Jiang Wei

Jiang Wei (202 – 3 March 264), courtesy name Boyue, was a military general of the state of Shu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Born in Ji County (present-day Gangu County, Gansu), Jiang Wei started his career as a military officer in his native Tianshui Commandery, which was a territory of Wei. In 228, when Wei's rival state Shu launched an invasion led by Zhuge Liang, Jiang Wei was distrusted by Ma Zun, then administrator of Tianshui Commandery. As such, Jiang Wei had to defect to Shu. Zhuge Liang, the Imperial Chancellor and regent of Shu, highly regarded Jiang Wei and appointed him as a general in Shu. After Zhuge Liang's death in 234, Jiang Wei continued serving as a military commander during the regencies Jiang Wan and Fei Yi, eventually rising to the highest military rank of General-In-Chief (大將軍) after Fei Yi’s death in 253. Between 240 and 262, he continued Zhuge Liang's legacy of waging war against Wei by leading another 11 military campaigns. However, Jiang Wei's campaigns were relatively constrained in terms of both scale and duration due to Shu’s limited resources and inadequate food supplies, as well as internal political faultlines. In 263, when Wei launched a massive invasion of Shu, Jiang Wei led Shu forces to resist the invaders at Tazhong, Yinping and Jiange, himself defending Jiange which was under Zhong Hui's attack. While Jiang Wei managed to temporarily stall Wei’s main force led by Zhong Hui, Deng Ai, another military commander of Wei, took a shortcut via Yinping and showed up at Chengdu unexpectedly. Liu Shan surrendered to Deng Ai without putting up resistance and ordered Jiang Wei to surrender to the Wei general Zhong Hui; this event marked the end of Shu's existence. In the following year, Jiang Wei instigated Zhong Hui to launch a rebellion in Chengdu against the Wei regent Sima Zhao and hoped to use the opportunity to gain military power and restore Shu. However, some of Zhong Hui's officers were unwilling to participate in the rebellion and started a mutiny, killing Jiang Wei and Zhong Hui.

Family background

Jiang Wei was from Ji County (冀縣/兾縣), Tianshui Commandery (天水郡), which is present-day Gangu County, Gansu. As his father died early, Jiang Wei grew up with his mother and was known for his interest in the writings of the Confucian scholar Zheng Xuan.

The ''Fu Zi'' recorded that Jiang Wei was a fame-seeking person with great ambitions. He also secretly raised a private militia.

Early career in Wei

Jiang Wei began his career in his native Tianshui Commandery, which was a territory of the state of Wei during the Three Kingdoms period. He started out as a clerk in charge of records and later became an assistant officer under the commandery administrator. After considering that his father died in service, the Wei government commissioned Jiang Wei as a ''zhonglang'' (中郎) and allowed him to participate in military affairs in Tianshui Commandery.(以父冏昔為郡功曹，值羌、戎叛亂，身衞郡將，沒於戰場，賜維官中郎，參本郡軍事。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 44.

Defection to Shu

''Sanguozhi'' account

In the spring of 228, Zhuge Liang, the Imperial Chancellor and regent of Wei's rival state Shu, launched the first of a series of military campaigns against Wei. He occupied Mount Qi (祁山; the mountainous regions around present-day Li County, Gansu) and deployed his troops there in orderly formations. Three Wei-controlled commanderies – Nan'an (南安; around present-day Longxi County, Gansu), Tianshui and Anding (安定; around present-day Zhenyuan County, Gansu) – responded to the invasion by defecting to the Shu side.

Jiang Wei's biography in the '' Sanguozhi'' recorded that at the time, Jiang Wei and his colleagues Liang Xu, Yin Shang and Liang Qian were out on an inspection tour with Ma Zun (馬遵), the Administrator of Tianshui Commandery. When Ma Zun learnt of the Shu invasion and heard that many counties in Tianshui Commandery had defected to the enemy, he suspected that Jiang Wei and the others were going to betray him so he fled overnight and took shelter in Shanggui County (上邽縣; within present-day Tianshui, Gansu).

By the time Jiang Wei and his colleagues realised that Ma Zun had abandoned them and fled on his own, they attempted to catch up with him but it was too late. They were denied entry when they showed up at Shanggui County, so Jiang Wei led them to his home county, Ji County (冀縣/兾縣; present-day Gangu County, Gansu). However, the official in charge of Ji County also refused to allow them to enter. Faced with no other choice, Jiang Wei and his colleagues surrendered and defected to Shu.

Alternative account in the ''Weilüe''

The ''Weilüe'' recorded a different account of Jiang Wei's defection from Wei to Shu.

At the time of the Shu invasion, Ma Zun and his subordinates (including Jiang Wei) were on an inspection tour with the Wei general Guo Huai when they received news that Zhuge Liang and the Shu army had occupied Mount Qi. After telling Ma Zun that Zhuge Liang was "up to no good", Guo Huai wanted to quickly head back to Shanggui County in the east of Tianshui Commandery. Even though his headquarters was at Ji County in the west, Ma Zun did not want to go back because he feared that there would be unrest in Ji County in light of the Shu invasion. He decided to join Guo Huai and move to Shanggui County instead.

When Jiang Wei urged Ma Zun to return to Ji County, the latter told him and the others: "If you go back, then you will become my enemy." Jiang Wei ignored Ma Zun because he was worried about the safety of his family in Ji County, so he parted ways with Ma Zun and returned to Ji County with his colleague Shangguan Zixiu (上官子脩) and others.

When Jiang Wei returned to Ji County, the people welcomed him back and insisted that he meet Zhuge Liang. Jiang Wei and Shangguan Zixiu relented and went to see Zhuge Liang, who was delighted to meet them. By the time Jiang Wei wanted to go back to Ji County to fetch his family members (mother, wife and child(ren)), Wei forces under Zhang He and Fei Yao had defeated the Shu vanguard at the Battle of Jieting. Unable to return to Ji County and left with no other option, Jiang Wei decided to defect to Shu and follow Zhuge Liang. After Wei forces recaptured Ji County, they took Jiang Wei's family members captive but did not execute them because they knew that Jiang Wei did not originally intend to defect to the enemy. Jiang Wei's family members thus spent the rest of their lives in prison.

During Zhuge Liang's regency

After returning to Hanzhong Commandery, Zhuge Liang appointed Jiang Wei as an Assistant official in charge of food supplies (倉曹掾). Later, Jiang Wei was commissioned as General Who Upholds Righteousness (奉義將軍) and enfeoffed as the Marquis of Dangyang Village (當陽亭侯).(亮辟維為倉曹掾，加奉義將軍，封當陽亭侯，時年二十七。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 44.

Jiang Wei was subsequently promoted to the rank of General Who Attacks the West (征西將軍) and given the appointment of Central Army Supervisor (中監軍).

During Jiang Wan's regency

Following Zhuge Liang's death at the Battle of Wuzhang Plains in the autumn of 234, Jiang Wei returned to the Shu capital Chengdu and was reassigned to serve as Right Army Supervisor (右監軍) with the rank of General Who Assists Han (輔漢將軍). He was put in command of Chengdu's armed forces and promoted from a village marquis to a county marquis under the title "Marquis of Pingxiang" (平襄侯).

In 238, Jiang Wei accompanied the Shu regent Jiang Wan to Hanzhong Commandery near the Wei–Shu border. After Jiang Wan was appointed Grand Marshal (大司馬) in April or May 239, he appointed Jiang Wei as a Major (司馬) under him. He also put Jiang Wei in charge of a separate force to make incursions into Wei territory.

First Northern Expedition

In 240, Jiang Wei led Shu forces to attack the Wei-controlled Longxi Commandery but was driven back by Wei forces under Guo Huai's command.

Three years later, Jiang Wei was promoted to the rank of Senior General Who Guards the West (鎮西大將軍) and appointed as the nominal Inspector of Liang Province (涼州刺史).

During Fei Yi's regency

Following Jiang Wan's death in 246, Fei Yi became the regent of Shu.

A year later, Jiang Wei was promoted to General of the Guards (衞將軍). He also shared power with Fei Yi by jointly holding the office of Manager of the Affairs of the Masters of Writing (錄尚書事) with him.

In the same year, Jiang Wei suppressed a rebellion in Pingkang County (平康縣; southwest of present-day Songpan County, Sichuan).

Second Northern Expedition

In 247, the Qiang tribes started a rebellion against Wei in four commanderies in Yong and Liang provinces, and called for support from Shu. Baihuwen (白虎文) and Zhiwudai (治無戴), two tribal kings in Liang Province, responded by rebelling against Wei. When Jiang Wei led Shu forces into Liang Province to support the Qiang rebels, Baihuwen and Zhiwudai led their forces to join him.

In response, the Wei government sent Xiahou Ba and Guo Huai to lead troops to suppress the rebellion and repel the Shu invasion. Jiang Wei attacked Xiahou Ba's position at the west of the Tao River but retreated back to Shu when Wei reinforcements led by Guo Huai showed up.

Third Northern Expedition

In 248, Jiang Wei led Shu forces from Shiying (石營; northwest of present-day Xihe County, Gansu) to Qiangchuan (彊川; west of present-day Lintan County, Gansu) to rendezvous with the tribal king Zhiwudai (治無戴), who had recently been defeated by the Wei general Guo Huai at Longyi County (龍夷縣; west of present-day Huangyuan County, Qinghai) He left his subordinate Liao Hua behind to guard the fortress at Chengzhong Mountain (成重山; located west of present-day Lintao County, Gansu).

Guo Huai split his army into two groups with the aim of preventing Jiang Wei from meeting up and combining forces with Zhiwudai. He led one group to attack Liao Hua at Chengzhong Mountain to force Jiang Wei to turn back to save Liao Hua. At the same time, he ordered his subordinate Xiahou Ba to attack Jiang Wei and push him back towards Tazhong (沓中; northwest of present-day Zhugqu County, Gansu). Guo Huai's plan succeeded as Jiang Wei turned back to save Liao Hua when he learnt that Chengzhong Mountain was under attack. In doing so, he failed to meet up with Zhiwudai and eventually retreated back to Shu.

Fourth Northern Expedition

In the autumn of 249, after he was granted acting imperial authority by the Shu emperor Liu Shan, Jiang Wei led Shu forces to attack the Wei-controlled Yong Province and gained support from the Qiang tribes. He had two fortresses constructed at Qushan (麴山; southeast of present-day Min County, Gansu).

In response to the Shu invasion, the Wei general Guo Huai ordered his subordinates Chen Tai, Xu Zhi and Deng Ai to besiege the two fortresses and cut off their supply routes.

When Jiang Wei led troops from Mount Niutou (牛頭山; west of present-day Zhaohua District, Guangyuan, Sichuan) to reinforce the two fortresses, Chen Tai led a Wei army to block his path. At the same time, Chen Tai sought help from Guo Huai, who led his troops across the Tao River to attack Jiang Wei's base at Mount Niutou. Jiang Wei became fearful so he pulled back all his troops and abandoned the two fortresses.

Three days after his apparent retreat, Jiang Wei sent Liao Hua to lead a small force to distract Deng Ai at Baishui (白水; in present-day Qingchuan County, Sichuan) while he led the main army to attack Taocheng (洮城; northeast of present-day Min County, Gansu). Deng Ai saw through Jiang Wei's ruse and immediately dispatched reinforcements to Taocheng. Jiang Wei failed to capture Taocheng as Deng Ai had already strengthened its defences so he withdrew all his troops and returned to Shu.

Fifth expedition (250)

In 250, Jiang Wei led Shu forces to attack the Wei-controlled Xiping Commandery (西平郡; around present-day Xining, Qinghai). He retreated after failing to capture Xiping.

Fei Yi's opposition to Jiang Wei's hawkish stance

Jiang Wei believed that he was familiar with the culture of the Qiang and other non-Han Chinese tribes in western China, and had great confidence in his skills as a military leader. He often boasted that he could easily conquer the Wei-controlled lands in present-day Gansu if he had the support of the Qiang and non-Han Chinese tribes living in the region.

Fei Yi, however, disapproved of Jiang Wei's hawkish stance and warmongering behaviour towards Wei, and attempted to rein him in by limiting the number of troops he led into battle each time to no more than 10,000.

The ''Han Jin Chunqiu'' (漢晉春秋) recorded that Fei Yi once told Jiang Wei: "We aren’t as brilliant as the Imperial Chancellor. If even he can't stabilise the Empire, what makes you think we can do it? Wouldn't it be better to defend our state, govern our people well, respect and safeguard his legacy, and pass it on to future generations? Stop your wishful thinking that you can achieve victory in one fell swoop. If you fail, it will be too late for regrets."

Fei Yi's assassination

On 16 February 253, Fei Yi was assassinated during a party on the first day of the Chinese New Year.

The assassin, Guo Xiu (郭脩), was a Wei civilian captured in battle by Jiang Wei. After reluctantly surrendering to Shu, he attempted to assassinate Liu Shan but failed to get close to the emperor so he switched his target to Fei Yi and succeeded.

One theory says that Jiang Wei had secretly recruited Guo Xiu as an assassin after capturing him in battle, and ordered him to find an opportunity to murder Fei Yi. Jiang Wei's motive for taking Fei Yi's life, according to the theory, was that he needed to eliminate Fei Yi as a potential threat because Fei Yi had been opposing his hawkish stance towards Wei.

Regardless of whether or not Jiang Wei plotted Fei Yi's assassination, Fei Yi's death did allow Jiang Wei to gain greater control over the Shu military and continue waging war against Wei.

Jiang Wei's Northern Expeditions

Sixth Northern Expedition

In the summer of 253, Jiang Wei led tens of thousands of Shu troops from Shiying (石營; northwest of present-day Xihe County, Gansu) to besiege Didao (狄道; around present-day Lintao County, Gansu). In response to the Shu invasion, the Wei regent Sima Shi ordered his generals Guo Huai and Chen Tai to lead the Wei forces stationed in the Guanzhong region to attack the invaders and lift the siege on Didao. Chen Tai attacked the Shu forces at Luomen (洛門; in present-day Wushan County, Gansu) and defeated them. Jiang Wei eventually withdrew all his forces and retreated back to Shu when they ran out of food supplies.

Seventh Northern Expedition

In the summer of 254, after the Shu government granted him authority to oversee internal and external military affairs, Jiang Wei led Shu forces to attack the Wei-controlled Longxi Commandery again. Li Jian (李簡), the Wei official in charge of Didao (狄道; around present-day Lintao County, Gansu), surrendered to Jiang Wei. Jiang Wei then pressed further to attack Xiangwu County (襄武縣; southeast of present-day Longxi County, Gansu) and engaged the Wei general Xu Zhi in battle. Xu Zhi was defeated and killed, but the Shu army also lost a general, Zhang Ni. The victorious Shu forces then occupied three counties – Didao, Heguan (河關; in the vicinity of present-day Dingxi, Gansu) and Lintao – and forced the residents to relocate to Shu-controlled territory.

Eighth Northern Expedition

In 255, despite strong objection from a fellow Shu general Zhang Yi, Jiang Wei went ahead with another campaign against Wei and even brought along Zhang Yi as his deputy. As the massive Shu army prepared to attack Didao (狄道; present-day Lintao County, Gansu), Wang Jing, the Wei governor of Yong Province, sought help from the Wei general Chen Tai.

After suffering a disastrous defeat against Shu forces at the west bank of the Tao River, Wang Jing and his remaining men retreated to Didao and took shelter inside the fortress. When Jiang Wei wanted to take advantage of the momentum to press on and besiege Didao, Zhang Yi advised him to stop advancing further because they would risk losing everything they had gained so far. Jiang Wei ignored him and ordered his forces to surround Didao.

In the meantime, Chen Tai, Deng Ai, Sima Fu and other Wei officers led reinforcements to Didao to save Wang Jing. Chen Tai led his troops to the hills southeast of Didao, where they lit more fires and beat their war drums loudly to let the Wei forces in Didao know that reinforcements were on the way. As a result, the Wei forces in Didao experienced a surge in morale, and the Shu forces were taken by surprise. At the same time, Chen Tai also spread false news that they were planning to cut off the Shu army's retreat route. When Jiang Wei heard about it, he became fearful so on 11 November 255 he withdrew all the Shu forces and retreated to Zhongti (鐘堤; south of present-day Lintao County, Gansu).

Ninth Northern Expedition

In the spring of 256, the Shu emperor Liu Shan promoted Jiang Wei to the position of General-in-Chief (大將軍). In autumn, Jiang Wei led Shu forces from Zhongti (鐘堤; south of present-day Lintao County, Gansu) to conquer Mount Qi (祁山; the mountainous regions around present-day Li County, Gansu) but failed because the Wei general Deng Ai had anticipated the attack and already set up strong defences. Jiang Wei then attacked Deng Ai at Mount Wucheng (武城山; in present-day Chencang District, Baoji, Shaanxi) but was driven back. Later, he led his troops across the Wei River to launch a coordinated strike on Shanggui County (上邽縣; in present-day Tianshui, Gansu) with another Shu force led by Hu Ji. However, Hu Ji failed to show up in time so Jiang Wei came under attack by Deng Ai and his army sustained heavy casualties.

As the Northern Expeditions took a huge toll on Shu's population and resources, the people increasingly resented Jiang Wei for his warmongering behaviour. In order to appease public anger, Jiang Wei wrote a memorial to the Shu imperial court to take full responsibility for the failure of the ninth Northern Expedition and requested to be demoted as punishment. Liu Shan approved Jiang Wei's request and demoted him to the position of General of the Rear (後將軍) but allowed him to remain as acting General-in-Chief (大將軍).

Tenth Northern Expedition

In 257, when the Wei general Zhuge Dan started a rebellion in Shouchun (壽春; present-day Shou County, Anhui), Jiang Wei decided to take advantage of the situation to stage another invasion of Wei. He led Shu forces to attack the Wei garrisons near the Great Wall which were well-stocked with supplies but poorly defended. The Wei forces stationed there started panicking when they heard of the Shu army's approach.

The Wei generals Sima Wang and Deng Ai led separate armies to the Great Wall to resist the Shu invaders. Jiang Wei then retreated to Mangshui (芒水; southeast of present-day Zhouzhi County, Shaanxi) and set up a camp there with its back facing a mountain. When the Wei forces encircled his position, Jiang Wei tried to taunt them to attack his camp but Sima Wang and Deng Ai ordered their troops to ignore the enemy and refrain from attacking.

In 258, after Jiang Wei received news that Wei forces had suppressed Zhuge Dan's rebellion, he withdrew his troops and returned to the Shu capital Chengdu. The Shu emperor Liu Shan restored him to the position of General-in-Chief (大將軍).

At the time, having seen year after year of battles against Wei, the people of Shu were growing tired of having to endure the costs and effects of war. The Shu official Qiao Zhou also wrote the "Chou Guo Lun" (仇國論; "Disquisition on Rivalling States"), a satirical piece criticising Jiang Wei for his warmongering behaviour.

Eleventh Northern Expedition

In the winter of 262, Jiang Wei led Shu forces to occupy Taoyang County (洮陽縣; in present-day Lintao County, Gansu) and attack Wei forces led by Deng Ai at Houhe County (侯和縣) but they lost the battle. He retreated to Tazhong (沓中; northwest of present-day Zhugqu County, Gansu) and garrisoned there.

Huang Hao's rise to power

Jiang Wei knew that given his background as a defector from Wei, he had to prove his loyalty to Shu so he was eager to gain glory in battle. However, despite leading eleven campaigns against Wei, he had not made any significant achievements. While he was away at the frontline, the palace eunuch Huang Hao, whom the emperor Liu Shan favoured, gradually gained power in the Shu government and dominated the political scene. Huang Hao had a close partnership with the Shu general Yan Yu (閻宇) and he considered replacing Jiang Wei with Yan Yu as General-in-Chief. Jiang Wei had long suspected that Huang Hao had something against him so he remained in Tazhong (沓中; northwest of present-day Zhugqu County, Gansu) and did not return to Chengdu after the eleventh Northern Expedition.

The '' Chronicles of Huayang'' recorded that Jiang Wei hated Huang Hao for his power-grabbing behaviour and once advised Liu Shan to execute the eunuch. However, Liu Shan refused and said: "Huang Hao is but a servant running errands for me. In the past, I was annoyed by Dong Yun's deep hatred of him. Sir, why do you need to take this so personally?" Jiang Wei soon realised that he had a mistake in advising Liu Shan to execute Huang Hao because Huang Hao had strong influence in the Shu government, so he quickly excused himself and left. Liu Shan later instructed Huang Hao to visit Jiang Wei and apologise to him. Jiang Wei also managed to convince Huang Hao to let him remain in Tazhong to oversee agricultural production. His true intention, however, was to avoid getting caught up in a power struggle with Huang Hao in Chengdu.

Fall of Shu

Jiang Wei's early warnings

In 263, Jiang Wei wrote a memorial to Liu Shan as follows:

Huang Hao believed fortune-tellers' prediction that Wei would not invade Shu, so he advised Liu Shan to ignore Jiang Wei's memorial and not put it up for discussion in the imperial court.

From Tazhong to Yinping

Around August or September 263, the Wei regent Sima Zhao ordered Zhong Hui, Deng Ai and Zhuge Xu to lead Wei forces to invade Shu from three different directions. When Zhong Hui reached Luo Valley (駱谷; southwest of present-day Zhouzhi County, Shaanxi) and Deng Ai attacked Tazhong (沓中; northwest of present-day Zhugqu County, Gansu), the Shu government ordered Liao Hua to lead reinforcements to support Jiang Wei at Tazhong. At the same time, they also sent Zhang Yi, Dong Jue and other Shu officers to lead troops to guard Yang'an Pass (陽安關; in present-day Ningqiang County, Shaanxi) and assist the Shu forces on the external perimeter.

When the Shu reinforcements reached Yinping (陰平; present-day Wen County, Gansu), they heard that Zhuge Xu was attacking Jianwei (建威; northeast of present-day Wudu District, Longnan, Gansu), so they stopped in their tracks at Yinping. After about a month, Deng Ai defeated Jiang Wei and occupied Tazhong, so Jiang Wei retreated to Yinping.

At the same time, Zhong Hui besieged Hancheng (漢城; present-day Mian County, Shaanxi) and Lecheng (樂城; present-day Chenggu County, Shaanxi) counties, and sent his subordinates to attack Yang'an Pass. The Shu officer Jiang Shu (蔣舒) opened up the pass and surrendered to the enemy, while his colleague Fu Qian died trying to defend the pass. After failing to take Lecheng County, Zhong Hui gave up and advanced towards Yang'an Pass when he learnt that his subordinates had captured the pass.

Defence of Jiange

By the time Zhang Yi and Dong Jue reached Hanshou County (漢壽縣; northeast of present-day Jiange County, Sichuan), Jiang Wei and Liao Hua had decided to abandon their position at Yinping and rendezvous with Zhang Yi and Dong Jue at the mountain pass Jiange, where they resisted attacks by Zhong Hui.

At one point, Zhong Hui wrote to Jiang Wei: "Sir, you are skilled in both civil and military affairs. You are exceptionally brilliant in strategy and your achievements are well-known throughout the Bashu region and the rest of the Empire. People from near and afar admire you. Every time I reflect on history, I hope that we can serve the same dynasty. Our relationship is like the friendship between Jizha and Zichan."

Jiang Wei did not reply Zhong Hui and he ordered his troops to strengthen their defences at Jiange. After failing to breach the mountain pass and with his army's food supplies running low, Zhong Hui considered pulling back all his troops and retreating.

Shu surrender

In the meantime, Deng Ai and his troops took a shortcut from Yinping through mountainous terrain and showed up at Mianzhu, where they defeated the Shu defenders led by Zhuge Zhan. After taking Mianzhu, Deng Ai advanced further and approached Chengdu, the Shu capital. In late November or December 263, Liu Shan decided to surrender to Deng Ai, thus bringing an end to the existence of Shu.

When Jiang Wei first heard that Mianzhu had fallen, he also received confusing information about the situation in Chengdu. Some said that Liu Shan wanted to remain in Chengdu and defend the city, while others claimed that the Shu emperor was going to abandon Chengdu and flee south to Jianning Commandery (建寧郡; covering parts of present-day Yunnan and Guizhou). Jiang Wei thus prepared to abandon Jiange and lead his troops to Qi County (郪縣; present-day Santai County, Sichuan), which was nearer to Chengdu, to verify the truth.

Just then, Jiang Wei and his troops received orders from Chengdu to lay down their arms and surrender to Zhong Hui at Fu County (涪縣; present-day Mianyang, Sichuan). Many Shu soldiers felt so shocked and angry when they heard of their emperor's surrender that they drew their swords and slashed at rocks to vent their frustration. When Zhong Hui finally met Jiang Wei, he asked him: "Why are you late?" With a solemn expression on his face and tears streaming down his cheeks, Jiang Wei replied: "Our meeting today came too early." Zhong Hui was impressed by Jiang Wei's response.

Attempt to restore Shu

Instigating Zhong Hui to rebel against Wei

Zhong Hui treated Jiang Wei well and returned him his tallies and other insignia. They travelled in the same carriage and sat at the same table during meals. Zhong Hui also told his chief clerk Du Yu: "Famous people from the Central Plains like Gongxiu and Taichu can't be compared to Boyue."

Jiang Wei sensed that Zhong Hui had the intention of rebelling against Wei and sought to exploit this opportunity to stage an uprising and restore Shu. He told Zhong Hui:

Zhong Hui replied: "What you just said is so far-off. I can't do this. Besides, given my current situation, there isn't a need for me to do this."

Jiang Wei then said:

They became even closer friends after this.

Death

Zhong Hui then framed his fellow Wei general Deng Ai for plotting a rebellion and had him arrested and sent back to the Wei capital Luoyang as a prisoner. With Deng Ai gone, Zhong Hui had control over Chengdu and the former Shu territories. In March 264, he started a revolt against the Wei regent Sima Zhao and declared himself the Governor of Yi Province (益州牧).

Zhong Hui wanted to put Jiang Wei in command of 50,000 troops and let him lead the vanguard force to attack Luoyang. However, around noon on 3 March 264, some Wei officers who were unwilling to participate in the rebellion started a mutiny against Zhong Hui. At the time, Jiang Wei was collecting his armour and weapons from Zhong Hui when they heard shouting and received news that a fire had broken out. Moments later, it was reported that many soldiers were crowding near the city gates. Zhong Hui was surprised and he asked Jiang Wei: "Those men are causing trouble. What should we do?" Jiang Wei replied: "Kill them."

Zhong Hui then ordered his men to kill the officers who refused to participate in the rebellion. A while later, there were reports of people climbing up the city gates on ladders and of people setting fire to buildings. Chaos broke out and arrows were fired in all directions. The mutinying officers regrouped with their men and attacked Zhong Hui and Jiang Wei. Zhong Hui and Jiang Wei fought the mutinying soldiers and slew about five or six of them, but were eventually overwhelmed and killed. The soldiers also killed Jiang Wei's wife and child(ren). The ''Shiyu'' (世語) recorded that the soldiers sliced open Jiang Wei's body when they killed him and saw that his gallbladder was one ''dou'' in size.

Alternative account from the ''Chronicles of Huayang''

The '' Chronicles of Huayang'' recorded that Jiang Wei was only pretending to cooperate with Zhong Hui. He first instigated Zhong Hui to execute the Wei officers who were unwilling to join the rebellion, and then sought to find an opportunity to assassinate Zhong Hui. He would then lead the Shu people to kill all the Wei soldiers and restore their state. He also wrote a secret letter to Liu Shan as follows:

Family and descendants

Jiang Wei's father, Jiang Jiong (姜冏), served as a military officer in Tianshui Commandery and lost his life while suppressing a rebellion by the Qiang and other non-Han Chinese tribes.

Although Jiang Wei's biography in the '' Sanguozhi'' recorded that he lost contact with his mother after defecting to Shu, the ''Zaji'' (雜記) recorded that after he later received a letter from his mother asking him to return home. He wrote a reply as follows:

A genealogy book titled ''Da Tang Chi Xiulie Shan Siyue Tianshuijun Jiang Xing Gu Pu Zong Shixi'' (大唐敕修烈山四岳天水郡姜姓古譜總世系), dating from the Tang dynasty, recorded that Jiang Wei's wife was a certain Lady Liu (柳氏).

The Tang dynasty general Jiang Baoyi (姜寶誼) and chancellor Jiang Ke (姜恪) were descendants of Jiang Wei according to the table of chancellors' family trees in the ''New Book of Tang''.

Appraisal

In his modern Chinese edition of the 11th-century historical text ''Zizhi Tongjian'', the Taiwan-based Chinese historian Boyang mentioned that Jiang Wei was a highly controversial figure in Chinese history. He cited seven writers (Xi Zheng, Sun Sheng, Chen Shou, He Zhuo, Gan Bao, Wang Mingsheng and Pei Songzhi) who held different and discordant views of Jiang Wei.

Boyang himself, however, declined to comment but later shared in an open letter to a reader that he agreed with all seven views: Jiang Wei committed a fatal error in draining Shu's resources but he was also a loyal general who was willing to sacrifice himself in a futile attempt to restore Shu.

Zhuge Liang's views

Zhuge Liang once told Zhang Yi and Jiang Wan:

On another occasion, Zhuge Liang said:

Xi Zheng's views

Xi Zheng, a scholar from Shu who later served as an official under the Jin dynasty, commented on Jiang Wei as follows:

Sun Sheng's views

The Jin dynasty historian Sun Sheng responded to Xi Zheng's comments on Jiang Wei as follows:

In his ''Jin Yang Qiu'' (晉陽秋), Sun Sheng also wrote:

Chen Shou's views

Chen Shou, the Jin dynasty historian who wrote Jiang Wei's biography in the '' Sanguozhi'', appraised Jiang Wei as follows:

He Zhuo's views

The Qing dynasty writer He Zhuo (何焯) wrote:

Gan Bao's views

The Jin dynasty historian Gan Bao wrote:

Wang Mingsheng's views

The Qing dynasty historian Wang Mingsheng (王鳴盛) wrote:

Pei Songzhi's views

The Liu Song dynasty historian Pei Songzhi, who annotated the ''Sanguozhi'', commented on Jiang Wei as follows:

Pei Songzhi also rebutted Sun Sheng's response to Xi Zheng's comments on Jiang Wei:

Miscellaneous

The ''Shiyu'' (世語) recorded that Jiang Wei had no equal among the talented persons serving in the Shu government during his time.

In ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms''

Jiang Wei is a major character in the later chapters of the 14th-century historical novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', which romanticises the historical events and figures of the late Eastern Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of China. In the novel, he is depicted as Zhuge Liang's protégé and successor who inherits the legacy of leading Shu into war against Wei with the aim of restoring the fallen Eastern Han dynasty.

Jiang Wei first appears in Chapters 92 and 93 as a Wei military officer serving in Tianshui Commandery during Zhuge Liang's first Northern Expedition. When Zhuge Liang tries to trick Ma Zun, the Administrator of Tianshui, to lead his troops out of Tianshui to save the Wei general Xiahou Mao in Nan'an Commandery, Jiang Wei sees through Zhuge Liang's ruse and advises Ma Zun to remain in Tianshui and set a trap for the enemy. When the Shu general Zhao Yun shows up to take Tianshui, he falls into the trap and briefly duels with Jiang Wei before Shu reinforcements arrive and save him. Zhao Yun tells Zhuge Liang that he is impressed that Tianshui has such a talent like Jiang Wei. When Jiang Wei successfully repels another Shu attack, Zhuge Liang is even more impressed and eager to recruit Jiang Wei to serve in Shu. He tricks Ma Zun into believing that Jiang Wei has defected to Shu in order to prevent Jiang Wei from going back to Wei, and then springs a trap for Jiang Wei. When Jiang Wei gets cornered, he attempts suicide but Zhuge Liang stops him and manages to convince him to surrender and join Shu.

Jiang Wei accompanies Zhuge Liang on his subsequent Northern Expeditions. Chapters 107 to 115 dramatise Jiang Wei's Northern Expeditions and refer to them as Jiang Wei's "Nine Campaigns on the Central Plains" when historically there were actually eleven campaigns instead of nine. In Chapter 119, Jiang Wei instigates Zhong Hui to launch a rebellion against Wei, but their rebellion fails when some of Zhong Hui's officers start a mutiny against their superior. Cornered by the enemy, Jiang Wei sighs, "It is Heaven's will that my plan doesn't succeed!" He then commits suicide by slitting his throat.''Sanguo Yanyi'' ch. 119.

A verse from the novel in Jiang Wei's honour reads:

In popular culture

Jiang Wei appears as a playable character in the video game series ''Dynasty Warriors'' and '' Warriors Orochi'' produced by Koei Tecmo. In the games, he is portrayed as a young warrior fiercely devoted to his mentor Zhuge Liang. He also appears in Koei Tecmo's ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' series.

Memorials and relics

A Jiang Wei Memorial Museum (姜維紀念館) was constructed in 1999 near Jiang Wei's hometown in the east of Gangu County, Tianshui, Gansu. The museum, covering an area of 360 square metres, was funded by the locals. Among other things, it contains a four-metre-tall statue of Jiang Wei in the main hall, as well as a stone tablet inscribed with the words "Jiang Wei's hometown" in calligraphy by the general Yang Chengwu.

The Pingxiang Tower (平襄楼) in present-day Lushan County, Sichuan is a 24-metre-tall building commemorating Jiang Wei. Its name comes from Jiang Wei's peerage, the Marquis of Pingxiang (平襄侯). The tower was built during the Song dynasty, renovated in 1445 during the Ming dynasty, and designated as a Major Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the National Level by China's State Administration of Cultural Heritage in 2006.

There are a number of relics related to Jiang Wei at Jianmen Pass in present-day Jiange County, Sichuan, including a Jiang Wei Well (姜維井), Jiang Wei Cave (姜維洞), Jiang Wei Fortress (姜維城), Jiang Wei Temple (姜維廟), Lord Jiang Bridge (姜公橋), Jiang Wei Armoury (姜維軍械) and Jiang Wei Tomb (姜維墓). Poets such as Lu You, Zuo Mu (左牧), Li Tiaoyuan (李調元) and Zhuang Xuehe (莊學和) have written poems at Jianmen Pass to praise Jiang Wei.

See also

* Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms

Notes

References

*
* Chang, Qu ( 4th century). '' Chronicles of Huayang'' (''Huayang Guo Zhi'').
* Chen, Shou (3rd century). ''Records of the Three Kingdoms'' (''Sanguozhi'').
*
*
* Luo, Guanzhong (14th century). ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' (''Sanguo Yanyi'').
* Ouyang, Xiu; Song, Qi; Fan, Zhen; Lü, Xiaqing; Song, Minqiu (eds.) (11th century). ''New Book of Tang'' (''Xin Tang Shu'').
* Pei, Songzhi (5th century). ''Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms'' (''Sanguozhi zhu'').
*

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jiang, Wei
202 births
264 deaths
Cao Wei generals
Shu Han regents
Shu Han generals
People from Tianshui
Politicians from Gansu
Generals from Gansu
Three Kingdoms people killed in battle