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John I Albert ( pl, Jan I Olbracht; 27 December 1459 – 17 June 1501) was
King of Poland Poland was ruled at various times either by dukes and princes (10th to 14th centuries) or by kings (11th to 18th centuries). During the latter period, a tradition of free election of monarchs made it a uniquely electable position in Europe (16th ...
from 1492 until his death in 1501 and Duke of Głogów (Glogau) from 1491 to 1498. He was the fourth Polish sovereign from the
Jagiellonian dynasty The Jagiellonian dynasty (, pl, dynastia jagiellońska), otherwise the Jagiellon dynasty ( pl, dynastia Jagiellonów), the House of Jagiellon ( pl, Dom Jagiellonów), or simply the Jagiellons ( pl, Jagiellonowie), was the name assumed by a cad ...
, the son of Casimir IV and his wife Elizabeth of Austria. As a kin to the
House of Habsburg The House of Habsburg (), alternatively spelled Hapsburg in Englishgerman: Haus Habsburg, ; es, Casa de Habsburgo; hu, Habsburg család, it, Casa di Asburgo, nl, Huis van Habsburg, pl, dom Habsburgów, pt, Casa de Habsburgo, la, Domus Hab ...
, John Albert was groomed to become emperor in the
Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire was a political entity in Western, Central, and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. From the accession of Otto I in 962 unt ...
, a plan which ultimately failed. He was well-educated and tutored by scholars such as
Johannes Longinus Johannes is a Medieval Latin form of the personal name that usually appears as "John (name), John" in English language contexts. It is a variant of the Greek and Classical Latin variants (Ιωάννης, ''Ioannes (given name), Ioannes''), itself ...
and
Callimachus Callimachus (; ) was an ancient Greek poet, scholar and librarian who was active in Alexandria during the 3rd century BC. A representative of Ancient Greek literature of the Hellenistic period, he wrote over 800 literary works in a wide varie ...
, whom he subsequently befriended. Heavily influenced by the
Italian Renaissance The Italian Renaissance ( it, Rinascimento ) was a period in Italian history covering the 15th and 16th centuries. The period is known for the initial development of the broader Renaissance culture that spread across Europe and marked the trans ...
, John sought to strengthen royal authority at the expense of the
Catholic Church The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwide . It is am ...
and the clergy. In 1487, he led a force against the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University ...
and defeated the
Tatars The Tatars ()Tatar
in the Collins English Dictionary
is an umbrella term for different Turki ...
of the Crimean Khanate during the early phase of the Polish–Ottoman War. In the aftermath of the Bohemian–Hungarian War, John unsuccessfully attempted to
usurp A usurper is an illegitimate or controversial claimant to power, often but not always in a monarchy. In other words, one who takes the power of a country, city, or established region for oneself, without any formal or legal right to claim it a ...
Hungary from his elder brother Vladislaus but was instead granted the Duchy of Głogów to calm his ambition. John ascended to the Polish throne in 1492 whilst his younger brother Alexander was elected
Grand Duke of Lithuania The monarchy of Lithuania concerned the monarchical head of state of Lithuania, which was established as an absolute and hereditary monarchy. Throughout Lithuania's history there were three ducal dynasties that managed to stay in power— Ho ...
by an independent Lithuanian assembly, thus temporarily breaking a
personal union A personal union is the combination of two or more states that have the same monarch while their boundaries, laws, and interests remain distinct. A real union, by contrast, would involve the constituent states being to some extent interli ...
between the two nations. He was proclaimed king through an oral ballot orchestrated by Cardinal Frederick Jagiellon. To secure his succession against the Piast princes from the
Duchy of Masovia Duchy of Masovia was a district principality and a fiefdom of the Kingdom of Poland, existing during the Middle Ages. The state was centered in Mazovia in the northeastern Kingdom of Poland, and during its existence, its capital was located i ...
, he dispatched an army to the electoral proceedings which alienated the higher nobles and magnates. He later invaded Masovia to deprive
Konrad III Conrad III (german: Konrad; it, Corrado; 1093 or 1094 – 15 February 1152) of the Hohenstaufen dynasty was from 1116 to 1120 Duke of Franconia, from 1127 to 1135 anti-king of his predecessor Lothair III and from 1138 until his death in 1152 k ...
of his ancestral holdings and curtail internal opposition to his rule. In 1497, John Albert launched a personal crusade into
Moldavia Moldavia ( ro, Moldova, or , literally "The Country of Moldavia"; in Romanian Cyrillic: or ; chu, Землѧ Молдавскаѧ; el, Ἡγεμονία τῆς Μολδαβίας) is a historical region and former principality in Centr ...
to uphold Polish suzerainty, establish control over
Black Sea The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Rom ...
ports and dethrone Stephen III in favour of John Albert's brother Sigismund. The campaign's failure greatly hindered Polish expansion into
southeastern Europe Southeast Europe or Southeastern Europe (SEE) is a geographical subregion of Europe, consisting primarily of the Balkans. Sovereign states and territories that are included in the region are Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia (a ...
. John Albert remains a largely forgotten and overlooked figure in Polish historiography. His relatively short reign ended in a major military setback, and he was criticised during his lifetime for embracing
absolutism Absolutism may refer to: Government * Absolute monarchy, in which a monarch rules free of laws or legally organized opposition * Absolutism (European history), period c. 1610 – c. 1789 in Europe ** Enlightened absolutism, influenced by the En ...
and attempting to centralise the government. He is credited for creating a
bicameral parliament Bicameralism is a type of legislature, one divided into two separate assemblies, chambers, or houses, known as a bicameral legislature. Bicameralism is distinguished from unicameralism, in which all members deliberate and vote as a single gro ...
comprising the
Senate A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...
and the
Sejm The Sejm (English: , Polish: ), officially known as the Sejm of the Republic of Poland ( Polish: ''Sejm Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej''), is the lower house of the bicameral parliament of Poland. The Sejm has been the highest governing body of ...
, which granted lower-class
gentry Gentry (from Old French ''genterie'', from ''gentil'', "high-born, noble") are "well-born, genteel and well-bred people" of high social class, especially in the past. Word similar to gentle imple and decentfamilies ''Gentry'', in its widest c ...
the right of expression in the matters of state. Conversely, he limited the movement of peasants, confining them to nobles' estates for life.


Early life, 1459–1492


Birth and family

John was born on 27 December 1459 at
Wawel Castle The Wawel Royal Castle (; ''Zamek Królewski na Wawelu'') and the Wawel Hill on which it sits constitute the most historically and culturally significant site in Poland. A fortified residency on the Vistula River in Kraków, it was established ...
in
Kraków Kraków (), or Cracow, is the second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula, Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city dates back to the seventh century. Kraków was the official capital of Poland un ...
, which at the time served as the seat of Polish monarchs. He was one of thirteen children and the third son born to Casimir IV Jagiellon and Elizabeth Habsburg. His mother was the second daughter of Albert II, Duke of Austria and subsequently King of Bohemia, Hungary and Croatia. Through his matrilineal lineage, John was the nephew of Ladislaus the Posthumous and kin to German royalty. It was the long ambition of his Jagiellonian predecessors to install a male member of their dynasty as Emperor in the
Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire was a political entity in Western, Central, and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. From the accession of Otto I in 962 unt ...
. Thus, John received the name Albert at christening to honour his maternal grandfather and in the hope of securing his candidacy to the Imperial throne. However, any attempts at bolstering his prospects of becoming Emperor proved futile. Paternally, John was the grandson of Jogaila, the
pagan Paganism (from classical Latin ''pāgānus'' "rural", "rustic", later "civilian") is a term first used in the fourth century by early Christians for people in the Roman Empire who practiced polytheism, or ethnic religions other than Judaism. I ...
ruler of Lithuania who upon the marriage to
Jadwiga Jadwiga (; diminutives: ''Jadzia'' , ''Iga'') is a Polish feminine given name. It originated from the old German feminine given name ''Hedwig'' (variants of which include ''Hedwiga''), which is compounded from ''hadu'', "battle", and ''wig'', "figh ...
(Hedwig) adopted Catholicism, converted his native people to Christianity and was crowned King of Poland as Władysław II Jagiełło in 1386. Subsequently, his descendants held a strong claim to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. However, the Lithuanian lords were at first apprehensive in forming a union with Poland. The Lithuanian nobility and minorities feared that merging the two countries would threaten their sovereignty. The Poles were also dissatisfied as the Jagiellonians possessed no blood relations with their predecessors, the Piasts, who de facto ruled since the creation of statehood in AD 966. In the wake of Jogaila's death, his eldest son Ladislaus III succeeded him in Poland and his younger son Casimir in Lithuania. It was Ladislaus' fall at the Battle of Varna in 1444 which enabled Casimir's lineage and sons to become the potential successors to both titles. John's father was reluctant in accepting the Polish crown and only did so when his opponents, Bolesław IV of Warsaw and Frederick II, Elector of Brandenburg, strengthened their efforts. Raised abroad, he was initially branded as illegitimate by the Poles and was influenced by the Lithuanian nobility, whom he supported in their calls for a separate state. John's right to the throne came entirely by coincidence. His eldest brother, Vladislaus, was destined to inherit his father's expansive realm. This changed when in neighbouring
Bohemia Bohemia ( ; cs, Čechy ; ; hsb, Čěska; szl, Czechy) is the westernmost and largest historical region of the Czech Republic. Bohemia can also refer to a wider area consisting of the historical Lands of the Bohemian Crown ruled by the Bohem ...
the disgraced and excommunicated Hussite king
George of Poděbrady George of Kunštát and Poděbrady (23 April 1420 – 22 March 1471), also known as Poděbrad or Podiebrad ( cs, Jiří z Poděbrad; german: Georg von Podiebrad), was the sixteenth King of Bohemia, who ruled in 1458–1471. He was a leader of the ...
promised to make Vladislaus his heir if Casimir negotiated a peace treaty with Matthias Corvinus of Hungary. The mediation between the two failed, but when George died in 1471 the Bohemian Diet elected him King of Bohemia. Prince Casimir, a future
saint In religious belief, a saint is a person who is recognized as having an exceptional degree of holiness, likeness, or closeness to God. However, the use of the term ''saint'' depends on the context and denomination. In Catholic, Eastern Or ...
, was designated the new heir apparent in Poland, however, he fell ill with
tuberculosis Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease usually caused by '' Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' (MTB) bacteria. Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but it can also affect other parts of the body. Most infections show no symptoms, ...
and died in 1484. Vladislaus inherited both kingdoms in the aftermath of the Bohemian–Hungarian War (1468–1478) and following Matthias' death in 1490. Certain factions questioned this outcome and in turn voiced support for a strong-minded John, who decided to act. He briefly invaded Hungary but was defeated by his brother at
Košice Košice ( , ; german: Kaschau ; hu, Kassa ; pl, Коszyce) is the largest city in eastern Slovakia. It is situated on the river Hornád at the eastern reaches of the Slovak Ore Mountains, near the border with Hungary. With a population of a ...
(1491) and again at
Prešov Prešov (, hu, Eperjes, Rusyn and Ukrainian: Пряшів) is a city in Eastern Slovakia. It is the seat of administrative Prešov Region ( sk, Prešovský kraj) and Šariš, as well as the historic Sáros County of the Kingdom of Hungary. With ...
(1492), after which he forcibly returned to Poland. In spite of the usurpation attempt, the bond between the two siblings remained unhindered – in 1491 Vladislaus granted John the
Duchy of Głogów The Duchy of Głogów ( pl, Księstwo głogowskie, cs, Hlohovské knížectví) or Duchy of Glogau (german: Herzogtum Glogau) was one of the Duchies of Silesia ruled by the Silesian Piasts. Its capital was Głogów in Lower Silesia. Histor ...
(Glogau) to satisfy his ambition and permitted him to keep the title for life.


Education

Drawing from his personal experience, Casimir IV was determined to educate all his sons equally and prepare them to assume the role of a monarch. In September 1467, chronicler and historian
Johannes Longinus Johannes is a Medieval Latin form of the personal name that usually appears as "John (name), John" in English language contexts. It is a variant of the Greek and Classical Latin variants (Ιωάννης, ''Ioannes (given name), Ioannes''), itself ...
(Polish: Jan Długosz) had been entrusted with tutoring the royal children, including young John. Longinus, a deeply spiritual man, made sure that the princes were raised with great care and in accordance with church laws. John and his brother Alexander frequently took part in visits to the tombs of past kings and queens, aim of which was to strengthen their love and allegiance to Poland.
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through ...
and
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) **Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ge ...
, law, history,
rhetoric Rhetoric () is the art of persuasion, which along with grammar and logic (or dialectic), is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. Rhetoric aims to study the techniques writers or speakers utilize to inform, persuade, or motivate par ...
, and classical literature were part of the rigid curriculum. According to Stanisław Orzechowski, John was subjected to corporal punishment which was encouraged by his father. The Italian humanist and diplomat Filippo Buonaccorsi, known as Callimachus or Kallimach, exercised immense authority and influence over John in his early years and during his reign. Favoured by the court and particularly by Queen Elizabeth, he quickly rose to become the royal advisor and mentor. Buonaccorsi was described as more lenient and moderate than Longinus; he amended the syllabus with
chess Chess is a board game for two players, called White and Black, each controlling an army of chess pieces in their color, with the objective to checkmate the opponent's king. It is sometimes called international chess or Western chess to dist ...
, sports and ancient studies concerning the works of
Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the esta ...
and
Virgil Publius Vergilius Maro (; traditional dates 15 October 7021 September 19 BC), usually called Virgil or Vergil ( ) in English, was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period. He composed three of the most famous poems in Latin literature: th ...
. Radical for the time, many of his ideas and theories were later supported by John, such as limiting the power of the
clergy Clergy are formal leaders within established religions. Their roles and functions vary in different religious traditions, but usually involve presiding over specific rituals and teaching their religion's doctrines and practices. Some of the ter ...
and centralising the government. He further argued for the strengthening of the king's authority at the expense of the nobility and inconspicuously advocated for the split with Rome. Buonaccorsi's appeal extended beyond politics and diplomacy; he befriended John and remained his most trusted courtier until his death in 1496.


Reign, 1492–1501


Accession, 1492

In accordance with the Union of Horodło (1413), Lithuania was to elect the Grand Duke by its own independent assembly of nobles in
Vilnius Vilnius ( , ; see also other names) is the capital and largest city of Lithuania, with a population of 592,389 (according to the state register) or 625,107 (according to the municipality of Vilnius). The population of Vilnius's functional urba ...
. In turn, the Polish Crown Diet was obliged to nominate the King of Poland. These titles could be shared by one individual, whose election is confirmed by both assemblies. On his deathbed, Casimir IV requested that John is to succeed him in the Crown and Alexander Jagiellon in the Grand Duchy. Lithuanian dignitaries were satisfied with the proposition, however, a cluster of Polish nobility wished to continue the
personal union A personal union is the combination of two or more states that have the same monarch while their boundaries, laws, and interests remain distinct. A real union, by contrast, would involve the constituent states being to some extent interli ...
between the two countries and initially opted for Alexander. An electoral tribunal convened on 15 August 1492 in the city of Piotrków. The assembled nobles were to decide which candidate should ascend the throne. John's successful 1487 engagement during the Polish–Ottoman War (1485–1503) against the Crimean Khanate and its
Tatar The Tatars ()Tatar
in the Collins English Dictionary
is an umbrella term for different
units in the far east was a considerable determinant. Others pointed out his failed intervention in Hungary against his brother. Personal characteristics also made the nobles agitated; although intelligent, John Albert was often described as supercilious and intolerably arrogant. In consequence, the Tęczyński and
Leszczyński The House of Leszczyński ( , ; plural: Leszczyńscy, feminine form: Leszczyńska) was a prominent Polish noble family. They were magnates in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and later became royal family of Poland. History The Leszczyński f ...
magnates voiced their support for John's younger brother Sigismund, distinguished by his intellect and presumed
chastity Chastity, also known as purity, is a virtue related to temperance. Someone who is ''chaste'' refrains either from sexual activity considered immoral or any sexual activity, according to their state of life. In some contexts, for example when ma ...
. The tribunal was marked by quarrels between highly-elevated members of state and it was their course of action that determined the outcome. A considerable threat to the assembly were Janusz II of Płock and his brother Konrad, escorted a company of 1,000 hardline soldiers sent from the
Duchy of Masovia Duchy of Masovia was a district principality and a fiefdom of the Kingdom of Poland, existing during the Middle Ages. The state was centered in Mazovia in the northeastern Kingdom of Poland, and during its existence, its capital was located i ...
. Janusz's candidacy was endorsed by a strictly covert contingent of conservatives, whose intention was to restore the ancient House of Piast on the Polish throne. Zbigniew Oleśnicki,
Primate Primates are a diverse order of mammals. They are divided into the strepsirrhines, which include the lemurs, galagos, and lorisids, and the haplorhines, which include the tarsiers and the simians ( monkeys and apes, the latter includin ...
of Poland, was part of that faction, but was unable to attend due to poor health. Thereby, the Queen Dowager Elizabeth nominated her acquiescent son, Frederick Jagiellon, to lead the proceedings in his stead. An army of 1,600 men was dispatched to counter Janusz and Konrad if their troops resorted to violence. Meanwhile, John preoccupied himself with negotiations and aimed to procure the Prussian vote by recognising Lucas Watzenrode as the new Prince-Bishop of Warmia (Ermland). In the end, it was Frederick's personal intervention that secured the crown for John, who was unanimously proclaimed king by an oral ballot amongst the shrieks of nobles on 27 August 1492. A courier carried the news to the burghers of
Kraków Kraków (), or Cracow, is the second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula, Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city dates back to the seventh century. Kraków was the official capital of Poland un ...
, which brought great joy to the townsfolk and prompted a
bonfire A bonfire is a large and controlled outdoor fire, used either for informal disposal of burnable waste material or as part of a celebration. Etymology The earliest recorded uses of the word date back to the late 15th century, with the Catho ...
celebration. The entourage then hurried to the capital, where he was crowned at
Wawel Cathedral The Wawel Cathedral ( pl, Katedra Wawelska), formally titled the Royal Archcathedral Basilica of Saints Stanislaus and Wenceslaus, is a Roman Catholic cathedral situated on Wawel Hill in Kraków, Poland. Nearly 1000 years old, it is part of the ...
just less than a month later, on 23 September, by his ailing adversary Oleśnicki. John Albert's first months as king were unsettling and marred by insecurities. The Masovian Dukes still posed a considerable threat and placed his reign in jeopardy, with Masovia being independent from Poland at the time. In December 1492, John turned to Vladislaus and formed a much needed
military alliance A military alliance is a formal agreement between nations concerning national security. Nations in a military alliance agree to active participation and contribution to the defense of others in the alliance in the event of a crisis. (Online) ...
with Hungary against common foes. The brothers pledged mutual assistance and vowed to quell any opposition that undermined their rule.


Creation of parliament, 1493

Constitutionalism and parliamentary tendencies in Poland date back to the
Late Middle Ages The Late Middle Ages or Late Medieval Period was the period of European history lasting from AD 1300 to 1500. The Late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern period (and in much of Europe, the Ren ...
, when Louis I issued the 1374 Privilege of Koszyce, granting the nobility concessions ( tax reductions) and prerogatives in return for favours or military support. Earlier attempts at unifying lower-class
gentry Gentry (from Old French ''genterie'', from ''gentil'', "high-born, noble") are "well-born, genteel and well-bred people" of high social class, especially in the past. Word similar to gentle imple and decentfamilies ''Gentry'', in its widest c ...
with the high magnates into a single political entity were largely unsuccessful. Nobles of lower social status objected to the judiciary practices superintended by their upper class counterparts, which caused much discontent. A major breakthrough came in 1454, when John's father, Casimir, approved the Statutes of Nieszawa which obligated the monarch to seek advice from the gentry and sejmiks (regional land councils) before taking action. According to Aleksander Gieysztor, the statutes acted as a counterweight to the
oligarchy Oligarchy (; ) is a conceptual form of power structure in which power rests with a small number of people. These people may or may not be distinguished by one or several characteristics, such as nobility, fame, wealth, education, or corporate ...
cultivated by the magnates and paved way for an early parliamentary system. Prior to the establishment of a long-lasting legislative body of government, the Polish king would summon a so-called '' curia regis'' which had no real authority over the sovereign. Its permanent members comprised the ''consiliarii'' – trusted courtiers and loyal dignitaries, personally selected by the reigning monarch. Under John Albert, the curia regis slowly transformed itself into the
Senate of Poland The Senate ( pl, Senat) is the upper house of the Polish parliament, the lower house being the Sejm. The history of the Polish Senate stretches back over 500 years; it was one of the first constituent bodies of a bicameral parliament in Europ ...
. There were also changes in conventional practices. For instance, Casimir IV first debated with his close council and then travelled to individual provincial sejmiks. John, on the other hand, called the sejmiks' representatives from across the country to gather and create a single unified assembly. In January 1493, the first parliament composed of two chambers convened in Piotrków, which would host successive tribunals and parliament sittings long into the 16th century. The Sejm summoned on 18 January; however, the precise inauguration date is difficult to determine as the king stayed in Kraków until 13 January, and subsequently left for the town of
Nowy Korczyn Nowy Korczyn is a small town in Busko County, Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship, in south-central Poland. It is the seat of the gmina (administrative district) called Gmina Nowy Korczyn. It lies in Lesser Poland, approximately south of Busko-Zdró ...
where the Lesser Polish nobility gathered on the 15th of the same month. He then returned to the capital before departing for
Miechów Miechów is a town in Poland, in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, about north of Kraków. It is the capital of Miechów County. Population is 11,852 (2004). Miechów lies on the Miechówka river, along European route E77. The area of the town is ...
and finally arriving in Piotrków no later than 28 January. It is, therefore, widely regarded that John's entourage and the Lesser Polish lords arrived late to the parliament. Historian outlined that the weather conditions were not to blame as the January of 1493 appeared relatively warm and dry. The delay may have been attributed to the extensive distance covered (approximately 40–50 kilometres a day) as well as to the festivities and welcoming ceremonies in each town his royal cortège passed. On 2 March the king issued a universal act on taxation and closed the assembly on 3 March.


Expelling Jews from Kraków, 1494–1495

In June 1494, a fire broke out in Kraków during the visit of a Turkish envoy. Panic arose when the and nearby homes became engulfed in flames. Commoners began to speculate and blamed the
Jews Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
for the inferno. Jewish-owned enterprises and dwellings were then pillaged, soon followed by riots against the city's Jewish community. In the same year, the Jewish inhabitants, jointly with the city council representatives and burghers, lodged their complaints before John Albert in a private audience. John initially held the Jews in contempt and incarcerated leaders of the Jewish community, but was persuaded by Callimachus to release them shortly after. According to
Byron Sherwin Rabbi Byron Lee Sherwin (February 18, 1946 – May 22, 2015) was a Jewish scholar and author with expertise in theology, inter-religious dialogue, mysticism and Jewish ethics. Background and career A rabbi in the Conservative Judaism movement, he ...
, instrumental in coercing the king was a Jewish woman by the name of Rachel who was the lady-in-waiting to Queen Mother Elizabeth. In 1495, John issued an edict whereby he expelled Jews from Kraków and forcibly relocated them in the adjacent township of
Kazimierz Kazimierz (; la, Casimiria; yi, קוזמיר, Kuzimyr) is a historical district of Kraków and Kraków Old Town, Poland. From its inception in the 14th century to the early 19th century, Kazimierz was an independent city, a royal city of the Cr ...
, which became one of Poland's primary centres of
Judaism Judaism ( he, ''Yahăḏūṯ'') is an Abrahamic, monotheistic, and ethnic religion comprising the collective religious, cultural, and legal tradition and civilization of the Jewish people. It has its roots as an organized religion in th ...
. However, chroniclers from the period make no mention of an expulsion; Martin Kromer suggested that the relocation was in part voluntary and for the benefit of the Jews who faced persecution from
Christians Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρ� ...
.


Intervention in Masovia, 1495–1496

John desired to assert royal power over Poland's fiefdoms, most notably the
Duchy of Masovia Duchy of Masovia was a district principality and a fiefdom of the Kingdom of Poland, existing during the Middle Ages. The state was centered in Mazovia in the northeastern Kingdom of Poland, and during its existence, its capital was located i ...
, whose Piast rulers held closer ties to the Gediminids and were allied with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Jagiellonians perceived the duchy as a
quasi-state A quasi-state (some times referred to as state-like entity or proto-state) is a political entity that does not represent a fully institutionalised or autonomous sovereign state. The precise definition of ''quasi-state'' in political literature f ...
and a "blot" on their absolute sovereignty over East-Central Europe. John was also a staunch supporter of imposing
Polonisation Polonization (or Polonisation; pl, polonizacja)In Polish historiography, particularly pre-WWII (e.g., L. Wasilewski. As noted in Смалянчук А. Ф. (Smalyanchuk 2001) Паміж краёвасцю і нацыянальнай ідэя� ...
into Poland's spheres of influence, including Masovia and Monastic Prussia. When Duke Janusz II died heirless in February 1495, his brother Konrad hurried in securing his disputed succession by sending out troops to fortify Masovian castles. He failed in deterring Polish ambitions; John soon assembled a small force which marched into Masovia and occupied the ecclesiastical city of Płock, the region's primary bishopric. Cardinal Frederick then prevented local canons from obtaining office and installed
Jan Lubrański Jan Lubrański (1456 – 22 May 1520) was a Polish bishop, politician and diplomat. His coat of arms was Godziemba. Information Lubrański was bishop of Płock between 1497 and 1498 and bishop of Poznań since 1498, founder of many churches ...
as bishop. Fearing escalation, Konrad ordered his men to stand down, paving way for the Jagiellons to uphold their claim to Masovia. A year later, Konrad paid homage to John at Piotrków, where, for insubordination, he was deprived of most holdings and hereditary possessions.


Invasion of Moldavia, 1497–1499

John desired to pose as the champion of
Christendom Christendom historically refers to the Christian states, Christian-majority countries and the countries in which Christianity dominates, prevails,SeMerriam-Webster.com : dictionary, "Christendom"/ref> or is culturally or historically intertwin ...
against the
Ottoman Turks The Ottoman Turks ( tr, Osmanlı Türkleri), were the Turkic founding and sociopolitically the most dominant ethnic group of the Ottoman Empire ( 1299/1302–1922). Reliable information about the early history of Ottoman Turks remains scarce, ...
, whilst regaining lost ports near the
Black Sea The Black Sea is a marginal mediterranean sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia, east of the Balkans, south of the East European Plain, west of the Caucasus, and north of Anatolia. It is bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Rom ...
( Cetatea Albă and Chilia) and strengthening suzerainty over
Moldavia Moldavia ( ro, Moldova, or , literally "The Country of Moldavia"; in Romanian Cyrillic: or ; chu, Землѧ Молдавскаѧ; el, Ἡγεμονία τῆς Μολδαβίας) is a historical region and former principality in Centr ...
. His paramount aim was to forcibly install his younger brother, Sigismund, on the Moldavian throne. Circumstances seemed, moreover, to favour the Poles. In his brother Vladislaus he found a counterpoise to the machinations of Emperor Maximilian I, who in 1492 had concluded an alliance against him with Ivan III of Russia. As
suzerain Suzerainty () is the rights and obligations of a person, state or other polity who controls the foreign policy and relations of a tributary state, while allowing the tributary state to have internal autonomy. While the subordinate party is cal ...
of
Moldavia Moldavia ( ro, Moldova, or , literally "The Country of Moldavia"; in Romanian Cyrillic: or ; chu, Землѧ Молдавскаѧ; el, Ἡγεμονία τῆς Μολδαβίας) is a historical region and former principality in Centr ...
, John Albert was favourably situated for attacking the Turks. At the conference of Leutschau (1494), the details of the expedition were arranged between the kings of Poland and Hungary and Elector John Cicero of Brandenburg. However, John's plan to dethrone Stephen III in favour of Sigismund was met with staunch resistance from the Hungarians. In May 1496, John raised civil taxes to finance the forthcoming campaign. The true motive behind his personal crusade was concealed and all religious dimensions were excluded. In turn, national defence and preventing an Ottoman incursion were chosen as the most suitable cause. This false narrative was conveyed to the people through tax proclamations. In August 1497, tax levies equivalent to 25 percent of ecclesiastical incomes were demanded from the clergy by Cardinal Frederick Jagiellon to support his brother. By the summer of 1497, John assembled a strong army numbering some 80,000 men, supported by heavy
artillery Artillery is a class of heavy military ranged weapons that launch munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during si ...
. Stephen III attempted to prevent John and the Poles from crossing into Moldavia. Endorsed by Ivan III, he persuaded John's brother Alexander not to partake in the campaign. As reported by the ''
Bychowiec Chronicle The Bychowiec Chronicle (also spelled ''Bykhovets'', ''Bykovets'' or '' Bychovec'') is an anonymous 16th-century chronicle of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Although one of the least reliable sources of the epoch, it is considered the most extensive ...
'', the Lithuanian nobles condemned Poland's actions and refused to set foot on Moldavian territory. The Polish army marched across the river Dniester and invaded Moldavia in August 1497. The
Ottoman Sultan The sultans of the Ottoman Empire ( tr, Osmanlı padişahları), who were all members of the Ottoman dynasty (House of Osman), ruled over the transcontinental empire from its perceived inception in 1299 to its dissolution in 1922. At its hei ...
then sent reinforcements of about 600 men mostly comprising
Janissaries A Janissary ( ota, یڭیچری, yeŋiçeri, , ) was a member of the elite infantry units that formed the Ottoman Sultan's household troops and the first modern standing army in Europe. The corps was most likely established under sultan Orhan ...
who joined Stephen's forces stationed at
Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: * Rome, the capital city of Italy * Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lett ...
, in modern-day
Romania Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern, and Southeast Europe, Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, S ...
. His final attempts to halt the Polish advance proved futile. The Moldavian chancellor, sent on a peacekeeping mission to the Polish camp, tried to convince the Poles to withdraw from the country, but John refused and had him confined. The unsuccessful attack on Suceava lasting from 24 September to 19 October curtailed John's ambitions. Stiff Moldavian resistance pressured the Poles to disengage. The siege was lifted before Vladislaus sent a Hungarian army counting some 12,000 men to help Stephen. At the Battle of the Cosmin Forest in
Bukovina Bukovinagerman: Bukowina or ; hu, Bukovina; pl, Bukowina; ro, Bucovina; uk, Буковина, ; see also other languages. is a historical region, variously described as part of either Central or Eastern Europe (or both).Klaus Peter Berge ...
, the Moldavians routed the retreating Poles, whose heavy cavalry was unable to charge in thick woodland. The attack led to significant casualties, disorder and a loss of prestige for the Polish army. John eventually agreed to a humiliating peace treaty in 1499 and recognised Stephen as his equal and not as a
feudal Feudalism, also known as the feudal system, was the combination of the legal, economic, military, cultural and political customs that flourished in medieval Europe between the 9th and 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a way of structur ...
dependent. The defeat in Moldavia incited raids into Polish territory, largely conducted by Tatars and other irregulars. In July 1498, Turkish marauders of Malkoçoğlu Balı Bey crossed into
Podolia Podolia or Podilia ( uk, Поділля, Podillia, ; russian: Подолье, Podolye; ro, Podolia; pl, Podole; german: Podolien; be, Падолле, Padollie; lt, Podolė), is a historic region in Eastern Europe, located in the west-centra ...
and reached as far west as
Lwów Lviv ( uk, Львів) is the largest city in Western Ukraine, western Ukraine, and the List of cities in Ukraine, seventh-largest in Ukraine, with a population of . It serves as the administrative centre of Lviv Oblast and Lviv Raion, and is o ...
, pillaging the city's environs. Fearing a retaliatory attack by the Moldavians or the Ottoman Empire, John ordered the construction of new defensive fortifications, including what became one of Poland's most recognisable monuments, the Kraków Barbican.


Dispute with Teutonic Knights, 1499–1501

The ceding of
Prussia Prussia, , Old Prussian: ''Prūsa'' or ''Prūsija'' was a German state on the southeast coast of the Baltic Sea. It formed the German Empire under Prussian rule when it united the German states in 1871. It was ''de facto'' dissolved by an e ...
to Poland as a royal dependency in the aftermath of the Thirteen Years' War (1454–1466) caused great animosity between the Teutonic State and the Polish Crown, even when the two were allies. Tensions escalated further when John tried to secure his brother Frederick as Watzenrode's successor in the
Holy See The Holy See ( lat, Sancta Sedes, ; it, Santa Sede ), also called the See of Rome, Petrine See or Apostolic See, is the jurisdiction of the Pope in his role as the bishop of Rome. It includes the apostolic episcopal see of the Diocese of R ...
. After the death of Johann von Tiefen, the Teutonic Order proclaimed Friedrich Wettin von Sachsen as the new Grand Master (''Hochmeister''). Unlike his predecessor, Friedrich disregarded the Second Peace of Thorn of 1466 and refused to render homage to the Polish Crown. In 1499, he rejected John's request to partake in a Sejm sitting at Piotrków, claiming that his absence stemmed from troubled domestic affairs. He then referred the matter to the Imperial Diet.
Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I (22 March 1459 – 12 January 1519) was King of the Romans from 1486 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1508 until his death. He was never crowned by the pope, as the journey to Rome was blocked by the Venetians. He proclaimed himself E ...
, permitted Friedrich to aid Poland when called but insisted that he refrains from searing oath of allegiance to the Polish king, instead maintaining "friendly" and "neighbourly" relations. According to Jędrzej Moraczewski, John demanded on five occasions that the Teutonic Knights pledge reverence and submission. When Maximilian denounced the Peace of Thorn, asserting that it was neither approved by the Empire nor the Holy See, John mobilised a force with heavy artillery and set out to Toruń (Thorn) in 1501 where the accords were initially signed. Friedrich dismissed the ultimatum to appear before John, but sent representatives on his behalf to negotiate. Fearing a major regional conflict, George, Duke of Saxony and John's brother-in-law by marriage to Barbara Jagiellon, entrusted the Catholic Bishop of Meissen with mediating between the Poles and the Teutonic Knights. However, the negotiations stalled when John died unexpectedly.


Death and burial

The catastrophic Moldavian Campaign was a major blunder which psychologically scarred John for life and likely affected his health. He died suddenly on 17 June 1501 in
Toruń )'' , image_skyline = , image_caption = , image_flag = POL Toruń flag.svg , image_shield = POL Toruń COA.svg , nickname = City of Angels, Gingerbread city, Copernicus Town , pushpin_map = Kuyavian-Pom ...
, where he agreed to negotiate with the Teutonic Knights. The most likely cause of death was
syphilis Syphilis () is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium '' Treponema pallidum'' subspecies ''pallidum''. The signs and symptoms of syphilis vary depending in which of the four stages it presents (primary, secondary, latent, a ...
, though the monarch also suffered from other ailments and battle wounds. The king's body was embalmed for the journey, and on 29 June, the funeral cortège left Toruń for the royal capital of Kraków. His heart was embedded inside the Toruń Cathedral, but its exact location remains unknown. John was laid to rest on 28 July 1501 at
Wawel Cathedral The Wawel Cathedral ( pl, Katedra Wawelska), formally titled the Royal Archcathedral Basilica of Saints Stanislaus and Wenceslaus, is a Roman Catholic cathedral situated on Wawel Hill in Kraków, Poland. Nearly 1000 years old, it is part of the ...
in Kraków, in one of the dedicated chapels adjacent to the cathedral's
nave The nave () is the central part of a church, stretching from the (normally western) main entrance or rear wall, to the transepts, or in a church without transepts, to the chancel. When a church contains side aisles, as in a basilica-typ ...
. The Late Gothic red-marble headstone with the king's
effigy An effigy is an often life-size sculptural representation of a specific person, or a prototypical figure. The term is mostly used for the makeshift dummies used for symbolic punishment in political protests and for the figures burned in certai ...
and ledger was sculpted by Stanisław Stwosz, the son of Veit Stoss. From 1502 to 1505, Francesco Fiorentino created an Early Renaissance
niche Niche may refer to: Science *Developmental niche, a concept for understanding the cultural context of child development * Ecological niche, a term describing the relational position of an organism's species *Niche differentiation, in ecology, the ...
and archway, based on Leonardo Bruni's tomb at the
Basilica of Santa Croce The (Italian for 'Basilica of the Holy Cross') is the principal Franciscan church in Florence, Italy, and a minor basilica of the Roman Catholic Church. It is situated on the Piazza di Santa Croce, about 800 meters south-east of the Duomo. The ...
in
Florence Florence ( ; it, Firenze ) is a city in Central Italy and the capital city of the Tuscany region. It is the most populated city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants in 2016, and over 1,520,000 in its metropolitan area.Bilancio demografico ...
. The tomb's resemblance to a
triumphal arch A triumphal arch is a free-standing monumental structure in the shape of an archway with one or more arched passageways, often designed to span a road. In its simplest form a triumphal arch consists of two massive piers connected by an arch, cr ...
was said to be an allusion to the imperial pretensions of John and the Jagiellonian dynasty in general. It is widely regarded as the first Renaissance composition in Poland and a breakthrough in Polish architecture.


Personal life and assessment

Unlike Alexander, John was not easily swayed and held firm views on the matters of state. 19th-century historians called him a "valiant soldier, but no commander". Józef Ignacy Kraszewski emphasized the king's interest in militarism and
absolutism Absolutism may refer to: Government * Absolute monarchy, in which a monarch rules free of laws or legally organized opposition * Absolutism (European history), period c. 1610 – c. 1789 in Europe ** Enlightened absolutism, influenced by the En ...
, which stemmed from his education supervised by radical Callimachus. However, to win support for the Moldavian Campaign, John was compelled to appease the nobility. In 1496, the townspeople were forbidden to own land and the freedom of movement for peasants was abolished. The nobles would profit from the non-migrating peasants tied to the land and
serfdom Serfdom was the status of many peasants under feudalism, specifically relating to manorialism, and similar systems. It was a condition of debt bondage and indentured servitude with similarities to and differences from slavery, which develop ...
-based manorial estates called folwarks. This greatly hindered the development of Polish towns and cities in comparison with their
Western Europe Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's countries and territories vary depending on context. The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the ancient Mediterranean ...
an counterparts, and resulted in low
urbanisation Urbanization (or urbanisation) refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. It is predominantly the ...
rates across the country. John never married and remained a lifelong
bachelor A bachelor is a man who is not and has never been married.Bachelors are, in Pitt & al.'s phrasing, "men who live independently, outside of their parents' home and other institutional settings, who are neither married nor cohabitating". (). Etymo ...
. It is uncertain whether he fathered any illegitimate children, however, it is evident that the king was a
libertine A libertine is a person devoid of most moral principles, a sense of responsibility, or sexual restraints, which they see as unnecessary or undesirable, and is especially someone who ignores or even spurns accepted morals and forms of behaviour o ...
who led a promiscuous life. Even during his lifetime John was known to be a notorious womaniser and a dissolute.
Maciej Miechowita Maciej Miechowita (also known as ''Maciej z Miechowa, Maciej of Miechów, Maciej Karpiga, Matthias de Miechow''; 1457 – 8 September 1523) was a Polish renaissance scholar, professor of Jagiellonian University, historian, chronicler, geograp ...
writes that he "indulged in exualpleasures and desires like a warrior", and Martin Kromer noted his "insistence on carnal and affectionless love". However, Kromer did also point out his ambition, occasional wit and intelligence. He was known to be shrewd and gifted in languages, which assisted him in diplomacy. Privately, he enjoyed banqueting, hunting and frequent drinking, which encouraged chroniclers to brand him as a drunkard. Accounts of John strolling intoxicated in the alleyways of Kraków and engaging in public brawls cannot be substantially justified due to the lack of evidence. During their encounter, Miechowita described John as "tall, brown-eyed, with reddish skin on the face ..he was quick in movement and girded with a smallsword". John's unusually large court was the biggest of any Polish monarch; it numbered around 1,600 knights and courtiers.


Ancestry


Family tree


See also

* History of Poland (1385–1569) * Piotrków Statutes


References


Citations


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:John 01 Albert 1459 births 1501 deaths 15th-century Polish monarchs 16th-century Polish monarchs Polish Roman Catholics Nobility from Kraków Jagiellonian dynasty Burials at Wawel Cathedral Pretenders to the Hungarian throne