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The Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 2002,Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 2002
(
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)
informally known as the Iraq Resolution, is a
joint resolution In the United States Congress, a joint resolution is a legislative measure that requires passage by the Senate and the House of Representatives and is presented to the President for their approval or disapproval. Generally, there is no legal differ ...
passed by the
United States Congress The United States Congress is the legislature of the federal government of the United States. It is bicameral, composed of a lower body, the House of Representatives, and an upper body, the Senate. It meets in the U.S. Capitol in Washin ...
in October 2002 as
Public Law Public law is the part of law that governs relations between legal persons and a government, between different institutions within a state, between different branches of governments, as well as relationships between persons that are of direct ...
No. 107-243, authorizing the use of the
United States Armed Forces The United States Armed Forces are the military forces of the United States. The armed forces consists of six service branches: the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, Space Force, and Coast Guard. The president of the United States is the ...
against
Saddam Hussein Saddam Hussein ( ; ar, صدام حسين, Ṣaddām Ḥusayn; 28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006) was an Iraqi politician who served as the fifth president of Iraq from 16 July 1979 until 9 April 2003. A leading member of the revolution ...
's Iraq government in what would be known as
Operation Iraqi Freedom {{Infobox military conflict , conflict = Iraq War {{Nobold, {{lang, ar, حرب العراق (Arabic) {{Nobold, {{lang, ku, شەڕی عێراق ( Kurdish) , partof = the Iraq conflict and the War on terror , image ...
.


Contents

The resolution cited many factors as justifying the use of military force against
Iraq Iraq,; ku, عێراق, translit=Êraq officially the Republic of Iraq, '; ku, کۆماری عێراق, translit=Komarî Êraq is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered by Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, the Persian Gulf and K ...
: * Iraq's noncompliance with the conditions of the 1991 ceasefire agreement, including interference with U.N. weapons inspectors. * Iraq "continuing to possess and develop a significant chemical and biological weapons capability" and "actively seeking a nuclear weapons capability" posed a "threat to the national security of the United States and international peace and security in the
Persian Gulf The Persian Gulf ( fa, خلیج فارس, translit=xalij-e fârs, lit=Gulf of Fars, ), sometimes called the ( ar, اَلْخَلِيْجُ ٱلْعَرَبِيُّ, Al-Khalīj al-ˁArabī), is a mediterranean sea in Western Asia. The body ...
region." * Iraq's " brutal repression of its civilian population." * Iraq's "capability and willingness to use weapons of mass destruction against other nations and its own people". * Iraq's hostility towards the United States as demonstrated by the 1993 assassination attempt on former President
George H. W. Bush George Herbert Walker BushSince around 2000, he has been usually called George H. W. Bush, Bush Senior, Bush 41 or Bush the Elder to distinguish him from his eldest son, George W. Bush, who served as the 43rd president from 2001 to 2009; p ...
and firing on coalition aircraft enforcing the
no-fly zones A no-fly zone, also known as a no-flight zone (NFZ), or air exclusion zone (AEZ), is a territory or area established by a military power over which certain aircraft are not permitted to fly. Such zones are usually set up in an enemy power's te ...
following the
1991 Gulf War The Gulf War was a 1990–1991 armed campaign waged by a Coalition of the Gulf War, 35-country military coalition in response to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Spearheaded by the United States, the coalition's efforts against Ba'athist Iraq, ...
. * Members of
al-Qaeda Al-Qaeda (; , ) is an Islamic extremism, Islamic extremist organization composed of Salafist jihadists. Its members are mostly composed of Arab, Arabs, but also include other peoples. Al-Qaeda has mounted attacks on civilian and military ta ...
, an organization bearing responsibility for attacks on the United States, its citizens, and interests, including the attacks that occurred on September 11, 2001, are known to be in Iraq. * Iraq's "continu ngto aid and harbor other international terrorist organizations," including anti-United States terrorist organizations. * Iraq paid bounty to families of
suicide bombers A suicide attack is any violent attack, usually entailing the attacker detonating an explosive, where the attacker has accepted their own death as a direct result of the attacking method used. Suicide attacks have occurred throughout histor ...
. * The efforts by the Congress and the President to fight terrorists, and those who aided or harbored them. * The authorization by the
Constitution A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organisation or other type of entity and commonly determine how that entity is to be governed. When these princi ...
and the
Congress A congress is a formal meeting of the representatives of different countries, constituent states, organizations, trade unions, political parties, or other groups. The term originated in Late Middle English to denote an encounter (meeting of ...
for the
President President most commonly refers to: *President (corporate title) *President (education), a leader of a college or university *President (government title) President may also refer to: Automobiles * Nissan President, a 1966–2010 Japanese ful ...
to fight anti-United States terrorism. * The governments in
Turkey Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with a small portion on the Balkan Peninsula in ...
,
Kuwait Kuwait (; ar, الكويت ', or ), officially the State of Kuwait ( ar, دولة الكويت '), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated in the northern edge of Eastern Arabia at the tip of the Persian Gulf, bordering Iraq to the nort ...
, and
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in Western Asia. It covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and has a land area of about , making it the List of Asian countries by area, fifth-largest country in Asia ...
feared Saddam and wanted him removed from power. * Citing the Iraq Liberation Act of 1998, the resolution reiterated that it should be the policy of the United States to remove the
Saddam Hussein Saddam Hussein ( ; ar, صدام حسين, Ṣaddām Ḥusayn; 28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006) was an Iraqi politician who served as the fifth president of Iraq from 16 July 1979 until 9 April 2003. A leading member of the revolution ...
regime and promote a democratic replacement. The resolution "supported" and "encouraged" diplomatic efforts by President
George W. Bush George Walker Bush (born July 6, 1946) is an American politician who served as the 43rd president of the United States from 2001 to 2009. A member of the Republican Party, Bush family, and son of the 41st president George H. W. Bush, he ...
to "strictly enforce through the
U.N. Security Council The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN) and is charged with ensuring international peace and security, recommending the admission of new UN members to the General Assembly, and ...
all relevant Security Council resolutions regarding Iraq" and "obtain prompt and decisive action by the Security Council to ensure that Iraq abandons its strategy of delay, evasion, and noncompliance and promptly and strictly complies with all relevant Security Council resolutions regarding Iraq." The resolution authorized President Bush to use the Armed Forces of the United States "as he determines to be necessary and appropriate" in order to "defend the
national security National security, or national defence, is the security and defence of a sovereign state, including its citizens, economy, and institutions, which is regarded as a duty of government. Originally conceived as protection against military atta ...
of the United States against the continuing threat posed by Iraq; and enforce all relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions regarding Iraq."


Passage

An authorization by Congress was sought by President
George W. Bush George Walker Bush (born July 6, 1946) is an American politician who served as the 43rd president of the United States from 2001 to 2009. A member of the Republican Party, Bush family, and son of the 41st president George H. W. Bush, he ...
soon after his September 12, 2002 statement before the U.N. General Assembly asking for quick action by the Security Council in enforcing the resolutions against Iraq. Of the legislation introduced by Congress in response to President Bush's requests, sponsored by Sen. Daschle and Sen. Lott was based on the original White House proposal authorizing the use of force in Iraq, sponsored by Rep. Hastert and Rep. Gephardt and the substantially similar sponsored by Sen. Lieberman were modified proposals. sponsored by Rep. Hastings was a separate proposal never considered on the floor. Eventually, the Hastert–Gephardt proposal became the legislation Congress focused on.


Passage of the full resolution

Introduced in Congress on October 2, 2002, in conjunction with the Administration's proposals, passed the
House of Representatives House of Representatives is the name of legislative bodies in many countries and sub-national entitles. In many countries, the House of Representatives is the lower house of a bicameral legislature, with the corresponding upper house often ca ...
on Thursday afternoon at 3:05 p.m. EDT on October 10, 2002, by a vote of 296–133, and passed the
Senate A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the ...
after midnight early Friday morning, at 12:50 a.m. EDT on October 11, 2002, by a vote of 77–23. It was signed into law as by President Bush on October 16, 2002.


United States House of Representatives

* 215 (96.4%) of 223 Republican Representatives voted for the resolution. * 81 (39.2%) of 208 Democratic Representatives voted for the resolution. * 6 (<2.7%) of 223 Republican Representatives voted against the resolution: Reps. Duncan ( R- TN), Hostettler ( R- IN), Houghton ( R- NY), Leach ( R- IA), Morella ( R- MD),
Paul Paul may refer to: * Paul (given name), a given name (includes a list of people with that name) * Paul (surname), a list of people People Christianity *Paul the Apostle (AD c.5–c.64/65), also known as Saul of Tarsus or Saint Paul, early Chr ...
( R- TX). * 126 (~60.3%) of 209 Democratic Representatives voted against the resolution. * The only Independent Representative voted against the resolution: Rep. Sanders ( I- VT) ** Reps. Ortiz ( D- TX), Roukema ( R- NJ), and Stump ( R- AZ) did not vote on the resolution.


United States Senate

* 29 (58%) of 50 Democratic senators voted for the resolution. Those voting for the resolution were: Sens. Baucus ( D- MT), Bayh ( D- IN), Biden ( D- DE), Breaux ( D- LA), Cantwell ( D- WA), Carnahan ( D- MO), Carper ( D- DE), Cleland ( D- GA), Clinton ( D- NY), Daschle ( D- SD), Dodd ( D- CT), Dorgan ( D- ND), Edwards ( D- NC),
Feinstein Feinstein, Finestein ( yi, פֿײַנשטײַן, he, פיינשטיין, russian: Файнштейн, "Fajnsztajn", "Fajnsztejn" in Polish spelling) or anglicized as Finestone, meaning "fine stone", that is gemstone, is a compound surname of Ger ...
( D- CA), Harkin ( D- IA), Hollings ( D- SC),
Johnson Johnson is a surname of Anglo-Norman origin meaning "Son of John". It is the second most common in the United States and 154th most common in the world. As a common family name in Scotland, Johnson is occasionally a variation of ''Johnston'', a ...
( D- SD), Kerry ( D- MA), Kohl ( D- WI), Landrieu ( D- LA), Lieberman ( D- CT), Lincoln ( D- AR),
Miller A miller is a person who operates a mill, a machine to grind a grain (for example corn or wheat) to make flour. Milling is among the oldest of human occupations. "Miller", "Milne" and other variants are common surnames, as are their equivalents ...
( D- GA),
Nelson Nelson may refer to: Arts and entertainment * ''Nelson'' (1918 film), a historical film directed by Maurice Elvey * ''Nelson'' (1926 film), a historical film directed by Walter Summers * ''Nelson'' (opera), an opera by Lennox Berkeley to a lib ...
( D- FL),
Nelson Nelson may refer to: Arts and entertainment * ''Nelson'' (1918 film), a historical film directed by Maurice Elvey * ''Nelson'' (1926 film), a historical film directed by Walter Summers * ''Nelson'' (opera), an opera by Lennox Berkeley to a lib ...
( D- NE), Reid ( D- NV), Rockefeller ( D- WV), Schumer ( D- NY), and Torricelli ( D- NJ). *21 (42%) of 50 Democratic Senators voted against the resolution. Those voting against the resolution were: Sens. Akaka ( D- HI), Bingaman ( D- NM),
Boxer Boxer most commonly refers to: *Boxer (boxing), a competitor in the sport of boxing *Boxer (dog), a breed of dog Boxer or boxers may also refer to: Animal kingdom * Boxer crab * Boxer shrimp, a small group of decapod crustaceans * Boxer snipe eel ...
( D- CA), Byrd ( D- WV), Conrad ( D- ND), Corzine ( D- NJ),
Dayton Dayton () is the List of cities in Ohio, sixth-largest city in the U.S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Montgomery County, Ohio, Montgomery County. A small part of the city extends into Greene County, Ohio, Greene County. The 2020 United S ...
( D- MN), Durbin ( D- IL), Feingold ( D- WI), Graham ( D- FL), Inouye ( D- HI),
Kennedy Kennedy may refer to: People * John F. Kennedy (1917–1963), 35th president of the United States * John Kennedy (Louisiana politician), (born 1951), US Senator from Louisiana * Kennedy (surname), a family name (including a list of persons with ...
( D- MA),
Leahy Leahy is a Canadian folk music group. The eight band members, all from the Leahy family of 11 siblings, are from Lakefield, Ontario and have been touring Canada and internationally since the early 1980s, when they were known as The Leahy Family ...
( D- VT), Levin ( D- MI), Mikulski ( D- MD), Murray ( D- WA),
Reed Reed or Reeds may refer to: Science, technology, biology, and medicine * Reed bird (disambiguation) * Reed pen, writing implement in use since ancient times * Reed (plant), one of several tall, grass-like wetland plants of the order Poales * R ...
( D- RI), Sarbanes ( D- MD), Stabenow ( D- MI), Wellstone ( D- MN), and Wyden ( D- OR). * 1 (2%) of 49 Republican senators voted against the resolution: Sen. Chafee ( R- RI). * The only independent senator voted against the resolution: Sen. Jeffords ( I- VT)


Amendments offered to the House Resolution


The Lee Amendment

: Amendment in the nature of a substitute sought to have the United States work through the United Nations to seek to resolve the matter of ensuring that Iraq is not developing weapons of mass destruction, through mechanisms such as the resumption of weapons inspections, negotiation, enquiry, mediation, regional arrangements, and other peaceful means. :: Sponsored by Rep.
Barbara Lee Barbara Jean Lee (née Tutt; born July 16, 1946) is an American politician serving as the U.S. representative for . Now in her 12th term, Lee has served since 1998, and is a member of the Democratic Party. The district, numbered as the 9th ...
(D-CA).H.AMDT.608 - Amendment in the nature of a substitute of H.J.RES.114
, 107th Congress, U.S. House of Representatives, Library of Congress, 2002-10-10
::: Failed by the Ayes and Nays: 72 - 355On Agreeing to the Lee of California Substitute Amendment
107th Congress, U.S. House of Representatives, Clerk of the House, 2002-10-10


The Spratt Amendment

: Amendment in the nature of a substitute sought to authorize the use of U.S. armed forces to support any new
U.N. Security Council The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN) and is charged with ensuring international peace and security, recommending the admission of new UN members to the General Assembly, and ...
resolution that mandated the elimination, by force if necessary, of all Iraqi weapons of mass destruction, long-range ballistic missiles, and the means of producing such weapons and missiles. Requested that the President should seek authorization from Congress to use the armed forces of the U.S. in the absence of a U.N. Security Council resolution sufficient to eliminate, by force if necessary, all Iraqi weapons of mass destruction, long-range ballistic missiles, and the means of producing such weapons and missiles. Provided expedited consideration for authorization in the latter case. :: Sponsored by Rep.
John Spratt John McKee Spratt Jr. (born November 1, 1942) is an American politician who was the U.S. representative for from 1983 to 2011. The 5th Congressional District covers all or part of 14 counties in north-central South Carolina. The largest cities ar ...
(D-SC-5).H.AMDT.609 - Amendment in the nature of a substitute of H.J.RES.114
, 107th Congress, U.S. House of Representatives, Library of Congress, 2002-10-10
::: Failed by the Yeas and Nays: 155 - 270On Agreeing to the Spratt of South Carolina Substitute Amendment
107th Congress, U.S. House of Representatives, Clerk of the House, 2002-10-10


The House Rules Amendment

: An amendment considered as adopted pursuant to the provisions of H.RES.574 - Providing for the consideration of the joint resolution (H.J.RES.114)
107th Congress, U.S. House of Representatives, Library of Congress, 2002-10-08
:: Sponsored by House Rules.H.AMDT.610 - Amendment considered as adopted pursuant to the provisions of H.Res.574
, 107th Congress, U.S. House of Representatives, Library of Congress, 2002-10-10
::: Resolution (H.RES.574) agreed to by voice voteOn Agreeing to Resolve H.RES.574
, 107th Congress, U.S. House of Representatives, Library of Congress, 2002-10-08


Amendments offered to the Senate Resolution


The Byrd Amendments

: To provide statutory construction that constitutional authorities remain unaffected and that no additional grant of authority is made to the President not directly related to the existing threat posed by Iraq. :: Sponsored by Sen.
Robert Byrd Robert Carlyle Byrd (born Cornelius Calvin Sale Jr.; November 20, 1917 – June 28, 2010) was an American politician and musician who served as a United States senator from West Virginia for over 51 years, from 1959 until his death in 2010. A ...
(D-WV).S.AMDT.4868 - Providing for Statuary Construction in the Consideration of the Joint Resolution (S.J.RES.45)
, 107th Congress, U.S. Senate, Library of Congress, 2002-10-10
::: Amendment SA 4868 not agreed to by Yea-Nay Vote: 14 - 86On Agreeing to the Amendment (Byrd Amdt. No. 4868)
107th Congress, U.S. Senate, Library of Congress, 2002-10-10
: To provide a termination date for the authorization of the use of the Armed Forces of the United States, together with procedures for the extension of such date unless Congress disapproves the extension. :: Sponsored by Sen.
Robert Byrd Robert Carlyle Byrd (born Cornelius Calvin Sale Jr.; November 20, 1917 – June 28, 2010) was an American politician and musician who served as a United States senator from West Virginia for over 51 years, from 1959 until his death in 2010. A ...
(D-WV).S.AMDT.4869 - Providing for Congressional Construction in the Consideration of the Joint Resolution (S.J.RES.45)
, 107th Congress, U.S. Senate, Library of Congress, 2002-10-10
::: Amendment SA 4869 not agreed to by Yea-Nay Vote: 31 - 66On Agreeing to the Amendment (Byrd Amdt. No. 4869)
107th Congress, U.S. Senate, Library of Congress, 2002-10-10


The Levin Amendment

: To authorize the use of the United States Armed Forces, pursuant to a new resolution of the United Nations Security Council, to destroy, remove, or render harmless Iraq's weapons of mass destruction, nuclear weapons-usable material, long-range ballistic missiles, and related facilities, and for other purposes. :: Sponsored by Sen.
Carl Levin Carl Milton Levin (June 28, 1934 – July 29, 2021) was an American attorney and politician who served as a United States senator from Michigan from 1979 to 2015. A member of the Democratic Party, he was the chair of the Senate Armed Services ...
(D-MI).S.AMDT.4862 - Providing for Congressional Construction in the Consideration of the Joint Resolution (S.J.RES.45)
, 107th Congress, U.S. Senate, Library of Congress, 2002-10-10
::: Amendment SA 4862 not agreed to by Yea-Nay Vote: 24 - 75On Agreeing to the Amendment (Levin Amdt. No. 4862)
107th Congress, U.S. Senate, Library of Congress, 2002-10-10


The Durbin Amendment

: To amend the authorization for the use of the Armed Forces to cover an imminent threat posed by Iraq's weapons of mass destruction rather than the continuing threat posed by Iraq. :: Sponsored by Sen.
Dick Durbin Richard Joseph Durbin (born November 21, 1944) is an American lawyer and politician serving as the senior United States senator from Illinois, a seat he has held since 1997. A member of the Democratic Party, Durbin has served as the Senate De ...
(D-IL).S.AMDT.4865 - Providing for Congressional Amendment in the Consideration of the Joint Resolution (S.J.RES.45)
, 107th Congress, U.S. Senate, Library of Congress, 2002-10-10
::: Amendment SA 4865 not agreed to by Yea-Nay Vote: 30 - 70On Agreeing to the Amendment (Byrd Amdt. No. 4865)
107th Congress, U.S. Senate, Library of Congress, 2002-10-10


Legal challenges


U.S. law

The United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit refused to review the legality of the invasion in 2003, citing a lack of
ripeness In United States law, ripeness refers to the readiness of a case for litigation; "a claim is not ripe for adjudication if it rests upon contingent future events that may not occur as anticipated, or indeed may not occur at all." For example, if a ...
. In early 2003, the Iraq Resolution was challenged in court to stop the invasion from happening. The plaintiffs argued that the President does not have the authority to declare war. The final decision came from a three-judge panel from the US Court of Appeals for the First Circuit which dismissed the case.
Judge Lynch Colonel Charles Lynch (1736 – 1796) was an American planter, politician, military officer and judge who headed a kangaroo court in Virginia to punish Loyalists during the Revolutionary War. The terms "lynching" and "lynch law" are believed to ...
wrote in the opinion that the Judiciary cannot intervene unless there is a fully developed conflict between the President and Congress or if Congress gave the President "absolute discretion" to declare war. Similar efforts to secure judicial review of the invasion's legality have been dismissed on a variety of
justiciability Justiciability concerns the limits upon legal issues over which a court can exercise its judicial authority. It includes, but is not limited to, the legal concept of standing, which is used to determine if the party bringing the suit is a party ...
grounds.


International law

There have been no findings by any legal tribunal with both legal authority and legal jurisdiction that any laws were violated. There are only two legal tribunals with both authority and jurisdiction to make such a finding: (1) The
US federal courts The federal judiciary of the United States is one of the three branches of the federal government of the United States organized under the United States Constitution and laws of the federal government. The U.S. federal judiciary consists primaril ...
and (2) the
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre for harmonizi ...
.
Advisory opinions An advisory opinion is an opinion issued by a court or a commission like an election commission that does not have the effect of adjudicating a specific legal case, but merely advises on the constitutionality or interpretation of a law. Some coun ...
are prohibited in US Courts and are also prohibited by the
UN Charter The Charter of the United Nations (UN) is the foundational treaty of the UN, an intergovernmental organization. It establishes the purposes, governing structure, and overall framework of the UN system, including its six principal organs: the ...
unless the
security council The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN) and is charged with ensuring international peace and security, recommending the admission of new UN members to the General Assembly, and ...
authorizes them. There are no relevant
advisory opinions An advisory opinion is an opinion issued by a court or a commission like an election commission that does not have the effect of adjudicating a specific legal case, but merely advises on the constitutionality or interpretation of a law. Some coun ...
or legal finding regarding the legality. The
United Nations security council The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN) and is charged with ensuring international peace and security, recommending the admission of new UN members to the General Assembly, and ...
has made no findings on the issues. Importantly, the UK and the
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territo ...
, the two aggressor nations, are permanent members of the
UN Security Council The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN) and is charged with ensuring international peace and security, recommending the admission of new UN members to the General Assembly, and ...
with veto powers. Thus, it's unlikely any legal determination can ever be made while the UK and the US are in the council as they would veto such a vote. The then
United Nations Secretary General The secretary-general of the United Nations (UNSG or SG) is the chief administrative officer of the United Nations and head of the United Nations Secretariat, one of the six principal organs of the United Nations. The role of the secretary-g ...
,
Kofi Annan Kofi Atta Annan (; 8 April 193818 August 2018) was a Ghanaian diplomat who served as the seventh secretary-general of the United Nations from 1997 to 2006. Annan and the UN were the co-recipients of the 2001 Nobel Peace Prize. He was the found ...
, stated in an interview with
The Guardian ''The Guardian'' is a British daily newspaper. It was founded in 1821 as ''The Manchester Guardian'', and changed its name in 1959. Along with its sister papers ''The Observer'' and '' The Guardian Weekly'', ''The Guardian'' is part of the G ...
that according to the
UN charter The Charter of the United Nations (UN) is the foundational treaty of the UN, an intergovernmental organization. It establishes the purposes, governing structure, and overall framework of the UN system, including its six principal organs: the ...
the invasion was illegal.


International law: right of pre-emptive self defense

There is no requirement in international law that the United States (or any nation) seek permission to initiate any war of self-defense. "The United States government has argued, wholly apart from Resolution 1441, that it has a right of pre-emptive self-defense to protect itself from terrorism fomented by Iraq. Although this position has been intensively criticized, without any legal finding for support, claims for legality or illegality are merely debates. To prove illegality it would first be necessary to prove that the US did not meet the conditions of necessity and proportionality and that the right of pre-emptive defense did not apply. In September 2004, Kofi Annan, former Secretary General of the United Nations, reiterated his opinion “that it was not in conformity with the UN Charter" and "it was illegal".


U.N. security council resolutions

Debate about the legality of the 2003 invasion of Iraq under international law, centers around ambiguous language in parts of U.N. Resolution 1441 (2002). The U.N. Charter in Article 39 states: "The Security Council shall determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression and shall make recommendations, or decide what measures shall be taken in accordance with Articles 41 and 42, to maintain or restore international peace and security". The position of the U.S. and U.K. is that the invasion was authorized by a series of U.N. resolutions dating back to 1990 and that since the U.N. security council has made no Article 39 finding of illegality that no illegality exists. Resolution 1441 declared that Iraq was in "material breach" of the cease-fire under U.N. Resolution 687 (1991), which required cooperation with weapons inspectors. The
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT) is an international agreement regulating treaties between states. Known as the "treaty on treaties", it establishes comprehensive rules, procedures, and guidelines for how treaties are defined ...
states that under certain conditions, a party may invoke a "material breach" to suspend a multilateral treaty. Thus, the U.S. and U.K. claim that they used their right to suspend the cease-fire in Resolution 687 and to continue hostilities against Iraq under the authority of U.N. Resolution 678 (1990), which originally authorized the use of force after Iraq invaded Kuwait. This is the same argument that was used for
Operation Desert Fox The 1998 bombing of Iraq (code-named Operation Desert Fox) was a major four-day bombing campaign on Iraqi targets from 16 to 19 December 1998, by the United States and the United Kingdom. On 16 December 1998, President of the United States Bill ...
in 1998. They also contend that, while Resolution 1441 required the
UNSC The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN) and is charged with ensuring international peace and security, recommending the admission of new UN members to the General Assembly, and ...
to assemble and assess reports from the weapons inspectors, it was not necessary for the UNSC to reach an agreement on the course of action. If, at that time, it was determined that Iraq breached Resolution 1441, the resolution did not "constrain any member state from acting to defend itself against the threat posed by Iraq". It remains unclear whether any party other than the Security Council can make the determination that Iraq breached Resolution 1441, as U.N. members commented that it is not up to one member state to interpret and enforce U.N. resolutions for the entire council. In addition, other nations have stated that a second resolution was required to initiate hostilities. The vast majority of international legal scholarship contended that the war was an illegal war of aggression, and
Kofi Annan Kofi Atta Annan (; 8 April 193818 August 2018) was a Ghanaian diplomat who served as the seventh secretary-general of the United Nations from 1997 to 2006. Annan and the UN were the co-recipients of the 2001 Nobel Peace Prize. He was the found ...
, then-United Nations Secretary-General, expressed the belief that the war in Iraq was an "illegal act that contravened the U.N. charter."Iraq war illegal, says Annan
BBC News, September 16, 2004.


Repeal

On June 17, 2021, the House of Representatives voted for House Resolution 256, to
repeal A repeal (O.F. ''rapel'', modern ''rappel'', from ''rapeler'', ''rappeler'', revoke, ''re'' and ''appeler'', appeal) is the removal or reversal of a law. There are two basic types of repeal; a repeal with a re-enactment is used to replace the law ...
the 2002 resolution by a vote of 268–161. 219 House Democrats and 49 House Republicans voted to repeal, while 160 Republicans and 1 Democrat voted to oppose the repeal. In July 2021 several Senators introduced S.2391, the National Security Powers Act of 2021, which would repeal previous war authorizations and establish new procedures. Its companion in the House, H.R.5410, the National Security Reforms and Accountability Act, did not contain the repeal language.


See also

*
2003 invasion of Iraq The 2003 invasion of Iraq was a United States-led invasion of the Ba'athist Iraq, Republic of Iraq and the first stage of the Iraq War. The invasion phase began on 19 March 2003 (air) and 20 March 2003 (ground) and lasted just over one mont ...
*
British Parliamentary approval for the invasion of Iraq British Parliamentary approval for the invasion of Iraq was given by the elected members of the House of Commons to Tony Blair's government on the eve of the 2003 invasion of Iraq, in a series of two votes, on 18 March 2003. Constitutional backg ...
*
Command responsibility Command responsibility (superior responsibility, the Yamashita standard, and the Medina standard) is the legal doctrine of hierarchical accountability for war crimes.
*
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution or the Southeast Asia Resolution, , was a joint resolution that the United States Congress passed on August 7, 1964, in response to the Gulf of Tonkin incident. It is of historic significance because it gave U.S. pre ...
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Jus ad bellum ' ( or in the traditional English pronunciation of Latin; Latin for "right to war") is a set of criteria that are to be consulted ''before'' engaging in war in order to determine whether entering into war is permissible, that is, whether it wi ...
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Just war theory The just war theory ( la, bellum iustum) is a doctrine, also referred to as a tradition, of military ethics which is studied by military leaders, theologians, ethicists and policy makers. The purpose of the doctrine is to ensure that a war is ...
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Iraq War {{Infobox military conflict , conflict = Iraq War {{Nobold, {{lang, ar, حرب العراق (Arabic) {{Nobold, {{lang, ku, شەڕی عێراق ( Kurdish) , partof = the Iraq conflict and the War on terror , image ...
* Legality of the Iraq War * Legitimacy of the 2003 invasion of Iraq * List of Congressional opponents of the Iraq War *
Rationale for the Iraq War The rationale for the Iraq War, both the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the subsequent hostilities, was controversial. The George W. Bush administration began actively pressing for military intervention in Iraq in late 2001. The primary rationaliza ...
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United Nations The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre for harmonizi ...
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United Nations Charter The Charter of the United Nations (UN) is the foundational treaty of the UN, an intergovernmental organization. It establishes the purposes, governing structure, and overall framework of the UN system, including its six principal organs: the ...
* Views on the 2003 invasion of Iraq *
War of aggression A war of aggression, sometimes also war of conquest, is a military conflict waged without the justification of self-defense, usually for territorial gain and subjugation. Wars without international legality (i.e. not out of self-defense nor sanc ...
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War on Terror The war on terror, officially the Global War on Terrorism (GWOT), is an ongoing international counterterrorism military campaign initiated by the United States following the September 11 attacks. The main targets of the campaign are militant ...


References


External links


Iraq War Resolution, Roll Call Vote - House
(clerk.house.gov)
Iraq War Resolution, Roll Call Vote - Senate
(senate.gov)
Text of Joint Resolution
(gpo.gov)
Bill status and summary
(thomas.loc.gov)

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** ttps://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/10/print/20021016-5.html October 16, 2002 Press Briefing by Ari Fleischer*Floor speeches *
Floor Speech of Sen Hillary Clinton
(earthhopenetwork.net) *

(feingold.senate.gov) *

(rockefeller.senate.gov) ** Floor Speech of Rep Ron Paulbr>(www.house.gov/paul)
** Floor Speech of Rep Pete Stark *
Floor Speech of Rep Dennis Kucinich
*
Congressional Records related to the Congress' consent to the Authorization of the Use of Military Force in Iraq
{{Iraq War Causes and prelude of the Iraq War United States foreign relations legislation Acts of the 107th United States Congress 2002 in international relations United States congressional resolutions passed both by House and Senate