juren

''Juren'' (; 'recommended man') was a rank achieved by people who passed the ''xiangshi'' () exam in the imperial examination system of imperial China. The ''xiangshi'' is also known, in English, as the provincial examination. It was a rank higher than the ''shengyuan'' rank, but a rank lower than the ''jinshi'' rank, which was the highest degree.

To achieve the ''juren'' rank, candidates, who already held the ''shengyuan'' rank, had to pass the provincial examination. The provincial qualifying examination occurred once every three years in the provincial capital. A second, less widespread pathway to gaining the ''juren'' rank was through office purchase.

Those with the ''juren'' rank gained gentry status and experienced social, political and economic privileges accordingly.

Apart from being a rank in the civil examination system, the ''juren'' title was also awarded in the military examination system in imperial China.

History

The term ''juren'' was first used in the Han Dynasty to refer to individuals at the provincial level who were recommended for civil service. Those who were recommended for civil service were required to pass a central government examination before they were awarded an official title.

The civil service examination system was first officially established in the Sui dynasty. During the Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties, ''juren'' was used to refer to candidates of the state examination. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the civil examination system matured and became well-established. During these later dynasties, ''juren'' was the title awarded to candidates who had successfully passed the provincial examinations. The awarding of the ''juren'' title ended with the abolition of the civil examinations in 1904.

Appointment

During the Ming and Qing dynasties, there were two pathways to gaining the ''juren'' rank: one, through the civil examination system; the other, through office purchase.

Civil examination

The ''juren'' rank was awarded for candidates who passed the provincial level of the civil examination system in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The ''juren'' who came first in the examination process was awarded the title of ''jieyuan'' (). The qualifying exam was held in each provincial capital, once every three years. Candidates were required to take the examination in their registered province and sitting the examination in unregistered provinces was prohibited. This process was called the ''zhengtu'' (), or the regular path.

The provincial examinations, called ''xiangshi'' (), were written exams which occurred in three stages. Candidates were required to participate in all three stages of the examination. A quota system at the provincial level controlled the number of ''juren'' titles awarded. Obtaining the ''juren'' degree through the civil examination pathway was a difficult process, with competition notably increasing during the Ming dynasty. By 1630, there were approximately 49200 candidates from across China competing for 1279 ''juren'' degrees, with only 2.6% of candidates successfully obtaining the degree. From the period of 1800 to 1905, around 1500 men throughout China were awarded the ''juren'' degree after every provincial examination.

The examination was open to men from all socio-economic backgrounds, as long as they were holders of the ''shengyuan'' degree, which was the degree directly below the ''juren'' degree in China’s imperial civil examination system. There was no limit on a candidate’s age or on the number of times a candidate could sit the exam and candidates did not require a reference from officials to participate. However, women, Buddhist and Daoist clergy, and merchants were excluded from participating. It was only during the Ming dynasty when sons of merchants were first legally allowed to take any civil examination.

The provincial examination occurred in the fall of every third year. ''Shengyuan'' degree holders were required to travel to their respective provincial capitals to take three written examinations which were conducted over a week. An Imperial Commissioner, also known as the Grand Examiner, was sent to overlook the examinations from Beijing, the capital of China at the time.

The examination was governed by strict rules to ensure the process was fair. All essays were first transcribed in red ink before marking, to prevent examiners from identifying the candidates by their calligraphy and showing favourable treatment to particular candidates. As many as eight examiners would grade one candidate’s exam, whose name was concealed. Examiners would be removed from office if it was found that they had favoured a particular candidate during the grading of the exams. During the period that the Imperial Commissioner was in the province to overlook the examinations, his residence was guarded to prevent any candidates or friends or family of candidates from approaching him.

The provincial examination took place over three sessions with each session of the exam being held on a separate day. Three days would pass between each day of examination. The examination process started early in the day, Candidates assembled by the gates of the examination hall and candidates were allowed in enter the hall once their name was called. Each candidate was given a roll of paper which identified the examination cell the candidate was to occupy in the exam. The examination hall was divided into long alleys lined with open cells, in which candidates took their exam. At one time, there could be up to ten or twelve thousand individuals in the same examination hall, from day to night.

Curriculum

Each of the three sessions of the provincial examination tested candidates on separate areas of the curriculum. During the Qing dynasty, the first session required candidates to answer three questions based on the Four Books and four questions on one of the Five Classics. The particular Classic on which the four questions were answered on was chosen by the candidate. In the second session, the candidate was required to write a discussion of the Classic of Filial Piety. Additionally, the candidate was required to compose five essays on writing verdicts and attempt any one of the following political forms of writing: an address to the emperor, an imperial declaration, or another form of imperial decree. In the third session, five essay questions on problems concerning the Five Classics, history and administrative affairs were to be answered.

In addition to the content of the exam, form was an examinable aspect of the candidate’s submission. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, all candidates’ essays were required to be composed in the form of eight-legged essays, which was a form of prose-writing involving strict enforcement of rigid parallel-prose styles. Candidates were rejected for writing in any structure which diverged from this standardised form.

Throughout the use of the civil examination system, there were minor changes to the provincial examination format and curriculum. In 1663, the imperial examination banned writing in the eight-legged essay form; however, the form was reintroduced in 1668. In 1687, the imperial declaration and decree were removed as possible political forms of writing for candidates in the second session. In 1758, the first session was changed to include a question on Song dynasty Neo-Confucian rationalist books. In 1767, the first session was changed to consist of only three questions on the Four Books while the discussion on the Five Classics was moved to the second session. Writing verdicts and addresses to the emperor were also abolished. Instead, a poetry question was introduced. In 1782, the question on poetry was moved to the first session and the question on Song Neo-Confucian rationalism was moved to the second session. In 1787, the candidate’s option of choosing any one of the Five Classics to discuss in the exam was changed so that a particular book from the Five Classics was set for candidates to compulsorily answer. In the same year, the question on Neo-Confucian rationalism was removed from the syllabus. By 1793, candidates were expected to write essays on all Five Classics. After 1793, the syllabus of the provincial examination remained fixed.

Office purchase

The second pathway to obtaining the ''juren'' degree was through office purchase. Obtaining degrees through office purchase was known as the ''yitu'' (), or the irregular path to gaining a degree. Office purchase, known as ''juanna'' (), was the practice of obtaining degrees and offices through purchase, instead of through successfully passing the civil examinations. The practice was formally introduced in the Ming dynasty and continued to exist through the Qing dynasty as a common practice. This was a legal process and was overseen by the government.

During the Qing dynasty, men could become officials by making a payment in silver to the government. Through office purchase, men did not need to meet any eligibility requirements to be appointed the ''juren'' rank. Those who obtained the ''juren'' degree through office purchase still enjoyed the same benefits, privileges and opportunity for career advancement, as those who obtained the degree through the civil examinations. Men could register for the prefecture-level entrance examination and then purchase the ''juren'' degree. It was also common for ''juren'' degree-holders to use office purchase to further their careers.

Responsibilities and privileges

Obtaining the ''juren'' rank enabled degree-holders to obtain official positions. In the Tang dynasty, only ''jinshi'' degree-holders were eligible for official positions. However, in the Ming and Qing dynasties, passing the provincial examination and obtaining the ''juren'' degree entitled the degree-holder to obtain a lower-level government official role. /sup> In the early- and mid-Ming dynasty, ''juren'' served as prefecture, county, and department education officials. This entitled them to act as provincial examination officials. ''Juren'' who had failed to obtain the ''jinshi'' degree were immediately eligible to become education officials and act as directors and subdirectors of prefectural and county schools. In the late-Ming dynasty, ''juren'' were placed in posts of county magistrates, as well as directors and subdirectors of schools. Those who were appointed magistrate were responsible for collecting taxes from the residents of their county. Additionally, magistrates were responsible for maintaining law, order, and the moral and ethical standards in the areas under their control. However, by the end of the Ming dynasty and into the Qing dynasty, ''jinshi'' degree-holders had begun to displace ''juren'' degree-holders in high-level official positions.

The ''juren'' rank brought degree-holders and their families such substantial privileges that it was not uncommon for families to pool resources together to support promising individuals from poor families during the examination process. Only those awarded with the ''juren'' degree had the opportunity to obtain the highest degree of the civil examination system, the ''jinshi'' degree'','' through the national examination. In the Qing dynasty, it became a requirement for candidates of the ''jinshi'' rank to have a father who had passed the provincial examination and had acquired at least a ''juren'' rank. An additional benefit of the ''juren'' degree was that the title was awarded for life, unlike the lower prefectural ''shengyuan'' degree. However, the ''juren'' degree could not be inherited.

Aside from the possibility of gaining higher official roles, ''juren'' also gained a higher social status. In imperial China, examinations and merit was strongly associated with social status, wealth, prestige, and political power. This is reflected in how ''juren'' were distinctly addressed as “''laoye''” or “your honour” by commoners. Gaining the ''juren'' rank brought the degree-holder social privileges such as improved prospects for good marriages. Additionally, ''juren'' gave their family the ability to gain or maintain their elite status. For example, ''juren'' degree-holders were eligible to erect flagpoles with red and gold silk flags at their residences to announce their achievements. These residences were referred to as “flagpole families”, which was an honour and symbolised the higher social status of the family.

The legal privileges experienced by ''juren'' include being exempt from labour services, to which all commoners except civil examination degree-holders were accountable. They were also exempt from normal penal codes and corporal punishments and could not be arrested without special imperial order. ''Juren'' households also had economic privileges in the local community, such as a guaranteed minimum level of employment and pay, as well as tax reductions and exemptions.

Other privileges of the ''juren'' rank include the right of having different clothing, carriages, guards, servants, and funeral and grave ceremonies to commoners. For example, degree-holders had the privilege of wearing a scholar’s robe.

Other usage

Military

During Wu Zetian's reign, a military examination system was introduced, which continued until the Qing dynasty. The military examinations were modelled off the civil examination system. A provincial military exam that was held once every three years, with successful candidates being awarded the title of military ''juren'', or ''wu juren'' (). Military examinations involved various physical tests, such as ability in archery, equestrianism, and handling polearms. Aside from the need for candidates to satisfactorily demonstrate their physical abilities, the military exams had written components that required candidates to master military or classic texts, such as Sun Tzu's ''The Art of War''. Only individuals with the ''wu juren'' title could participate in the metropolitan military exam, with successful candidates of this exam being awarded the military ''jinshi'', or ''wu jinshi'' () title.

Notable people

Notable people who achieved ''juren'' as their highest degree are listed below:
*Shen Defu
* Yang Shoujing
* Wei Yuan, scholar and secretariat
* Zuo Zongtang, general
* Liang Qichao, scholar and politician
* Wu Zhihui, anarchist writer and Republic of China official
* Huang Zunxian, Chinese official, scholar, and writer, active during the late Qing dynasty
* Zhu Xingyuan, politician and collaborator with Japan

References

{{Education in China

Academic degrees
Imperial examination