and the former chair of the history department at ...
and Professor of International Relations Christoph Bluth similarly argue that ''Juche'' is not mere rhetoric, but rather an ideal of self-reliance that North Korea has attempted to put into practice.


See also

*
Autarky Autarky is the characteristic of self-sufficiency, usually applied to societies, communities, states, and their economic systems. Autarky as an ideal or method has been embraced by a wide range of political ideologies and movements, especiall ...
* Great man theory *
Ilminism Ilminism (;), frequently translated as the One-People Principle, One-People Doctrine, or Unidemism, was the political ideology of South Korea under its first President, Syngman Rhee. The ''Ilminist'' principle has been likened by contemporary sch ...
, political ideology of South Korea's first president, Syngman Rhee * ''Juche'' faction, a political faction within South Korea's student movements *
Kim Il-sung bibliography Kim Il-sung (15 April 1912 – 8 July 1994) was the leader of North Korea for 46 years, from its establishment in 1948 until his death in 1994. According to North Korean sources, the works of Kim Il-sung amount to approximately 10,800 spe ...
* Kim Jong-il bibliography * Kim Jong-un bibliography * National communism


References


Citations


Sources


Books

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


Journal articles

* * * * * * * * * * * * * *


News and magazine articles

* * * * * * * * * * *


Websites

* * * *


Other

* * * * *


External links

{{authority control Communism Economic ideologies Economy of North Korea Far-left politics in Asia Government of North Korea Identity politics in Korea Isolationism Kim Il-sung Kim Jong-il Korean nationalism Korean philosophy Left-wing nationalism Nationalism by country North Korean culture Political theories Politics of North Korea Propaganda in North Korea State ideologies Totalitarianism Types of socialism Workers' Party of Korea