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Carl Gustav Jung ( ; ; 26 July 1875 – 6 June 1961) was a Swiss
psychiatrist A psychiatrist is a physician who specializes in psychiatry, the branch of medicine devoted to the diagnosis, prevention, study, and treatment of mental disorders. Psychiatrists are physicians and evaluate patients to determine whether their sy ...
and
psychoanalyst PsychoanalysisFrom Greek language, Greek: + . is a set of Theory, theories and Therapy, therapeutic techniques"What is psychoanalysis? Of course, one is supposed to answer that it is many things — a theory, a research method, a therapy, a bo ...
who founded
analytical psychology Analytical psychology ( de , Analytische Psychologie, sometimes translated as analytic psychology and referred to as Jungian analysis) is a term coined by Carl Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist, to describe research into his new "empirical science" ...
. Jung's work has been influential in the fields of
psychiatry Psychiatry is the medical specialty devoted to the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of mental disorders. These include various maladaptations related to mood, behaviour, cognition, and perceptions. See glossary of psychiatry. Initial psych ...
, anthropology, archaeology, literature, philosophy, psychology, and religious studies. Jung worked as a research scientist at the
Burghölzli The ''Psychiatrische Universitätsklinik Zürich'' (Psychiatric University Hospital Zürich) is a psychiatric hospital in Switzerland. As a research hospital, it is associated with the University of Zürich. It is also called Burghölzli, after t ...
psychiatric hospital, in Zurich, under
Eugen Bleuler Paul Eugen Bleuler (; ; 30 April 1857 – 15 July 1939) was a Swiss psychiatrist and humanist most notable for his contributions to the understanding of mental illness. He coined several psychiatric terms including "schizophrenia", "schizoid", ...
. During this time, he came to the attention of
Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud ( , ; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud; 6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for evaluating and treating psychopathology, pathologies explained as originatin ...
, the founder of
psychoanalysis PsychoanalysisFrom Greek: + . is a set of theories and therapeutic techniques"What is psychoanalysis? Of course, one is supposed to answer that it is many things — a theory, a research method, a therapy, a body of knowledge. In what might b ...
. The two men conducted a lengthy correspondence and collaborated, for a while, on a joint vision of human psychology. Freud saw the younger Jung as the heir he had been seeking to take forward his "new science" of psychoanalysis and to this end secured his appointment as president of his newly founded
International Psychoanalytical Association The International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA) is an association including 12,000 psychoanalysts as members and works with 70 constituent organizations. It was founded in 1910 by Sigmund Freud, from an idea proposed by Sándor Ferenczi. His ...
. Jung's research and personal vision, however, made it difficult for him to follow his older colleague's doctrine and they parted ways. This division was personally painful for Jung and resulted in the establishment of Jung's analytical psychology as a comprehensive system separate from psychoanalysis. Among the central concepts of analytical psychology is
individuation The principle of individuation, or ', describes the manner in which a thing is identified as distinct from other things. The concept appears in numerous fields and is encountered in works of Leibniz, Carl Gustav Jung, Gunther Anders, Gilbert Sim ...
—the lifelong psychological process of differentiation of the self out of each individual's conscious and unconscious elements. Jung considered it to be the main task of human development. He created some of the best known psychological concepts, including
synchronicity Synchronicity (german: Synchronizität) is a concept first introduced by analytical psychologist Carl G. Jung "to describe circumstances that appear meaningfully related yet lack a causal connection." In contemporary research, synchronicity e ...
, archetypal phenomena, the collective unconscious, the psychological complex and
extraversion and introversion The traits of extraversion (also spelled extroversion Retrieved 2018-02-21.) and introversion are a central dimension in some human personality theories. The terms ''introversion'' and ''extraversion'' were introduced into psychology by Carl J ...
. Jung was also an artist, craftsman, builder and a prolific writer. Many of his works were not published until after his death and some are still awaiting publication.


Biography


Early years


Childhood

Carl Gustav Jung was born 26 July 1875 in
Kesswil Kesswil is a municipality in the district of Arbon in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland. The village was the birthplace of the influential psychiatrist Carl Jung. History Kesswil is first mentioned in 817 as ''Chezzinwillare''. In the 9th C ...
, in the
Swiss canton The 26 cantons of Switzerland (german: Kanton; french: canton ; it, cantone; Sursilvan and Surmiran: ; Vallader and Puter: ; Sutsilvan: ; Rumantsch Grischun: ) are the member states of the Swiss Confederation. The nucleus of the Swiss Co ...
of
Thurgau Thurgau (; french: Thurgovie; it, Turgovia), anglicized as Thurgovia, more formally the Canton of Thurgau, is one of the 26 cantons forming the Swiss Confederation. It is composed of five districts and its capital is Frauenfeld. Thurgau is part ...
, the first surviving son of Paul Achilles Jung (1842–1896) and Emilie Preiswerk (1848–1923). His birth was preceded by two stillbirths and the birth of a son named Paul, born in 1873, who survived only a few days. Paul Jung, Carl's father, was the youngest son of noted German-Swiss professor of medicine at
Basel , french: link=no, Bâlois(e), it, Basilese , neighboring_municipalities= Allschwil (BL), Hégenheim (FR-68), Binningen (BL), Birsfelden (BL), Bottmingen (BL), Huningue (FR-68), Münchenstein (BL), Muttenz (BL), Reinach (BL), Riehen (BS ...
,
Karl Gustav Jung Karl Gustav Jung (7 September 1795 in Mannheim – 12 June 1864 in Basel) was a German-Swiss medical doctor, political activist, professor of Medicine at the University of Basel, administrator and freemason. Life Karl Gustav Jung was the ...
(1794–1864). Paul's hopes of achieving a fortune never materialised, and he did not progress beyond the status of an impoverished rural pastor in the
Swiss Reformed Church The Protestant Church in Switzerland (PCS), (EKS); french: Église évangélique réformée de Suisse (EERS); it, Chiesa evangelica riformata in Svizzera (CERiS); rm, Baselgia evangelica refurmada da la Svizra (BRRS) formerly named Federation o ...
. Emilie Preiswerk, Carl's mother, had also grown up in a large family, whose Swiss roots went back five centuries. Emilie was the youngest child of a distinguished
Basel , french: link=no, Bâlois(e), it, Basilese , neighboring_municipalities= Allschwil (BL), Hégenheim (FR-68), Binningen (BL), Birsfelden (BL), Bottmingen (BL), Huningue (FR-68), Münchenstein (BL), Muttenz (BL), Reinach (BL), Riehen (BS ...
churchman and academic,
Samuel Preiswerk Samuel Preiswerk ( Rümlingen, 19 September 1799 – Basel, 13 January 1871) was a Swiss Reformed Lutheran theologian, pastor and church hymn poet. He is the maternal grandfather of Carl Jung. Biography Preiswerk was born in 1799, in Basel, ...
(1799–1871), and his second wife. Samuel Preiswerk was an ''
Antistes Antistes (from Latin ''ante'' "before" and ''sto'' "stand") was from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century the title of the head of a church in the Reformed Churches in Switzerland. It was the highest office in churches with synodal church gover ...
'', the title given to the head of the Reformed clergy in the city, as well as a
Hebraist A Hebraist is a specialist in Jewish, Hebrew and Hebraic studies. Specifically, British and German scholars of the 18th and 19th centuries who were involved in the study of Hebrew language and literature were commonly known by this designation, a ...
, author, and editor, who taught Paul Jung as his professor of
Hebrew Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...
at
Basel University The University of Basel ( Latin: ''Universitas Basiliensis'', German: ''Universität Basel'') is a university in Basel, Switzerland. Founded on 4 April 1460, it is Switzerland's oldest university and among the world's oldest surviving universi ...
. Jung's father was appointed to a more prosperous parish in Laufen, when Jung was six years old. At this time, tensions between father and mother had developed. Jung's mother was an eccentric and depressed woman; she spent considerable time in her bedroom, where she said that spirits visited her at night. Although she was normal during the day, Jung recalled that at night his mother became strange and mysterious. He reported that one night he saw a faintly luminous and indefinite figure coming from her room with a head detached from the neck and floating in the air in front of the body. Jung had a better relationship with his father. Jung's mother left Laufen for several months of hospitalization near
Basel , french: link=no, Bâlois(e), it, Basilese , neighboring_municipalities= Allschwil (BL), Hégenheim (FR-68), Binningen (BL), Birsfelden (BL), Bottmingen (BL), Huningue (FR-68), Münchenstein (BL), Muttenz (BL), Reinach (BL), Riehen (BS ...
for an unknown physical ailment. His father took the boy to be cared for by Emilie Jung's unmarried sister in Basel, but he was later brought back to his father's residence. Emilie Jung's continuing bouts of absence and depression deeply troubled her son and caused him to associate women with "innate unreliability", whereas "father" meant for him reliability but also powerlessness. In his memoir, Jung would remark that this parental influence was the "handicap" I started off with. Later, these early impressions were revised: I have trusted men friends and been disappointed by them, and I have mistrusted women and was not disappointed." After three years of living in Laufen, Paul Jung requested a transfer. In 1879 he was called to Kleinhüningen, next to Basel, where his family lived in a parsonage of the church. The relocation brought Emilie Jung closer into contact with her family and lifted her melancholy. When he was nine years old, Jung's sister Johanna Gertrud (1884–1935) was born. Known in the family as "Trudi", she later became a secretary to her brother.


Memories of childhood

Jung was a solitary and introverted child. From childhood, he believed that like his mother, he had two personalities—a modern Swiss citizen and a personality more suited to the 18th century. "Personality Number 1", as he termed it, was a typical schoolboy living in the era of the time. "Personality Number 2" was a dignified, authoritative, and influential man from the past. Although Jung was close to both parents, he was disappointed by his father's academic approach to faith. Some childhood memories made lifelong impressions on him. As a boy, he carved a tiny
mannequin A mannequin (also called a dummy, lay figure, or dress form) is a doll, often articulated, used by artists, tailors, dressmakers, window dressers and others, especially to display or fit clothing and show off different fabrics and textiles. P ...
into the end of the wooden ruler from his pencil case and placed it inside the case. He added a stone, which he had painted into upper and lower halves, and hid the case in the attic. Periodically, he would return to the mannequin, often bringing tiny sheets of paper with messages inscribed on them in his own secret language. He later reflected that this ceremonial act brought him a feeling of inner peace and security. Years later, he discovered similarities between his personal experience and the practices associated with
totem A totem (from oj, ᑑᑌᒼ, italics=no or ''doodem'') is a spirit being, sacred object, or symbol that serves as an emblem of a group of people, such as a family, clan, lineage, or tribe, such as in the Anishinaabe clan system. While ''the wo ...
s in
indigenous cultures Indigenous peoples are culturally distinct ethnic groups whose members are directly descended from the earliest known inhabitants of a particular geographic region and, to some extent, maintain the language and culture of those original people ...
, such as the collection of soul-stones near Arlesheim or the ''
tjurunga A Tjurunga, also spelt Churinga and Tjuringa, is an object considered to be of religious significance by Central Australian Aboriginal people of the Arrernte (Aranda, Arunta) groups. Tjurunga often had a wide and indeterminate native significa ...
s'' of Australia. He concluded that his intuitive ceremonial act was an unconscious ritual, which he had practiced in a way that was strikingly similar to those in distant locations which he, as a young boy, knew nothing about. His observations about symbols,
archetypes The concept of an archetype (; ) appears in areas relating to behavior, historical psychology, and literary analysis. An archetype can be any of the following: # a statement, pattern of behavior, prototype, "first" form, or a main model that ...
, and the collective unconscious were inspired, in part, by these early experiences combined with his later research. At the age of 12, shortly before the end of his first year at the Humanistisches Gymnasium in Basel, Jung was pushed to the ground by another boy so hard that he momentarily lost consciousness. (Jung later recognized that the incident was indirectly his fault.) A thought then came to him—"now you won't have to go to school anymore." From then on, whenever he walked to school or began homework, he fainted. He remained at home for the next six months until he overheard his father speaking hurriedly to a visitor about the boy's future ability to support himself. They suspected he had
epilepsy Epilepsy is a group of non-communicable neurological disorders characterized by recurrent epileptic seizures. Epileptic seizures can vary from brief and nearly undetectable periods to long periods of vigorous shaking due to abnormal electrical ...
. Confronted with the reality of his family's poverty, he realized the need for academic excellence. He went into his father's study and began poring over
Latin grammar Latin is a heavily inflected languages, inflected language with largely free word order. Nouns are inflected for grammatical number, number and grammatical case, case; pronouns and adjectives (including participles) are inflected for number, cas ...
. He fainted three more times but eventually overcame the urge and did not faint again. This event, Jung later recalled, "was when I learned what a
neurosis Neurosis is a class of functional mental disorders involving chronic distress, but neither delusions nor hallucinations. The term is no longer used by the professional psychiatric community in the United States, having been eliminated from th ...
is."


University studies and early career

Initially, Jung had aspirations of becoming a preacher or minister in his early life. There was a strong moral sense in his household and several of his family members were clergymen as well. For a time, Jung had wanted to study archaeology, but his family could not afford to send him further than the University of Basel, which did not teach archaeology. After studying philosophy in his teens, Jung decided against the path of religious traditionalism and decided instead to pursue psychiatry and medicine. His interest was immediately captured—it combined the biological and the spiritual, exactly what he was searching for.Carl Jung
. Retrieved 7 March 2009
In 1895 Jung began to study medicine at the
University of Basel The University of Basel (Latin: ''Universitas Basiliensis'', German: ''Universität Basel'') is a university in Basel, Switzerland. Founded on 4 April 1460, it is Switzerland's oldest university and among the world's oldest surviving universit ...
. Barely a year later in 1896, his father Paul died and left the family near destitute. They were helped out by relatives who also contributed to Jung's studies. During his student days, he entertained his contemporaries with the family legend that his paternal grandfather was the illegitimate son of
Goethe Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German poet, playwright, novelist, scientist, statesman, theatre director, and critic. His works include plays, poetry, literature, and aesthetic criticism, as well as treat ...
and his German great-grandmother, Sophie Ziegler. In later life, he pulled back from this tale, saying only that Sophie was a friend of Goethe's niece. In 1900, Jung moved to
Zürich Zürich () is the list of cities in Switzerland, largest city in Switzerland and the capital of the canton of Zürich. It is located in north-central Switzerland, at the northwestern tip of Lake Zürich. As of January 2020, the municipality has 43 ...
and began working at the
Burghölzli The ''Psychiatrische Universitätsklinik Zürich'' (Psychiatric University Hospital Zürich) is a psychiatric hospital in Switzerland. As a research hospital, it is associated with the University of Zürich. It is also called Burghölzli, after t ...
psychiatric hospital under
Eugen Bleuler Paul Eugen Bleuler (; ; 30 April 1857 – 15 July 1939) was a Swiss psychiatrist and humanist most notable for his contributions to the understanding of mental illness. He coined several psychiatric terms including "schizophrenia", "schizoid", ...
. Bleuler was already in communication with the Austrian neurologist
Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud ( , ; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud; 6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939) was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for evaluating and treating psychopathology, pathologies explained as originatin ...
. Jung's dissertation, published in 1903, was titled ''On the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena''. It was based on the analysis of the supposed
mediumship Mediumship is the practice of purportedly mediating communication between familiar spirits or ghost, spirits of the dead and living human beings. Practitioners are known as "mediums" or "spirit mediums". There are different types of mediumship o ...
of Jung's cousin Hélène Preiswerk, under the influence of Freud's contemporary
Théodore Flournoy Théodore Flournoy (15 August 1854 – 5 November 1920) was a Swiss professor of psychology at the University of Geneva and author of books on parapsychology and spiritism. He studied a wide variety of subjects before he devoted his life to psych ...
. Jung also studied with Pierre Janet in Paris in 1902 and later equated his view of the
complex Complex commonly refers to: * Complexity, the behaviour of a system whose components interact in multiple ways so possible interactions are difficult to describe ** Complex system, a system composed of many components which may interact with each ...
with Janet's ''idée fixe subconsciente''. In 1905, Jung was appointed as a permanent 'senior' doctor at the hospital and also became a lecturer ''
Privatdozent ''Privatdozent'' (for men) or ''Privatdozentin'' (for women), abbreviated PD, P.D. or Priv.-Doz., is an academic title conferred at some European universities, especially in German-speaking countries, to someone who holds certain formal qualific ...
'' in the medical faculty of Zurich University. In 1904, he published with
Franz Riklin Franz Beda Riklin (22 April 1878, in St. Gallen – 4 December 1938, in Küsnacht) was a Swiss psychiatrist. Early in his career, Franz Riklin worked at the Burghölzli Hospital in Zurich under Eugen Bleuler (b.1857–d.1939), and studied ex ...
their ''Diagnostic Association Studies'', of which Freud obtained a copy. In 1909, Jung left the psychiatric hospital and began a private practice in his home in
Küsnacht Küsnacht is a municipality in the district of Meilen in the canton of Zurich in Switzerland. History Küsnacht is first mentioned in 1188 as ''de Cussenacho''. Earliest findings of settlement date back to the stone age. There are also finding ...
. Eventually, a close friendship and a strong professional association developed between the elder Freud and Jung, which left a sizeable correspondence. For six years they cooperated in their work. In 1912, however, Jung published ''
Psychology of the Unconscious ''Psychology of the Unconscious'' (german: Wandlungen und Symbole der Libido) is an early work of Carl Jung, first published in 1912. The English translation by Beatrice M. Hinkle appeared in 1916 under the full title of ''Psychology of the Uncon ...
'', which made manifest the developing theoretical divergence between the two. Consequently, their personal and professional relationship fractured—each stating that the other was unable to admit he could be wrong. After the culminating break in 1913, Jung went through a difficult and pivotal psychological transformation, exacerbated by the outbreak of the
First World War World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
.
Henri Ellenberger Henri Frédéric Ellenberger (Nalolo, Barotseland, Rhodesia, 6 November 1905 – Quebec, 1 May 1993) was a Canadian psychiatrist, medical historian, and criminologist, sometimes considered the founding historiographer of psychiatry. Ellenberger ...
called Jung's intense experience a "creative illness" and compared it favorably to Freud's own period of what he called
neurasthenia Neurasthenia (from the Ancient Greek νεῦρον ''neuron'' "nerve" and ἀσθενής ''asthenés'' "weak") is a term that was first used at least as early as 1829 for a mechanical weakness of the nerves and became a major diagnosis in North A ...
and hysteria.


Marriage

In 1903, Jung married Emma Rauschenbach, seven years his junior and the elder daughter of a wealthy industrialist in eastern Switzerland, Johannes Rauschenbach-Schenck. Rauschenbach was the owner, among other concerns, of IWC Schaffhausen—the International Watch Company, manufacturers of luxury time-pieces. Upon his death in 1905, his two daughters and their husbands became owners of the business. Jung's brother-in-law— Ernst Homberger—became the principal proprietor, but the Jungs remained shareholders in a thriving business that ensured the family's financial security for decades. Emma Jung, whose education had been limited, evinced considerable ability and interest in her husband's research and threw herself into studies and acted as his assistant at Burghölzli. She eventually became a noted psychoanalyst in her own right. They had five children: Agathe, Gret, Franz, Marianne, and Helene. The marriage lasted until Emma died in 1955. During his marriage, Jung allegedly engaged in extramarital relationships. His alleged affairs with
Sabina Spielrein Sabina Nikolayevna Spielrein ( rus, Сабина Николаевна Шпильрейн, p=sɐˈbʲinə nʲɪkɐˈlajɪvnə ʂpʲɪlʲˈrɛjn; 7 November 25 October 1885 OS – 11 August 1942) was a Russian physician and one of the first fema ...
and
Toni Wolff Toni Anna Wolff (18 September 1888 – 21 March 1953) was a Swiss Jungian analyst and a close collaborator of Carl Jung. During her analytic career Wolff published relatively little under her own name, but she helped Jung identify, define, and na ...
were the most widely discussed. Though it was mostly taken for granted that Jung's relationship with Spielrein included a sexual relationship, this assumption has been disputed, in particular by
Henry Zvi Lothane Henry Zvi Lothane, M.D., is a Polish-born American psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, educator and author. Lothane is currently Clinical Professor at Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York City, specializing in the area of psychotherapy. H ...
.


Wartime army service

During World War I, Jung was drafted as an army doctor and soon made commandant of an internment camp for British officers and soldiers. The Swiss were neutral and obliged to intern personnel from either side of the conflict who crossed their frontier to evade capture. Jung worked to improve the conditions of soldiers stranded in Switzerland and encouraged them to attend university courses.


Relationship with Freud


Meeting and collaboration

Jung and Freud influenced each other during the intellectually formative years of Jung's life. Jung had become interested in psychiatry as a student by reading ''
Psychopathia Sexualis ''Psychopathia Sexualis: eine Klinisch-Forensische Studie'' (''Sexual Psychopathy: A Clinical-Forensic Study'', also known as ''Psychopathia Sexualis, with Especial Reference to the Antipathetic Sexual Instinct: A Medico-forensic Study'') is an ...
'' by
Richard von Krafft-Ebing Richard Freiherr von Krafft-Ebing (full name Richard Fridolin Joseph Freiherr Krafft von Festenberg auf Frohnberg, genannt von Ebing; 14 August 1840 – 22 December 1902) was a German psychiatrist and author of the foundational work '' Psychopath ...
. In 1900, Jung completed his degree and started work as an intern (voluntary doctor) under the psychiatrist
Eugen Bleuler Paul Eugen Bleuler (; ; 30 April 1857 – 15 July 1939) was a Swiss psychiatrist and humanist most notable for his contributions to the understanding of mental illness. He coined several psychiatric terms including "schizophrenia", "schizoid", ...
at Burghölzli Hospital. It was Bleuler who introduced him to the writings of Freud by asking him to write a review of ''
The Interpretation of Dreams ''The Interpretation of Dreams'' (german: Die Traumdeutung) is an 1899 book by Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, in which the author introduces his theory of the unconscious with respect to dream interpretation, and discusses what w ...
'' (1899). In the early 1900s
psychology Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Psychology includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, including feelings and thoughts. It is an academic discipline of immense scope, crossing the boundaries betwe ...
as a science was still in its early stages, but Jung became a qualified proponent of Freud's new "psycho-analysis". At the time, Freud needed collaborators and pupils to validate and spread his ideas. Burghölzli was a renowned psychiatric clinic in Zurich and Jung's research had already gained him international recognition. Jung sent Freud a copy of his ''Studies in Word Association'' in 1906. The same year, he published ''Diagnostic Association Studies'', which he later sent a copy of to Freudwho had already purchased a copy. Preceded by a lively correspondence, Jung met Freud for the first time in Vienna on March 3, 1907. Jung recalled the discussion between himself and Freud as interminable, unceasing for thirteen hours. Six months later, the then 50-year-old Freud sent a collection of his latest published essays to Jung in Zurich. This marked the beginning of an intense correspondence and collaboration that lasted six years. In 1908, Jung became an editor of the newly founded ''Yearbook for Psychoanalytical and Psychopathological Research''. In 1909, Jung travelled with Freud and Hungarian psychoanalyst
Sándor Ferenczi Sándor Ferenczi (7 July 1873 – 22 May 1933) was a Hungarian psychoanalyst, a key theorist of the psychoanalytic school and a close associate of Sigmund Freud. Biography Born Sándor Fränkel to Baruch Fränkel and Rosa Eibenschütz, bo ...
to the United States; they took part in a conference at
Clark University Clark University is a private research university in Worcester, Massachusetts. Founded in 1887 with a large endowment from its namesake Jonas Gilman Clark, a prominent businessman, Clark was one of the first modern research universities in the ...
in
Worcester Worcester may refer to: Places United Kingdom * Worcester, England, a city and the county town of Worcestershire in England ** Worcester (UK Parliament constituency), an area represented by a Member of Parliament * Worcester Park, London, Engla ...
, Massachusetts. The conference at Clark University was planned by the psychologist
G. Stanley Hall Granville Stanley Hall (February 1, 1846 – April 24, 1924) was a pioneering American psychologist and educator. His interests focused on human life span development and evolutionary theory. Hall was the first president of the American Psy ...
and included twenty-seven distinguished psychiatrists, neurologists, and psychologists. It represented a watershed in the acceptance of psychoanalysis in North America. This forged welcome links between Jung and influential Americans. Jung returned to the United States the next year for a brief visit. In 1910 Freud proposed Jung, "his adopted eldest son, his crown prince and successor", for the position of lifetime President of the newly formed
International Psychoanalytical Association The International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA) is an association including 12,000 psychoanalysts as members and works with 70 constituent organizations. It was founded in 1910 by Sigmund Freud, from an idea proposed by Sándor Ferenczi. His ...
. However, after forceful objections from his Viennese colleagues, it was agreed Jung would be elected to serve a two-year term of office.


Divergence and break

While Jung worked on his ''Psychology of the Unconscious: a study of the transformations and symbolisms of the libido'', tensions manifested between him and Freud because of various disagreements, including those concerning the nature of
libido Libido (; colloquial: sex drive) is a person's overall sexual drive or desire for sexual activity. Libido is influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors. Biologically, the sex hormones and associated neurotransmitters that act u ...
. Jung the importance of sexual development and focused on the collective unconscious: the part of the unconscious that contains memories and ideas that Jung believed were inherited from ancestors. While he did think that libido was an important source for personal growth, unlike Freud, Jung did not believe that libido alone was responsible for the formation of the core personality. In 1912 these tensions came to a peak because Jung felt severely slighted after Freud visited his colleague
Ludwig Binswanger Ludwig Binswanger (; ; 13 April 1881 – 5 February 1966) was a Swiss psychiatrist and pioneer in the field of existential psychology. His parents were Robert Johann Binswanger (1850–1910) and Bertha Hasenclever (1847–1896). Robert's Ger ...
in
Kreuzlingen Kreuzlingen is a municipality in the district of Kreuzlingen in the canton of Thurgau in north-eastern Switzerland. It is the seat of the district and is the second-largest city of the canton, after Frauenfeld, with a population of about 22,000. ...
without paying him a visit in nearby Zurich, an incident Jung referred to as "the Kreuzlingen gesture". Shortly thereafter, Jung again traveled to the United States and gave the
Fordham University Fordham University () is a Private university, private Jesuit universities, Jesuit research university in New York City. Established in 1841 and named after the Fordham, Bronx, Fordham neighborhood of the The Bronx, Bronx in which its origina ...
lectures, a six-week series, which were published later in the year as ''Psychology of the Unconscious'' (subsequently republished as '' Symbols of Transformation''). While they contain some remarks on Jung's dissenting view on the libido, they represent largely a "psychoanalytical Jung" and not the theory of analytical psychology, for which he became famous in the following decades. Nonetheless, it was their publication which, Jung declared, "cost me my friendship with Freud". Another primary disagreement with Freud stemmed from their differing concepts of the unconscious. Jung saw Freud's theory of the unconscious as incomplete and unnecessarily negative and inelastic. According to Jung, Freud conceived the unconscious solely as a repository of repressed emotions and desires. Jung's observations overlap to an extent with Freud's model of the unconscious, what Jung called the "
personal unconscious In analytical psychology, the personal unconscious is Carl Jung's term for the Freudian unconscious, as contrasted with the Jungian concept of the collective unconscious. Often referred to by him as "No man’s land," the personal unconscious is l ...
", but his hypothesis is more about a process than a static model and he also proposed the existence of a second, overarching form of the unconscious beyond the personal, that he named the psychoid—a term borrowed from neo-vitalist philosopher and embryologist
Hans Driesch Hans Adolf Eduard Driesch (28 October 1867 – 17 April 1941) was a German biologist and philosopher from Bad Kreuznach. He is most noted for his early experimental work in embryology and for his neo-vitalist philosophy of entelechy. He has also ...
(1867–1941)—but with a somewhat altered meaning. The collective unconscious is not so much a 'geographical location', but a deduction from the alleged ubiquity of
archetypes The concept of an archetype (; ) appears in areas relating to behavior, historical psychology, and literary analysis. An archetype can be any of the following: # a statement, pattern of behavior, prototype, "first" form, or a main model that ...
over space and time. In November 1912, Jung and Freud met in
Munich Munich ( ; german: München ; bar, Minga ) is the capital and most populous city of the States of Germany, German state of Bavaria. With a population of 1,558,395 inhabitants as of 31 July 2020, it is the List of cities in Germany by popu ...
for a meeting among prominent colleagues to discuss psychoanalytical journals.Jones, Ernest, ed. Lionel Trilling and Steven Marcus. ''The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud'', New York: Anchor Books, 1963. At a talk about a new psychoanalytic essay on
Amenhotep IV Akhenaten (pronounced ), also spelled Echnaton, Akhenaton, ( egy, ꜣḫ-n-jtn ''ʾŪḫə-nə-yātəy'', , meaning "Effective for the Aten"), was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh reigning or 1351–1334 BC, the tenth ruler of the Eighteenth Dy ...
, Jung expressed his views on how it related to actual conflicts in the psychoanalytic movement. While Jung spoke, Freud suddenly fainted and Jung carried him to a couch. Jung and Freud personally met for the last time in September 1913 for the Fourth International Psychoanalytical Congress in Munich. Jung gave a talk on psychological types, the
introvert The traits of extraversion (also spelled extroversion Retrieved 2018-02-21.) and introversion are a central dimension in some human personality theories. The terms ''introversion'' and ''extraversion'' were introduced into psychology by Carl J ...
ed and extraverted type in
analytical psychology Analytical psychology ( de , Analytische Psychologie, sometimes translated as analytic psychology and referred to as Jungian analysis) is a term coined by Carl Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist, to describe research into his new "empirical science" ...
.


Midlife isolation

It was the publication of Jung's book ''Psychology of the Unconscious'' in 1912 that led to the break with Freud. Letters they exchanged show Freud's refusal to consider Jung's ideas. This rejection caused what Jung described in his (posthumous) 1962 autobiography, ''Memories, Dreams, Reflections'', as a "resounding censure". Everyone he knew dropped away except for two of his colleagues. Jung described his book as "an attempt, only partially successful, to create a wider setting for medical psychology and to bring the whole of the psychic phenomena within its purview". The book was later revised and retitled ''Symbols of Transformation'' in 1922.


London 1913–14

Jung spoke at meetings of the Psycho-Medical Society in London in 1913 and 1914. His travels were soon interrupted by the war, but his ideas continued to receive attention in England primarily through the efforts of Constance Long who translated and published the first English volume of his collected writings.


''The Black Books and The Red Book''

In 1913, at the age of thirty-eight, Jung experienced a horrible "confrontation with the unconscious". He saw visions and heard voices. He worried at times that he was "menaced by a psychosis" or was "doing a schizophrenia". He decided that it was valuable experience and, in private, he induced hallucinations or, in his words, a process of "
active imagination An active imagination is a conscious method of experimentation. It employs creative imagination as an organ for "perceiving outside your mental boxes." For the first hundred years of active imagination, it was applied primarily by individuals for ...
". He recorded everything he experienced in small journals, which Jung referred to in the singular as his '' Black Book'', considering it a "single integral whole"; and while among these original journals, some have a brown cover. The material Jung wrote was subjected to several edits, hand-written and typed, including another, "second layer" of text, his continual psychological interpretations during the process of editing. Around 1915, Jung commissioned a large red leather-bound book, and began to transcribe his notes, along with painting, working intermittently for sixteen years. Jung left no posthumous instructions about the final disposition of what he called the ''Liber Novus'' or the '' Red Book''.
Sonu Shamdasani Sonu Shamdasani (born 1962) is a London-based author, editor in chief, and professor at University College London. His research and writings focus on Carl Gustav Jung (1875–1961), and cover the history of psychiatry and psychology from the mid- ...
, an historian of psychology from London, tried for three years to persuade Jung's resistant heirs to have it published. Ulrich Hoerni, Jung's grandson who manages the Jung archives, decided to publish it when the necessary additional funds needed were raised through the Philemon Foundation. Up to mid-September 2008, fewer than two dozen people had ever seen it. In 2007, two technicians for DigitalFusion, working with New York City publishers W. W. Norton & Company, scanned the manuscript with a 10,200-pixel scanner. It was published on 7 October 2009, in German with a "separate English translation along with Shamdasani's introduction and footnotes" at the back of the book. According to Sara Corbett, reviewing the text for ''
The New York Times ''The New York Times'' (''the Times'', ''NYT'', or the Gray Lady) is a daily newspaper based in New York City with a worldwide readership reported in 2020 to comprise a declining 840,000 paid print subscribers, and a growing 6 million paid ...
'', "The book is bombastic, baroque and like so much else about Carl Jung, a willful oddity, synched with an
antediluvian The antediluvian (alternatively pre-diluvian or pre-flood) period is the time period chronicled in the Bible between the fall of man and the Genesis flood narrative in biblical cosmology. The term was coined by Thomas Browne. The narrative take ...
and mystical reality." The
Rubin Museum of Art The Rubin Museum of Art, also known as the Rubin Museum is a museum dedicated to the collection, display, and preservation of the art and cultures of the Himalayas, the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia and other regions within Eurasia, with a per ...
in New York City displayed Jung's ''Red Book'' leather folio, as well as some of his original "Black Book" journals, from 7 October 2009 to 15 February 2010. According to them, "During the period in which he worked on this book Jung developed his principal theories of archetypes, collective unconscious, and the process of individuation." Two-thirds of the pages bear Jung's
illuminations Illuminations may refer to: Shows and festivals * IllumiNations: Reflections of Earth, a nightly fireworks show currently at Epcot at Walt Disney World Resort *'' IllumiNations'', original nightly firework show at Epcot at Walt Disney World Resor ...
and illustrations to the text.


Travels

Jung emerged from his period of isolation in the late nineteen-teens with the publication of several journal articles, followed in 1921 with '' Psychological Types'', one of his most influential books. There followed a decade of active publication, interspersed with overseas travels.


England (1920, 1923, 1925, 1935, 1938, 1946)

Constance Long arranged for Jung to deliver a seminar in
Cornwall Cornwall (; kw, Kernow ) is a historic county and ceremonial county in South West England. It is recognised as one of the Celtic nations, and is the homeland of the Cornish people. Cornwall is bordered to the north and west by the Atlantic ...
in 1920. Another seminar was held in 1923, this one organized by Jung's British protégé
Helton Godwin Baynes Helton Godwin Baynes, also known as ‘Peter’ Baynes (26 June 1882, Hampstead – 6 September 1943), was an English physician, army officer, analytical psychologist and author, who was a friend and early translator into English of Carl Jung. ...
(known as "Peter") (1882-1943), and another in 1925. In 1935, at the invitation of his close British friends and colleagues, H. G. Baynes, E. A. Bennet and
Hugh Crichton-Miller Hugh Crichton-Miller (born in Genoa, Italy, 5 February 1877, died 1 January 1959 in London) was a Scottish physician and psychiatrist. He founded the Bowden House nursing home for nervous diseases at Harrow-on-the-Hill in 1912 and the Tavistock C ...
, Jung gave a series of lectures at the
Tavistock Clinic The Tavistock and Portman NHS Foundation Trust is a specialist mental health trust based in north London. The Trust specialises in talking therapies. The education and training department caters for 2,000 students a year from the United Kin ...
in London, later published as part of the ''Collected Works''. In 1938, Jung was awarded an honorary degree by the
University of Oxford , mottoeng = The Lord is my light , established = , endowment = £6.1 billion (including colleges) (2019) , budget = £2.145 billion (2019–20) , chancellor ...
. At the tenth International Medical Congress for Psychotherapy held at Oxford from 29 July to 2 August 1938, Jung gave the presidential address, followed by a visit to
Cheshire Cheshire ( ) is a ceremonial and historic county in North West England, bordered by Wales to the west, Merseyside and Greater Manchester to the north, Derbyshire to the east, and Staffordshire and Shropshire to the south. Cheshire's county t ...
to stay with the Bailey family at Lawton Mere. In 1946, Jung agreed to become the first Honorary President of the newly formed
Society of Analytical Psychology The Society of Analytical Psychology, known also as the SAP, incorporated in London, England, in 1945 is the oldest training organisation for Jungian analysts in the United Kingdom. Its first Honorary President in 1946 was Carl Jung. The Societ ...
in London, having previously approved its training programme devised by
Michael Fordham Michael Scott Montague Fordham (4 August 1905 – 14 April 1995) was an English child psychiatrist and Jungian analyst. He was a co-editor of the English translation of C.G. Jung's Collected Works. His clinical and theoretical collaboratio ...
.


United States 1909–1912, 1924–25, 1936–37

During the period of Jung's collaboration with Freud, both visited the US in 1909 to lecture at Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts where both were awarded honorary degrees. In 1912 Jung gave a series of lectures at Fordham University, New York which were published later in the year as ''
Psychology of the Unconscious ''Psychology of the Unconscious'' (german: Wandlungen und Symbole der Libido) is an early work of Carl Jung, first published in 1912. The English translation by Beatrice M. Hinkle appeared in 1916 under the full title of ''Psychology of the Uncon ...
''. Jung made a more extensive trip westward in the winter of 1924–5, financed and organized by Fowler McCormick and George Porter. Of particular value to Jung was a visit with Chief Mountain Lake of the
Taos Pueblo Taos Pueblo (or Pueblo de Taos) is an ancient pueblo belonging to a Taos-speaking (Tiwa) Native American tribe of Puebloan people. It lies about north of the modern city of Taos, New Mexico. The pueblos are considered to be one of the oldest ...
near
Taos, New Mexico Taos is a town in Taos County in the north-central region of New Mexico in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains. Initially founded in 1615, it was intermittently occupied until its formal establishment in 1795 by Nuevo México Governor Fernando Cha ...
. Jung made another trip to America in 1936, receiving an honorary degree at Harvard and giving lectures in New York and New England for his growing group of American followers. He returned in 1937 to deliver the
Terry Lectures The Dwight H. Terry Lectureship, also known as the Terry Lectures, was established at Yale University in 1905 by a gift from Dwight H. Terry of Bridgeport, Connecticut. Its purpose is to engage both scholars and the public in a consideration of rel ...
at
Yale University Yale University is a private research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Established in 1701 as the Collegiate School, it is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and among the most prestigious in the wo ...
, later published as ''Psychology and Religion''.


East Africa

In October 1925, Jung embarked on his most ambitious expedition, the "Bugishu Psychological Expedition" to East Africa. He was accompanied by his English friend, "Peter" Baynes and an American associate, George Beckwith. On the voyage to Africa, they became acquainted with an English woman named Ruth Bailey, who joined their safari a few weeks later. The group traveled through Kenya and Uganda to the slopes of Mount Elgon, where Jung hoped to increase his understanding of "primitive psychology" through conversations with the culturally isolated residents of that area. Later he concluded that the major insights he had gleaned had to do with himself and the European psychology in which he had been raised. One of Jung's most famous proposed constructs is kinship libido. Jung defined this as an instinctive feeling of belonging to a particular group or family and Jung believed it was vital to the human experience and used this as an endogamous aspect of the libido and what lies amongst the family. This could be a term Jung learned during his trip to Africa and is similar to a Bantu term called
Ubuntu Ubuntu ( ) is a Linux distribution based on Debian and composed mostly of free and open-source software. Ubuntu is officially released in three editions: '' Desktop'', ''Server'', and ''Core'' for Internet of things devices and robots. All ...
that emphasizes humanity and almost the same meaning as kinship libido, which is, "I am because you are."


India

In December 1937, Jung left Zurich again for an extensive tour of India with Fowler McCormick. In India, he felt himself "under the direct influence of a foreign culture" for the first time. In Africa, his conversations had been strictly limited by the language barrier, but in India, he was able to converse extensively.
Hindu philosophy Hindu philosophy encompasses the philosophies, world views and teachings of Hinduism that emerged in Ancient India which include six systems ('' shad-darśana'') – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.Andrew Nicholson (20 ...
became an important element in his understanding of the role of symbolism and the life of the unconscious, though he avoided a meeting with Ramana Maharshi. He described Ramana as being absorbed in "the self". Jung became seriously ill on this trip and endured two weeks of
delirium Delirium (also known as acute confusional state) is an organically caused decline from a previous baseline of mental function that develops over a short period of time, typically hours to days. Delirium is a syndrome encompassing disturbances in ...
in a Calcutta hospital. After 1938, his travels were confined to Europe.


Later years and death

Jung became a full professor of medical psychology at the University of Basel in 1943 but resigned after a heart attack the next year to lead a more private life. In 1945, he began corresponding with an English
Roman Catholic Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lette ...
priest, Father Victor White, who became a close friend of Jung, regularly visiting the Jungs at the Bollingen estate. Jung became ill again in 1952. Jung continued to publish books until the end of his life, including ''Flying Saucers: A Modern Myth of Things Seen in the Skies'' (1959), which analyzed the archetypal meaning and possible psychological significance of the reported observations of
UFO An unidentified flying object (UFO), more recently renamed by US officials as a UAP (unidentified aerial phenomenon), is any perceived aerial phenomenon that cannot be immediately identified or explained. On investigation, most UFOs are id ...
s. In 1961, Jung wrote his last work, a contribution to ''
Man and His Symbols ''Man and His Symbols'' is the last work undertaken by Carl Jung before his death in 1961. First published in 1964, it is divided into five parts, four of which were written by associates of Jung: Marie-Louise von Franz, Joseph L. Henderson, A ...
'' entitled "Approaching the Unconscious" (published posthumously in 1964). Jung died on 6 June 1961 at Küsnacht after a short illness. He had been beset by circulatory diseases.


Awards

Among his principal distinctions are
honorary doctorate An honorary degree is an academic degree for which a university (or other degree-awarding institution) has waived all of the usual requirements. It is also known by the Latin phrases ''honoris causa'' ("for the sake of the honour") or ''ad hon ...
s from: *
Clark University Clark University is a private research university in Worcester, Massachusetts. Founded in 1887 with a large endowment from its namesake Jonas Gilman Clark, a prominent businessman, Clark was one of the first modern research universities in the ...
1909 *
Fordham University Fordham University () is a Private university, private Jesuit universities, Jesuit research university in New York City. Established in 1841 and named after the Fordham, Bronx, Fordham neighborhood of the The Bronx, Bronx in which its origina ...
1912 *
Harvard University Harvard University is a private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1636 as Harvard College and named for its first benefactor, the Puritan clergyman John Harvard, it is the oldest institution of higher le ...
1936 *
University of Allahabad , mottoeng = "As Many Branches So Many Trees" , established = , type = Public , chancellor = Ashish Chauhan , vice_chancellor = Sangita Srivastava , head_label ...
1937 * University of Benares 1937 *
University of Calcutta The University of Calcutta (informally known as Calcutta University; CU) is a Public university, public collegiate university, collegiate State university (India), state university in India, located in Kolkata, West Bengal, India. Considered ...
1938 *
University of Oxford , mottoeng = The Lord is my light , established = , endowment = £6.1 billion (including colleges) (2019) , budget = £2.145 billion (2019–20) , chancellor ...
1938 *
University of Geneva The University of Geneva (French: ''Université de Genève'') is a public research university located in Geneva, Switzerland. It was founded in 1559 by John Calvin as a theological seminary. It remained focused on theology until the 17th centu ...
1945 *
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich (colloquially) , former_name = eidgenössische polytechnische Schule , image = ETHZ.JPG , image_size = , established = , type = Public , budget = CHF 1.896 billion (2021) , rector = Günther Dissertori , president = Joël Mesot , a ...
1955 on his 80th birthday In addition, he was: * given a
Literature prize A literary award or literary prize is an award presented in recognition of a particularly lauded literary piece or body of work. It is normally presented to an author. Organizations Most literary awards come with a corresponding award ceremony. Ma ...
from the city of Zurich, 1932 * made Titular Professor of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich,
ETH (colloquially) , former_name = eidgenössische polytechnische Schule , image = ETHZ.JPG , image_size = , established = , type = Public , budget = CHF 1.896 billion (2021) , rector = Günther Dissertori , president = Joël Mesot , a ...
1935 * appointed Honorary Member of the
Royal Society of Medicine The Royal Society of Medicine (RSM) is a medical society in the United Kingdom, headquartered in London. History The Society was established in 1805 as Medical and Chirurgical Society of London, meeting in two rooms in barristers’ chamber ...
1939 * given a
Festschrift In academia, a ''Festschrift'' (; plural, ''Festschriften'' ) is a book honoring a respected person, especially an academic, and presented during their lifetime. It generally takes the form of an edited volume, containing contributions from the h ...
at
Eranos Eranos is an intellectual discussion group dedicated to humanistic and religious studies, as well as to the natural sciences which has met annually in Moscia (Lago Maggiore), the Collegio Papio and on the Monte Verità in Ascona, Switzerland sin ...
1945 * appointed President of the
Society of Analytical Psychology The Society of Analytical Psychology, known also as the SAP, incorporated in London, England, in 1945 is the oldest training organisation for Jungian analysts in the United Kingdom. Its first Honorary President in 1946 was Carl Jung. The Societ ...
, London, 1946 * given a Festschrift by students and friends 1955 * named
Honorary citizen Honorary citizenship is a status bestowed by a city or other government on a foreign or native individual whom it considers to be especially admirable or otherwise worthy of the distinction. The honour usually is symbolic and does not confer an ...
of Kűsnacht 1960, on his 85th birthday.


Thought

Jung's thought was formed by early family influences, which on the maternal side were a blend of interest in the occult and in solid reformed academic theology. On his father's side were two important figures, his grandfather, the physician and academic scientist
Karl Gustav Jung Karl Gustav Jung (7 September 1795 in Mannheim – 12 June 1864 in Basel) was a German-Swiss medical doctor, political activist, professor of Medicine at the University of Basel, administrator and freemason. Life Karl Gustav Jung was the ...
, and Lotte Kestner, the niece of German
polymath A polymath ( el, πολυμαθής, , "having learned much"; la, homo universalis, "universal human") is an individual whose knowledge spans a substantial number of subjects, known to draw on complex bodies of knowledge to solve specific pro ...
Johann Wolfgang Goethe's "Lottchen". Although he was a practicing clinician and writer and as such founded
analytical psychology Analytical psychology ( de , Analytische Psychologie, sometimes translated as analytic psychology and referred to as Jungian analysis) is a term coined by Carl Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist, to describe research into his new "empirical science" ...
, much of his life's work was spent exploring other areas such as
quantum physics Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory in physics that provides a description of the physical properties of nature at the scale of atoms and subatomic particles. It is the foundation of all quantum physics including quantum chemistry, qua ...
,
vitalism Vitalism is a belief that starts from the premise that "living organisms are fundamentally different from non-living entities because they contain some non-physical element or are governed by different principles than are inanimate things." Wher ...
,
Eastern Eastern may refer to: Transportation *China Eastern Airlines, a current Chinese airline based in Shanghai *Eastern Air, former name of Zambia Skyways *Eastern Air Lines, a defunct American airline that operated from 1926 to 1991 *Eastern Air Li ...
and
Western philosophy Western philosophy encompasses the philosophical thought and work of the Western world. Historically, the term refers to the philosophical thinking of Western culture, beginning with the ancient Greek philosophy of the pre-Socratics. The word ' ...
including
epistemology Epistemology (; ), or the theory of knowledge, is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge. Epistemology is considered a major subfield of philosophy, along with other major subfields such as ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Episte ...
,
alchemy Alchemy (from Arabic: ''al-kīmiyā''; from Ancient Greek: χυμεία, ''khumeía'') is an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was historically practiced in China, India, the Muslim world, ...
,
astrology Astrology is a range of Divination, divinatory practices, recognized as pseudoscientific since the 18th century, that claim to discern information about human affairs and terrestrial events by studying the apparent positions of Celestial o ...
, and sociology, as well as literature and the arts. Jung's interest in philosophy and spiritual subjects led many to view him as a mystic, although his preference was to be seen as a man of science; Jung was, unlike Freud, heavily knowledgeable on philosophical concepts and aimed to link the branch of epistemology to the more modern theories of psychology.


Key concepts

Within the field of
analytical psychology Analytical psychology ( de , Analytische Psychologie, sometimes translated as analytic psychology and referred to as Jungian analysis) is a term coined by Carl Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist, to describe research into his new "empirical science" ...
, a brief survey of major concepts developed by Jung include (alphabetical): * Anima and animus—(archetype) the contrasexual aspect of a person's psyche. In a woman's psyche, her inner personal masculine is conceived both as a complex and an archetypal image; comparably in a man's psyche, his inner personal feminine is conceived both as a complex and an archetypal image. *
Archetype The concept of an archetype (; ) appears in areas relating to behavior, historical psychology, and literary analysis. An archetype can be any of the following: # a statement, pattern of behavior, prototype, "first" form, or a main model that ot ...
—a concept "borrowed" from
anthropology Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures, societies, and linguistics, in both the present and past, including past human species. Social anthropology studies patterns of behavi ...
to denote supposedly universal and recurring mental images or themes. Jung's descriptions of archetypes varied over time. * Archetypal images—universal symbols that can mediate opposites in the psyche, often found in religious art, mythology, and fairy tales across cultures. * Collective unconscious—aspects of unconsciousness experienced by all people in different cultures. *
Complex Complex commonly refers to: * Complexity, the behaviour of a system whose components interact in multiple ways so possible interactions are difficult to describe ** Complex system, a system composed of many components which may interact with each ...
—the repressed organisation of images and experiences that governs perception and behaviour. *
Extraversion and introversion The traits of extraversion (also spelled extroversion Retrieved 2018-02-21.) and introversion are a central dimension in some human personality theories. The terms ''introversion'' and ''extraversion'' were introduced into psychology by Carl J ...
—personality traits of degrees of openness or reserve contributing to
psychological type In psychology, personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of individuals. Personality types are sometimes distinguished from personality traits, with the latter embodying a smaller grouping of behavioral tendenc ...
. *
Individuation The principle of individuation, or ', describes the manner in which a thing is identified as distinct from other things. The concept appears in numerous fields and is encountered in works of Leibniz, Carl Gustav Jung, Gunther Anders, Gilbert Sim ...
—the process of fulfilment of each individual "which negates neither the conscious or unconscious position but does justice to them both". *
Persona A persona (plural personae or personas), depending on the context, is the public image of one's personality, the social role that one adopts, or simply a fictional Character (arts), character. The word derives from Latin, where it originally ref ...
—element of the personality that arises "for reasons of adaptation or personal convenience"—the "masks" one puts on in various situations. * Psychological types—a framework for consciously orienting psychotherapists to patients, by raising to consciousness particular modes of personality, differentiation between analyst and patient. *
Shadow A shadow is a dark area where light from a light source is blocked by an opaque object. It occupies all of the three-dimensional volume behind an object with light in front of it. The cross section of a shadow is a two-dimensional silhouette, o ...
—(archetype) the repressed, therefore unknown, aspects of the personality including those often considered to be negative. *
Self The self is an individual as the object of that individual’s own reflective consciousness. Since the ''self'' is a reference by a subject to the same subject, this reference is necessarily subjective. The sense of having a self—or ''selfhood ...
—(archetype) the central overarching concept governing the individuation process, as symbolised by mandalas, the union of male and female, totality, and unity. Jung viewed it as the psyche's central archetype. *
Synchronicity Synchronicity (german: Synchronizität) is a concept first introduced by analytical psychologist Carl G. Jung "to describe circumstances that appear meaningfully related yet lack a causal connection." In contemporary research, synchronicity e ...
—an acausal principle as a basis for the apparently random simultaneous occurrence of phenomena.


Collective unconscious

Since the establishment of
psychoanalytic theory Psychoanalytic theory is the theory of personality organization and the dynamics of personality development that guides psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology. First laid out by Sigmund Freud in the late 19th century, psyc ...
, the notion and meaning of individuals having a ''personal'' unconscious has gradually come to be commonly accepted. This was popularised by both Freud and Jung. Whereas an individual's personal unconscious is made up of thoughts and emotions which have, at some time, been experienced or held in mind, but which have been repressed or forgotten, in contrast, the ''collective'' unconscious is neither acquired by activities within an individual's life, nor a container of things that are thoughts, memories or ideas which are capable of being conscious during one's life. The contents of it were never naturally "known" through physical or cognitive experience and then forgotten. The collective unconscious consists of universal heritable elements common to all humans, distinct from other species. However, this does not necessarily imply a genetic cause. It encapsulates fields of evolutionary biology, history of civilization, ethnology, brain and nervous system development, and general psychological development. Considering its composition in practical physiological and psychological terms, "it consists of pre-existent forms, the archetypes, which can only become conscious secondarily and which give definite form to certain psychic contents." Specifically contrasting himself from the work of Freud and Adler, who were wholly concerned with personal psychology, Jung writes about causal factors in personal psychology, as stemming from, influenced by an abstraction of the impersonal physical layer, the common and universal physiology among all humans. Jung considers that science would hardly deny the existence and basic nature of 'instincts', existing as a whole set of motivating urges. The collective unconscious acts as the frame where science can distinguish individual motivating urges, thought to be universal across all individuals of the human species, while instincts are present in all species. Jung contends, "the hypothesis of the collective unconscious is, therefore, no more daring than to assume there are instincts."


Archetype

The archetype is a concept "borrowed" from
anthropology Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures, societies, and linguistics, in both the present and past, including past human species. Social anthropology studies patterns of behavi ...
to denote a process of nature. Jung's definitions of archetypes varied over time and have been the subject of debate as to their usefulness. Archetypal images, also referred to as motifs in mythology, are universal symbols that can mediate opposites in the psyche, are often found in religious art, mythology and fairy tales across cultures. Jung saw archetypes as pre-configurations in nature that give rise to repeating, understandable, describable experiences. In addition the concept takes into account the passage of time and of patterns resulting from transformation. Archetypes are said to exist independently of any current event, or its effect. They are said to exert influence both across all domains of experience and throughout the stages of each individual's unique development. Being in part based on heritable physiology, they are thought to have "existed" since humans became a differentiated species. They have been deduced through the development of storytelling over tens of thousands of years, indicating repeating patterns of individual and group experience, behaviors, and effects across the planet, apparently displaying common themes. The concept did not originate with Jung but with
Plato Plato ( ; grc-gre, Πλάτων ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. He founded the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution ...
who first conceived of primordial patterns. Later contributions came from
Adolf Bastian Adolf Philipp Wilhelm Bastian (26 June 18262 February 1905) was a 19th-century polymath best remembered for his contributions to the development of ethnography and the development of anthropology as a discipline. Modern psychology owes him a great ...
, and
Hermann Usener Hermann Karl Usener (23 October 1834 – 21 October 1905) was a German scholar in the fields of philology and comparative religion. Life Hermann Usener was born at Weilburg and educated at its Gymnasium. From 1853 he studied at Heidelberg, ...
among others. In the first half of the twentieth century it proved impossible to objectively isolate and categorize the notion of an archetype within a materialist frame. According to Jung, there are "as many archetypes as there are typical situations in life", and he asserted that they have a dynamic mutual influence on one another. Their alleged presence could be extracted from thousand-year-old narratives, from comparative religion and mythology. Jung elaborated many archetypes in "''The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious''" and in "''Aion: Researches into the Phenomenology of the Self''". Examples of archetypes might be the shadow, the hero, the self, anima, animus, mother, father, child, and trickster.


Shadow

The ''shadow'' exists as part of the unconscious mind and is composed of the traits individuals instinctively or consciously resist identifying as their own and would rather ignore, typically: repressed ideas, weaknesses, desires, instincts, and shortcomings. Much of the shadow comes as a result of an individual's adaptation to cultural norms and expectations. Thus, this archetype not only consists of all the things deemed unacceptable by society but also those that are not aligned with one's own personal morals and values. Jung argues that the ''shadow'' plays a distinctive role in balancing one's overall psyche, the counter-balancing to consciousness—"where there is light, there must also be shadow". Without a well-developed ''shadow'' (often "shadow work", "integrating one's shadow"), an individual can become shallow and extremely preoccupied with the opinions of others; that is, a walking ''persona''. Not wanting to look at their shadows directly, Jung argues, often results in
psychological projection Psychological projection is the process of misinterpreting what is "inside" as coming from "outside". It forms the basis of empathy by the projection of personal experiences to understand someone else's subjective world. In its malignant forms, i ...
. Individuals project imagined attitudes onto others without awareness. The qualities an individual may hate (or love) in another, may be manifestly present in the individual, who does not see the external, material truth. In order to truly grow as an individual, Jung believed that both the ''persona'' and ''
shadow A shadow is a dark area where light from a light source is blocked by an opaque object. It occupies all of the three-dimensional volume behind an object with light in front of it. The cross section of a shadow is a two-dimensional silhouette, o ...
'' should be balanced. The shadow can appear in dreams or visions, often taking the form of a dark, wild, exotic figure.


Extraversion and introversion

Jung was one of the first people to define introversion and extraversion in a psychological context. In Jung's ''Psychological Types'', he theorizes that each person falls into one of two categories: the introvert or the extravert. Jung compares these two psychological types to ancient archetypes,
Apollo Apollo, grc, Ἀπόλλωνος, Apóllōnos, label=genitive , ; , grc-dor, Ἀπέλλων, Apéllōn, ; grc, Ἀπείλων, Apeílōn, label=Arcadocypriot Greek, ; grc-aeo, Ἄπλουν, Áploun, la, Apollō, la, Apollinis, label= ...
and
Dionysus In ancient Greek religion and myth, Dionysus (; grc, Διόνυσος ) is the god of the grape-harvest, winemaking, orchards and fruit, vegetation, fertility, insanity, ritual madness, religious ecstasy, festivity, and theatre. The Romans ...
. The introvert is likened to Apollo, who shines a light on understanding. The introvert is focused on the internal world of reflection, dreaming, and vision. Thoughtful and insightful, the introvert can sometimes be uninterested in joining the activities of others. The extravert is associated with Dionysus, interested in joining the activities of the world. The extravert is focused on the outside world of objects, sensory perception, and action. Energetic and lively, the extravert may lose their sense of self in the intoxication of Dionysian pursuits. Jungian introversion and extraversion is quite different from the modern idea of introversion and extraversion. Modern theories often stay true to behaviourist means of describing such a trait (sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness, etc.), whereas Jungian introversion and extraversion are expressed as a perspective: introverts interpret the world ''subjectively'', whereas extraverts interpret the world ''objectively''.


Persona

In his psychological theory—which is not necessarily linked to a particular theory of
social structure In the social sciences, social structure is the aggregate of patterned social arrangements in society that are both emergent from and determinant of the actions of individuals. Likewise, society is believed to be grouped into structurally rel ...
—the ''persona'' appears as a consciously created personality or identity, fashioned out of part of the collective psyche through
socialization In sociology, socialization or socialisation (see spelling differences) is the process of internalizing the norms and ideologies of society. Socialization encompasses both learning and teaching and is thus "the means by which social and cultur ...
,
acculturation Acculturation is a process of social, psychological, and cultural change that stems from the balancing of two cultures while adapting to the prevailing culture of the society. Acculturation is a process in which an individual adopts, acquires and ...
and experience. Jung applied the term ''
persona A persona (plural personae or personas), depending on the context, is the public image of one's personality, the social role that one adopts, or simply a fictional Character (arts), character. The word derives from Latin, where it originally ref ...
'', explicitly because, in Latin, it means both ''personality'' and the ''masks'' worn by Roman actors of the classical period, expressive of the individual roles played. The ''persona'', he argues, is a mask for the "collective psyche", a mask that 'pretends' individuality, so that both self and others believe in that identity, even if it is really no more than a well-played ''role'' through which the collective psyche is expressed. Jung regarded the "persona-mask" as a complicated system which ''mediates'' between individual consciousness and the social community: it is "a compromise between the individual and society as to what a man should appear to be". But he also makes it quite explicit that it is, in substance, a ''character mask'' in the classical sense known to theatre, with its double function: both intended to make a certain impression on others, and to hide (part of) the true nature of the individual. The therapist then aims to assist the
individuation The principle of individuation, or ', describes the manner in which a thing is identified as distinct from other things. The concept appears in numerous fields and is encountered in works of Leibniz, Carl Gustav Jung, Gunther Anders, Gilbert Sim ...
process through which the client (re)gains their "own self"—by liberating the self, both from the deceptive cover of the ''persona'', and from the power of unconscious impulses. Jung has become enormously influential in management theory; not just because managers and executives have to create an appropriate "management persona" (a corporate mask) and a persuasive identity, but also because they have to evaluate ''what sort of people'' the workers are, to manage them (for example, using
personality test A personality test is a method of assessing human personality construct (psychology), constructs. Most personality assessment instruments (despite being loosely referred to as "personality tests") are in fact introspective (i.e., subjective) self ...
s and
peer review Peer review is the evaluation of work by one or more people with similar competencies as the producers of the work (peers). It functions as a form of self-regulation by qualified members of a profession within the relevant field. Peer review ...
s).


Spirituality

Jung's work on himself and his patients convinced him that life has a spiritual purpose beyond material goals. Our main task, he believed, is to discover and fulfill our deep, innate potential. Based on his study of
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
,
Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
,
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
,
Gnosticism Gnosticism (from grc, γνωστικός, gnōstikós, , 'having knowledge') is a collection of religious ideas and systems which coalesced in the late 1st century AD among Jewish Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people ...
,
Taoism Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of Philosophy, philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of China, Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmo ...
, and other traditions, Jung believed that this journey of transformation, which he called
individuation The principle of individuation, or ', describes the manner in which a thing is identified as distinct from other things. The concept appears in numerous fields and is encountered in works of Leibniz, Carl Gustav Jung, Gunther Anders, Gilbert Sim ...
, is at the mystical heart of all religions. It is a journey to meet the
self The self is an individual as the object of that individual’s own reflective consciousness. Since the ''self'' is a reference by a subject to the same subject, this reference is necessarily subjective. The sense of having a self—or ''selfhood ...
and at the same time to meet the
Divine Divinity or the divine are things that are either related to, devoted to, or proceeding from a deity.divine< ...
. Unlike Freud's objectivist worldview, Jung's
pantheism Pantheism is the belief that reality, the universe and the cosmos are identical with divinity and a supreme supernatural being or entity, pointing to the universe as being an immanent creator deity still expanding and creating, which has ex ...
may have led him to believe that spiritual experience was essential to our well-being, as he specifically identifies individual human life with the universe as a whole. In 1959, Jung was asked by host John Freeman on the BBC interview program '' Face to Face'' whether he believed in God, to which Jung answered, "I do not need to believe. I ''know''." Jung's ideas on religion counterbalance Freudian skepticism. Jung's idea of religion as a practical road to individuation is still treated in modern textbooks on the
psychology of religion Psychology of religion consists of the application of psychological methods and interpretive frameworks to the diverse contents of religious traditions as well as to both religious and irreligious individuals. The various methods and frameworks ...
, though his ideas have also been criticized. Jung recommended spirituality as a cure for alcoholism, and he is considered to have had an indirect role in establishing
Alcoholics Anonymous Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is an international mutual aid fellowship of alcoholics dedicated to abstinence-based recovery from alcoholism through its spiritually-inclined Twelve Step program. Following its Twelve Traditions, AA is non-professi ...
. Jung once treated an American patient (
Rowland Hazard III Rowland Hazard III (October 29, 1881 – December 20, 1945) was an American businessman and member of a prominent Rhode Island family involved in the foundation and executive leadership of a number of well-known companies. He is also known as ...
), who had chronic alcoholism. After working with the patient for some time and achieving no significant progress, Jung told the man that his alcoholic condition was near to hopeless, save only the possibility of a spiritual experience. Jung noted that, occasionally, such experiences had been known to reform alcoholics when all other options had failed. Hazard took Jung's advice seriously and set about seeking a personal, spiritual experience. He returned home to the United States and joined a Christian
evangelical Evangelicalism (), also called evangelical Christianity or evangelical Protestantism, is a worldwide Interdenominationalism, interdenominational movement within Protestantism, Protestant Christianity that affirms the centrality of being "bor ...
movement known as the
Oxford Group The Oxford Group was a Christian organization (first known as ''First Century Christian Fellowship'') founded by the American Lutheran minister Frank Buchman in 1921. Buchman believed that fear and selfishness were the root of all problems. Fur ...
(later known as Moral Re-Armament). He also told other alcoholics what Jung had told him about the importance of a spiritual experience. One of the alcoholics he brought into the Oxford Group was
Ebby Thacher Edwin Throckmorton Thacher (29 April 1896 – 21 March 1966) (commonly known as Ebby Thacher or Ebby T.) was an old drinking friend and later the sponsor of Alcoholics Anonymous co-founder Bill Wilson. He is credited with introducing Wilson to th ...
, a long-time friend and drinking buddy of Bill Wilson, later co-founder of
Alcoholics Anonymous Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is an international mutual aid fellowship of alcoholics dedicated to abstinence-based recovery from alcoholism through its spiritually-inclined Twelve Step program. Following its Twelve Traditions, AA is non-professi ...
(AA). Thacher told Wilson about the Oxford Group, and, through them, Wilson became aware of Hazard's experience with Jung. The influence of Jung thus indirectly found its way into the formation of Alcoholics Anonymous, the original
twelve-step program Twelve-step programs are international mutual aid programs supporting recovery from substance addictions, behavioral addictions and compulsions. Developed in the 1930s, the first twelve-step program, Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), aided its members ...
. The above claims are documented in the letters of Jung and Bill Wilson, excerpts of which can be found in ''Pass It On'', published by Alcoholics Anonymous. Although the detail of this story is disputed by some historians, Jung himself discussed an Oxford Group member, who may have been the same person, in talks given around 1940. The remarks were distributed privately in transcript form, from shorthand taken by an attender (Jung reportedly approved the transcript), and later recorded in Volume 18 of his ''Collected Works'', ''The Symbolic Life,'' Jung goes on to state that he has seen similar cures among
Roman Catholics The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
. The 12 step program of Alcoholics Anonymous has an intense psychological backdrop, involving the human ego and dichotomy between the conscious and unconscious mind.


Inquiries into the paranormal

Jung had an apparent interest in the paranormal and occult. For decades he attended seances and claimed to have witnessed "parapsychic phenomena". Initially, he attributed these to psychological causes, even delivering a 1919 lecture in England for the Society for Psychical Research on "The Psychological Foundations for the belief in spirits". However, he began to "doubt whether an exclusively psychological approach can do justice to the phenomena in question" and stated that "the spirit hypothesis yields better results". But he retained some skepticism toward his own postulation, as he could not find material evidence of the existence of spirits. Jung's ideas about the paranormal culminated in "
synchronicity Synchronicity (german: Synchronizität) is a concept first introduced by analytical psychologist Carl G. Jung "to describe circumstances that appear meaningfully related yet lack a causal connection." In contemporary research, synchronicity e ...
". This is the idea that certain coincidences manifest in the world, have exceptionally intense meaning to observers. Such coincidences have great effect on the observer from multiple cumulative aspects: from the immediate personal relevance of the coincidence to the observer; from the peculiarities of (the nature of, the character, novelty, curiosity of) any such coincidence; from the sheer improbability of the coincidence, having no apparent causal link (hence Jung's essay subtitle "An Acausal Connecting Principle"). Despite his own experiments failing to confirm the phenomenon he held on to the idea as an explanation for apparent
ESP ESP most commonly refers to: * Extrasensory perception, a paranormal ability ESP may also refer to: Arts, entertainment Music * ESP Guitars, a manufacturer of electric guitars * E.S. Posthumus, an independent music group formed in 2000, ...
. In addition, he proposed it as a functional explanation for how the I-Ching worked, although he was never clear about how synchronicity worked.


Interpretation of quantum mechanics

Jung influenced one philosophical interpretation (not the science) of quantum physics with the concept of
synchronicity Synchronicity (german: Synchronizität) is a concept first introduced by analytical psychologist Carl G. Jung "to describe circumstances that appear meaningfully related yet lack a causal connection." In contemporary research, synchronicity e ...
regarding some events as non-causal. That idea influenced the physicist
Wolfgang Pauli Wolfgang Ernst Pauli (; ; 25 April 1900 – 15 December 1958) was an Austrian theoretical physicist and one of the pioneers of quantum physics. In 1945, after having been nominated by Albert Einstein, Pauli received the Nobel Prize in Physics fo ...
(with whom, via a letter correspondence, he developed the notion of ''
unus mundus ''Unus mundus'' (Latin for "One world") is an underlying concept of Western philosophy, theology, and alchemy, of a primordial unified reality from which everything derives. The term can be traced back to medieval Scholasticism though the notion it ...
'' in connection with the notion of nonlocality) and some other
physicists A physicist is a scientist who specializes in the field of physics, which encompasses the interactions of matter and energy at all length and time scales in the physical universe. Physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate caus ...
.


Alchemy

Jung's acquaintance with alchemy came between 1928 and 1930, when he was introduced to a manuscript of ''
The Secret of the Golden Flower ''The Secret of the Golden Flower'' () is a Chinese Taoist book on neidan (inner alchemy) meditation, which also mixes Buddhist teachings with some Confucian thoughts. It was written by means of the spirit-writing (fuji) technique, through two ...
'', translated by Richard Wilhelm. The work and writings of Jung from the 1930s onwards shifted to a focus on the psychological significance of alchemy. In 1944 Jung published '' Psychology and Alchemy'', in which he analyzed the alchemical symbols and came to the conclusion that there is a direct relationship between them and the psychoanalytical process. He argued that the alchemical process was the transformation of the impure soul (lead) to perfected soul (gold), and a metaphor for the individuation process. In 1963 ''
Mysterium Coniunctionis ''The Collected Works of C. G. Jung'' (german: Gesammelte Werke) is a book series containing the first collected edition, in English translation, of the major writings of Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung. The twenty volumes, including a Bibliog ...
'' first appeared in English as part of '' The Collected Works of C. G. Jung''. ''Mysterium Coniunctionis'' was Jung's last major book and focused on the "''Mysterium Coniunctionis''" archetype, known as the sacred marriage between sun and moon. Jung argued that the stages of the alchemists, the blackening, the whitening, the reddening, and the yellowing, could be taken as symbolic of individuation—his chosen term for personal growth (75).


Art therapy

Jung proposed that art can be used to alleviate or contain feelings of trauma, fear, or anxiety and also to repair, restore and heal. In his work with patients and his own personal explorations, Jung wrote that art expression and images found in dreams could help recover from trauma and emotional distress. At times of emotional distress, he often drew, painted, or made objects and constructions which he recognized as more than recreational.


Dance/movement therapy

Dance/movement therapy as active imagination was created by Carl Gustav Jung and
Toni Wolff Toni Anna Wolff (18 September 1888 – 21 March 1953) was a Swiss Jungian analyst and a close collaborator of Carl Jung. During her analytic career Wolff published relatively little under her own name, but she helped Jung identify, define, and na ...
in 1916 and was practiced by
Tina Keller-Jenny Tina Keller-Jenny (born June 17, 1887 in Schwanden, Switzerland, died October 25, 1985 in Geneva) was a Swiss physician and Jungian psychotherapist who witnessed firsthand the development of analytical psychology during its formative years. B ...
and other analysts, but remained largely unknown until the 1950s when it was rediscovered by Marian Chace and therapist Mary Whitehouse. Whitehouse, after studying with
Martha Graham Martha Graham (May 11, 1894 – April 1, 1991) was an American modern dancer and choreographer. Her style, the Graham technique, reshaped American dance and is still taught worldwide. Graham danced and taught for over seventy years. She wa ...
and
Mary Wigman Mary Wigman (born Karoline Sophie Marie Wiegmann; 13 November 1886 – 18 September 1973) was a German dancer and choreographer, notable as the pioneer of expressionist dance, dance therapy, and movement training without pointe shoes. She is con ...
, became herself a dancer and teacher of modern dance, as well as Swiss Dancer Trudy Schoop in 1963, who is considered one of the founders of the dance/movement therapy in the United States.


Political views


The state

Jung stressed the importance of
individual rights Group rights, also known as collective rights, are rights held by a group '' qua'' a group rather than individually by its members; in contrast, individual rights are rights held by individual people; even if they are group-differentiated, which ...
in a person's relation to the state and society. He saw that the state was treated as "a quasi-animate personality from whom everything is expected" but that this personality was "only camouflage for those individuals who know how to manipulate it", and referred to the state as a form of slavery. He also thought that the state "swallowed up eople'sreligious forces", and therefore that the state had "taken the place of God"—making it comparable to a religion in which "state slavery is a form of worship". Jung observed that "stage acts of hestate" are comparable to religious displays: From Jung's perspective, this replacement of God with the state in a mass society leads to the dislocation of the religious drive and results in the same
fanaticism Fanaticism (from the Latin adverb ''fānāticē'' ren-''fānāticus''; enthusiastic, ecstatic; raging, fanatical, furious is a belief or behavior involving uncritical zeal or an obsessive enthusiasm. Definitions Philosopher George Santayan ...
of the church-states of the Dark Ages—wherein the more the state is 'worshipped', the more freedom and morality are suppressed; this ultimately leaves the individual psychically undeveloped with extreme feelings of marginalization.


Germany, 1933 to 1939

Jung had many Jewish friends and colleagues and maintained relations with them throughout the 1930s despite prevailing
anti-semitism Antisemitism (also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism) is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite. Antisemitism is considered to be a form of racism. Antis ...
. Until 1939, he also maintained professional relations with psychotherapists in Germany who had declared their support for the
Nazi Nazism ( ; german: Nazismus), the common name in English for National Socialism (german: Nationalsozialismus, ), is the far-right totalitarian political ideology and practices associated with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in ...
regime. Some scholars allege that he himself sympathized with the regime.Clark, R.W (1980) ''Freud: the Man and the Cause''. London: Cape, pp. 492–3 In 1933, after the Nazis gained power in Germany, Jung took part in the restructuring of the General Medical Society for Psychotherapy (''Allgemeine Ärztliche Gesellschaft für Psychotherapie''), a German-based professional body with an international membership. The society was reorganized into two distinct bodies: # A strictly German body, the Deutsche Allgemeine Ärztliche Gesellschaft für Psychotherapie, led by Matthias Göring, an
Adlerian Individual psychology (german: Individualpsychologie) is a psychological method or science founded by the Viennese psychiatrist Alfred Adler. The English edition of Adler's work on the subject (1925) is a collection of papers and lectures given mai ...
psychotherapist and a cousin of the prominent Nazi
Hermann Göring Hermann Wilhelm Göring (or Goering; ; 12 January 1893 – 15 October 1946) was a German politician, military leader and convicted war criminal. He was one of the most powerful figures in the Nazi Party, which ruled Germany from 1933 to 1 ...
# International General Medical Society for Psychotherapy, led by Jung. The German body was to be affiliated to the international society, as were new national societies being set up in Switzerland and elsewhere. The International Society's constitution permitted individual doctors to join it directly, rather than through one of the national affiliated societies, a provision to which Jung drew attention in a circular in 1934. This implied that German Jewish doctors could maintain their professional status as individual members of the international body, even though they were excluded from the German affiliate, as well as from other German medical societies operating under the Nazis. As leader of the international body, Jung assumed overall responsibility for its publication, the ''Zentralblatt für Psychotherapie''. In 1933, this journal published a statement endorsing Nazi positions and Hitler's book ''
Mein Kampf (; ''My Struggle'' or ''My Battle'') is a 1925 autobiographical manifesto by Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler. The work describes the process by which Hitler became antisemitic and outlines his political ideology and future plans for Germ ...
''. In 1934, Jung wrote in a Swiss publication, the '' Neue Zürcher Zeitung'', that he experienced "great surprise and disappointment" when the ''Zentralblatt'' associated his name with the pro-Nazi statement. Jung went on to say "the main point is to get a young and insecure science into a place of safety during an earthquake". He did not end his relationship with the ''Zentralblatt'' at this time, but he did arrange the appointment of a new managing editor, Carl Alfred Meier of Switzerland. For the next few years, the ''Zentralblatt'' under Jung and Meier maintained a position distinct from that of the Nazis, in that it continued to acknowledge contributions of Jewish doctors to psychotherapy.Jaffé, Aniela (1972); ''From the Life and Work of C. G. Jung''; Hodder and Stoughton, London. ; p. 83. In the face of energetic German attempts to Nazify the international body, Jung resigned from its presidency in 1939, the year the
Second World War World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
started.


Nazism and antisemitism

Jung's interest in
European mythology Mythologies by region Africa *Bantu mythology Central Africa *Baluba mythology * Bushongo mythology * Kongo mythology * Lugbara mythology * Mbuti mythology East Africa * Dinka mythology * Kalenjin mythology *Lotuko mythology *Maasai mythology ...
and
folk psychology In philosophy of mind and cognitive science, folk psychology, or commonsense psychology, is a human capacity to explain and predict the behavior and mental state of other people. Processes and items encountered in daily life such as pain, pleasure ...
was shared by the
Nazis Nazism ( ; german: Nazismus), the common name in English for National Socialism (german: Nationalsozialismus, ), is the far-right totalitarian political ideology and practices associated with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in Na ...
.
Richard Noll Richard Noll (born 1959 in Detroit, Michigan) is an American clinical psychologist and historian of medicine. He has published on the history of psychiatry, including two critical volumes on the life and work of Carl Gustav Jung, books and articles ...
describes Jung's own reaction to this connection: Various statements made by Jung in the 1930s have been cited as evidence of both contempt for Nazism and sympathy for Nazism. In the 1936 essay "Wotan", Jung described the influence of
Adolf Hitler Adolf Hitler (; 20 April 188930 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician who was dictator of Nazi Germany, Germany from 1933 until Death of Adolf Hitler, his death in 1945. Adolf Hitler's rise to power, He rose to power as the le ...
on Germany as "one man who is obviously 'possessed' has infected a whole nation to such an extent that everything is set in motion and has started rolling on its course towards perdition." He would later say, during a lengthy interview with H. R. Knickerbocker in October 1938: Jung consistently rejected accusations of
antisemitism Antisemitism (also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism) is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite. Antisemitism is considered to be a form of racism. Antis ...
. In a 1948 interview with Carol Baumann, he stated: The accusations, however, have continued to be made concerning Jung's statements.
Avner Falk Avner Falk ( he, אבנר פלק; born 1943) is an Israeli clinical psychologist and author. Falk has written psychoanalytic studies of Jewish and Israeli leaders, Jewish history, the Arab–Israeli conflict, antisemitism and Islamic terrorism. ...
cites articles such as "The State of Psychotherapy Today", published in 1934 in the ''Zentralblatt fur Psychotherapie'', where Jung wrote: "The Aryan unconscious has a greater potential than the Jewish unconscious" and "The Jew, who is something of a nomad, has never yet created a cultural form of his own and as far as we can see never will".
Andrew Samuels Andrew Samuels (born 19 January 1949) is a British psychotherapist and writer on political and social themes from a psychological viewpoint. He has worked with politicians, political organisations, activist groups and members of the public in Eu ...
argues that his remarks on the "Aryan unconscious" and the "corrosive character" of Freud's "Jewish gospel" demonstrate an antisemitism "fundamental to the structure of Jung's thought".


Service to the Allies during World War II

Jung was in contact with
Allen Dulles Allen Welsh Dulles (, ; April 7, 1893 – January 29, 1969) was the first civilian Director of Central Intelligence (DCI), and its longest-serving director to date. As head of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) during the early Cold War, he ov ...
of the Office of Strategic Services (predecessor of the
Central Intelligence Agency The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA ), known informally as the Agency and historically as the Company, is a civilian foreign intelligence service of the federal government of the United States, officially tasked with gathering, processing, ...
) and provided valuable intelligence on the psychological condition of
Hitler Adolf Hitler (; 20 April 188930 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician who was dictator of Germany from 1933 until his death in 1945. He rose to power as the leader of the Nazi Party, becoming the chancellor in 1933 and then ...
. Dulles referred to Jung as "Agent 488" and offered the following description of his service: "Nobody will probably ever know how much Professor Jung contributed to the Allied Cause during the war, by seeing people who were connected somehow with the other side". Jung's service to the Allied cause through the OSS remained classified after the war.


Views on homosexuality

Jung addressed homosexuality in his published writings, in one comment specifying that homosexuality should not be a concern of legal authorities nor be considered a crime. He also stated that homosexuality does not reduce the value of a person as a member of society. However, Jung also said that homosexuality is a result of psychological immaturity,


Psychedelics

Jung's theories are considered to be a useful therapeutic framework for the analysis of unconscious phenomena that become manifest in the acute psychedelic state. This view is based on correspondence Jung had with researchers involved in psychedelic research in the 1950s, as well as more recent neuroimaging research where subjects who are administered psychedelic compounds seem to have archetypal religious experiences of "unity" and "ego dissolution" associated with reduced activity in the default mode network. This research has led to a re-evaluation of Jung's work, and particularly the visions detailed in '' The Red Book'', in the context of contemporary psychedelic, evolutionary and developmental neuroscience. For example, in a chapter entitled 'Integrating the Archaic and the Modern: The Red Book, Visual Cognitive Modalities and the Neuroscience of Altered States of Consciousness', in the 2020 volume ''Jung's Red Book for Our Time: Searching for Soul Under Postmodern Conditions, Volume 4'', it is argued Jung was a pioneer who explored uncharted "cognitive domains" that are alien to Western modes of thought. While such domains of experience are not part of mainstream Western culture and thought, they are central to various Indigenous cultures who use psychedelics such as
Iboga ''Tabernanthe iboga'' (iboga) is an evergreen rainforest shrub native to Central Africa. A member of the Apocynaceae family indigenous to Gabon, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and the Republic of Congo, it is cultivated across Central Africa ...
and
Ayahuasca AyahuascaPronounced as in the UK and in the US. Also occasionally known in English as ''ayaguasca'' (Spanish-derived), ''aioasca'' (Brazilian Portuguese-derived), or as ''yagé'', pronounced or . Etymologically, all forms but ''yagé'' descen ...
during rituals to alter consciousness. As the author writes: "Jung seems to have been dealing with modes of consciousness alien to mainstream Western thought, exploring the terrain of uncharted cognitive domains. I argue that science is beginning to catch up with Jung who was a pioneer whose insights contribute a great deal to our emerging understanding of human consciousness." In this analysis Jung's paintings of his visions in '' The Red Book'' were compared to the paintings of Ayahuasca visions by the Peruvian shaman
Pablo Amaringo Pablo Cesar Amaringo Shuña (January 21, 1938 – November 16, 2009) was a Peruvian artist, renowned for his intricate, colourful depictions of his visions from drinking the entheogenic plant brew ayahuasca. He was first brought to the West ...
. Commenting on research that was being undertaken during the 1950s, Jung wrote the following in a letter to Betty Eisner, a psychologist who was involved in LSD research at the University of California: "Experiments along the line of mescaline and related drugs are certainly most interesting since such drugs lay bare a level of the unconscious that is otherwise accessible only under peculiar psychic conditions. It is a fact that you get certain perceptions and experiences of things appearing either in mystical states or in the analysis of unconscious phenomena." A detailed account of Jung and psychedelics, as well as the importance of Jungian psychology to psychedelic-assisted therapies, is outlined in Scott Hill's 2013 book ''Confrontation with the Unconscious: Jungian Depth Psychology and Psychedelic Experience''. An article published in 2021 in the International Journal of Jungian Studies, entitle
'Carl Jung and the Psychedelic Brain: An Evolutionary Model of Analytical Psychology Informed by Psychedelic Neuroscience'
discusses Jung's attitude towards psychedelics, as well as the applicability of his ideas to current research. As the author writes Jung's '...legitimate reservations about the clinical use of psychedelics are no longer relevant as the field has progressed significantly, devising robust clinical and experimental protocols for psychedelic assisted therapies. That said Jung's concept of individuation—that is the integration of the archaic unconscious with consciousness—seems extremely pertinent to modern psychedelic research.' The author also uses work in evolutionary and psychedelic neuroscience, and specifically the latter's ability to make manifest ancient subcortical brain systems, to illuminate Jung's concept of an archaic collective unconscious that evolved prior to the ego complex and the uniquely human default mode network.


Legacy

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), a psychometric instrument mostly popular with non-psychologists, as well as the concepts of
socionics Socionics, in psychology and sociology, is a pseudoscientific theory of information processing and personality types. It incorporates Carl Jung's work on '' Psychological Types'' with Antoni Kępiński's theory of information metabolism. Socio ...
, were developed from Jung's model of psychological types. The MBTI is considered
pseudoscience Pseudoscience consists of statements, beliefs, or practices that claim to be both scientific and factual but are incompatible with the scientific method. Pseudoscience is often characterized by contradictory, exaggerated or falsifiability, unfa ...
and is not widely accepted by researchers in the field of psychology. Jung saw the human psyche as "by nature religious" and made this idea a principal focus of his explorations. Jung is one of the best known contemporary contributors to
dream analysis Dream interpretation is the process of assigning meaning to dreams. Although associated with some forms of psychotherapy, there is no reliable evidence that understanding or interpreting dreams has a positive impact on one's mental health. In m ...
and symbolization. His influence on popular psychology, the "psychologization of religion",
spirituality The meaning of ''spirituality'' has developed and expanded over time, and various meanings can be found alongside each other. Traditionally, spirituality referred to a religious process of re-formation which "aims to recover the original shape o ...
and the
New Age New Age is a range of spiritual or religious practices and beliefs which rapidly grew in Western society during the early 1970s. Its highly eclectic and unsystematic structure makes a precise definition difficult. Although many scholars consi ...
movement has been immense. A ''
Review of General Psychology ''Review of General Psychology'' is the quarterly scientific journal of the American Psychological Association Division 1: The Society for General Psychology. The journal publishes cross-disciplinary psychological articles that are conceptual, th ...
'' survey, published in 2002, ranked Jung as the 23rd most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Although psychoanalysis is still studied in the humanities, a 2008 study in ''The Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association'' found that psychology departments and textbooks treat it as "desiccated and dead". Similarly, Alan Stone noted, "As academic psychology becomes more 'scientific' and psychiatry more biological, psychoanalysis is being brushed aside." Houses and institutions * C. G. Jung House Museum *
Bollingen Tower The Bollingen Tower is a structure built by Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung. In appearance, it is a small castle with four towers. It is located in the village of Bollingen on the shore of the ''Obersee'' (upper lake) basin of Lake Zürich. Hist ...
* Psychology Club Zürich *
C. G. Jung Institute, Zürich The C. G. Jung Institute, Zürich (German: C. G. Jung-Institut Zürich) was founded in Küsnacht, Switzerland, in 1948 by the psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung, the founder of Analytical psychology (more commonly called Jungian psychology). Marie-Loui ...
*
Society of Analytical Psychology The Society of Analytical Psychology, known also as the SAP, incorporated in London, England, in 1945 is the oldest training organisation for Jungian analysts in the United Kingdom. Its first Honorary President in 1946 was Carl Jung. The Societ ...
Organizations *
International Association for Analytical Psychology The International Association for Analytical Psychology (IAAP) is the international accrediting and regulatory body for all Jungian societies and groups of analytical psychology practitioners, trainees and affiliates. Analytical psychology was ...
*
International Association for Jungian Studies Formed in 2002, the International Association for Jungian Studies (IAJS) is a learned society for Jungian scholars and clinicians. Background The IAJS differs in its focus from the international Jungian organisation, the International Association ...


In popular culture


Literature

*
Laurens van der Post Sir Laurens Jan van der Post, (13 December 1906 – 15 December 1996) was a South African Afrikaner writer, farmer, soldier, educator, journalist, humanitarian, philosopher, explorer and conservationist. He was noted for his interest in Jun ...
was an Afrikaner author who claimed to have had a 16-year friendship with Jung, from which a number of books and a film were created about Jung. The accuracy of van der Post's claims about his relationship to Jung has been questioned. *
Hermann Hesse Hermann Karl Hesse (; 2 July 1877 – 9 August 1962) was a German-Swiss poet, novelist, and painter. His best-known works include ''Demian'', ''Steppenwolf (novel), Steppenwolf'', ''Siddhartha (novel), Siddhartha'', and ''The Glass Bead Game'', ...
, author of works such as '' Siddhartha'' and '' Steppenwolf'', was treated by Joseph Lang, a student of Jung. For Hesse this began a long preoccupation with
psychoanalysis PsychoanalysisFrom Greek: + . is a set of theories and therapeutic techniques"What is psychoanalysis? Of course, one is supposed to answer that it is many things — a theory, a research method, a therapy, a body of knowledge. In what might b ...
, through which he came to know Jung personally. * In his novel ''The World is Made of Glass'' (1983),
Morris West Morris Langlo West (26 April 19169 October 1999) was an Australian novelist and playwright, best known for his novels '' The Devil's Advocate'' (1959), '' The Shoes of the Fisherman'' (1963) and ''The Clowns of God'' (1981). His books were pub ...
gives a fictional account of one of Jung's cases, placing the events in 1913. According to the author's note, the novel is "based upon a case recorded, very briefly, by Carl Gustav Jung in his autobiographical work ''Memories, Dreams, Reflections''". * The Canadian novelist
Robertson Davies William Robertson Davies (28 August 1913 – 2 December 1995) was a Canadian novelist, playwright, critic, journalist, and professor. He was one of Canada's best known and most popular authors and one of its most distinguished " men of letters" ...
made Jungian analysis a central part of his 1970 novel ''The Manticore''. He stated in a letter, "There have been other books which describe Freudian analyses, but I know of no other that describes a Jungian analysis" adding "I was deeply afraid that I would put my foot in it, for I have never undergone one of those barnacle-scraping experiences, and knew of it only through reading. So, I was greatly pleased when some of my Jungian friends in Zurich liked it very much." * ''
Pilgrim A pilgrim (from the Latin ''peregrinus'') is a traveler (literally one who has come from afar) who is on Pilgrimage, a journey to a holy place. Typically, this is a physical journey (often on foot) to some place of special significance to the a ...
'' * ''
Possessing the Secret of Joy ''Possessing the Secret of Joy'' is a 1992 novel by Alice Walker. Plot summary It tells the story of Tashi, an African woman and a minor character in Walker's earlier novel ''The Color Purple''. Now in the US she comes from Olinka, Alice Walker ...
'', a novel in which Jung is a therapist character— * '' The Interpretation of Murder''


Art

* The
visionary A visionary, defined broadly, is one who can envision the future. For some groups, this can involve the supernatural. The visionary state is achieved via meditation, lucid dreams, daydreams, or art. One example is Hildegard of Bingen, a 12th- ...
Swiss painter
Peter Birkhäuser Peter Birkhäuser (7 June 1911 – 22 November 1976) was a Swiss poster artist, portraitist, and visionary painter, noted for his paintings illustrating imagery from dreams in the context of analytical psychology. Life and work The son of an ...
was treated by a student of Jung, Marie-Louise von Franz, and corresponded with Jung about the translation of dream symbolism into works of art. * American
Abstract Expressionist Abstract expressionism is a post–World War II art movement in American painting, developed in New York City in the 1940s. It was the first specifically American movement to achieve international influence and put New York at the center of the ...
Jackson Pollock Paul Jackson Pollock (; January 28, 1912August 11, 1956) was an American painter and a major figure in the abstract expressionist movement. He was widely noticed for his " drip technique" of pouring or splashing liquid household paint onto a hor ...
underwent Jungian psychotherapy in 1939 with Joseph Henderson. Henderson engaged Pollock through his art, having him make drawings, which led to the appearance of many Jungian concepts in his paintings. * Contrary to some sources, Jung did not visit
Liverpool Liverpool is a city and metropolitan borough in Merseyside, England. With a population of in 2019, it is the 10th largest English district by population and its metropolitan area is the fifth largest in the United Kingdom, with a popul ...
but recorded a dream in which he did, and of which he wrote, "Liverpool is the pool of life, it makes to live." A plaster statue of Jung was erected in
Mathew Street Mathew Street is a street in Liverpool, England, notable as the location of the new Cavern Club, the Beatles having played in the original club on numerous occasions in their early career. Mathew Street is visited by thousands of tourists a ...
in 1987 that was vandalised and replaced by a more durable version in 1993.


Music

* Musician
David Bowie David Robert Jones (8 January 194710 January 2016), known professionally as David Bowie ( ), was an English singer-songwriter and actor. A leading figure in the music industry, he is regarded as one of the most influential musicians of the ...
described himself as Jungian in his relationship to dreams and the unconscious. Bowie sang of Jung on his album '' Aladdin Sane'' (a pun on "a lad insane") and attended the exhibition of ''The Red Book'' in New York with artist
Tony Oursler Tony may refer to: People and fictional characters * Tony (given name), including a list of people and fictional characters * Gregory Tony (born 1978), American law enforcement officer * Motu Tony (born 1981), New Zealand international rugby leagu ...
, who described Bowie as "reading and speaking of the psychoanalyst with passion". Bowie's 1967 song " Shadow Man" encapsulates a key Jungian concept, while in 1987 Bowie described the Glass Spiders of ''
Never Let Me Down ''Never Let Me Down'' is the 17th studio album by English musician David Bowie, released on 20 April 1987 through EMI America Records. After a series of miscellaneous projects, Bowie hoped to make his next record differently following his ...
'' as Jungian mother figures around which he not only anchored a worldwide tour but also created an enormous onstage effigy. *British rock band
The Police The Police were an English rock band formed in London in 1977. For most of their history the line-up consisted of primary songwriter Sting (lead vocals, bass guitar), Andy Summers (guitar) and Stewart Copeland (drums, percussion). The Police ...
released an album titled ''
Synchronicity Synchronicity (german: Synchronizität) is a concept first introduced by analytical psychologist Carl G. Jung "to describe circumstances that appear meaningfully related yet lack a causal connection." In contemporary research, synchronicity e ...
'' in 1983. *
Banco de Gaia Banco de Gaia is an English electronic music project, formed in 1989 by Toby Marks (born 1964, South London, England). The music of Banco de Gaia is mostly categorized as ambient dub and downtempo. Marks works to cross genres, often using Ar ...
called his 2009 electronic music album, ''
Memories Dreams Reflections ''Memories Dreams Reflections'' is an album by Banco de Gaia Banco de Gaia is an English electronic music project, formed in 1989 by Toby Marks (born 1964, South London, England). The music of Banco de Gaia is mostly categorized as ambie ...
''. *The American rock band
Tool A tool is an object that can extend an individual's ability to modify features of the surrounding environment or help them accomplish a particular task. Although many animals use simple tools, only human beings, whose use of stone tools dates ba ...
was influenced by Jungian concepts in its album ''
Ænima ''Ænima'' ( ) is the second studio album by American rock band Tool. It was released in vinyl format on September 17, 1996, and in compact disc format on October 1, 1996, through Zoo Entertainment. The album was recorded and cut at Ocean Wa ...
'', the title a play on the concepts of anima and animus. In the song "
Forty Six & 2 "Forty Six & 2" is a song by the American progressive metal band Tool. It was released as the fourth single from their second major record release ''Ænima'' in 1996 and received radio airplay. Title and theme A popular belief is that the song ...
", the singer seeks to become a more evolved self by exploring and overcoming his
Shadow A shadow is a dark area where light from a light source is blocked by an opaque object. It occupies all of the three-dimensional volume behind an object with light in front of it. The cross section of a shadow is a two-dimensional silhouette, o ...
. * Argentinian musician
Luis Alberto Spinetta Luis Alberto Spinetta (23 January 1950 – 8 February 2012), nicknamed "El Flaco" (Spanish for "skinny"), was an Argentine singer, guitarist, composer and poet. One of the most influential rock musicians of Argentina, he is regarded as one of ...
was influenced by Jung's texts in his 1975 conceptual album ''Durazno sangrando'', specifically the songs "Encadenado al ánima" and "En una lejana playa del ánimus", which deal with anima and animus. * Jung appeared on the front cover of
The Beatles The Beatles were an English Rock music, rock band, formed in Liverpool in 1960, that comprised John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr. They are regarded as the Cultural impact of the Beatles, most influential band of al ...
' '' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band''. * The South Korean band
BTS BTS (), also known as the Bangtan Boys, is a South Korean boy band formed in 2010 and debuting in 2013 under Big Hit Entertainment. The septet—consisting of members Jin, Suga, J-Hope, RM, Jimin, V, and Jungkook—co-writes and co-pr ...
's 2019 album ''Map of the Soul: Persona'' is based on Jung's ''Map of the Soul'', which gives the basic principles of Jung's analytical psychology. It includes an intro song titled Intro: Persona, Persona rapped by group leader RM (rapper), RM, who asks, "''Personal identity, who am I?''", and is confronted with various versions of himself with the words "''Persona''", "''
Shadow A shadow is a dark area where light from a light source is blocked by an opaque object. It occupies all of the three-dimensional volume behind an object with light in front of it. The cross section of a shadow is a two-dimensional silhouette, o ...
''", and "''Self-concept, Ego''", referring to Jung's theories. On 21 February 2020, the band released ''Map of the Soul: 7'', which specifically focuses on Jung's "Shadow" and "Ego" theories. As part of the first phase of the band's comeback, ''Interlude: Shadow'', rapped by Suga (rapper), Suga and released on 10 January, addresses the shadows and the darkness that go hand-in-hand with the light and attention shone on celebrities. The next comeback trailer, "Outro: Ego", performed by J-Hope, ends with his declaration of self and ego as he appears within a colourful city "in which the artist's current image is projected".


Theatre, film, television and radio

* Federico Fellini brought to the screen exuberant imagery shaped by his encounter with Jung's ideas, especially Jungian dream interpretation. Fellini preferred Jung to Freud because Jungian analysis defined the dream not as a symptom of a disease that required a cure but rather as a link to archetypal images shared by all of humanity. * The BBC interviewed Jung for ''Face to Face (British TV series), Face to Face'' with John Freeman at Jung's home in Zurich in 1959. * Stephen Segaller produced a documentary on Jung as part of his "World of Dreams", ''Wisdom of the Dream'' in 1985. It was re-issued in 2018. It was followed by a book of the same title. * Stanley Kubrick's 1987 film ''Full Metal Jacket'' has an underlying theme about the duality of man. In one scene, a colonel asks a soldier, "You write 'Born to Kill' on your helmet and you wear a peace button. What's that supposed to be, some kind of sick joke?" The soldier replies, "I think I was trying to suggest something about the duality of man, sir...the Jungian thing, sir." * ''A Dangerous Method'', a 2011 film directed by David Cronenberg based on Hampton's play ''The Talking Cure'', is a fictional dramatisation of Jung's life between 1904 and 1913. It mainly concerns his relationships with Freud and
Sabina Spielrein Sabina Nikolayevna Spielrein ( rus, Сабина Николаевна Шпильрейн, p=sɐˈbʲinə nʲɪkɐˈlajɪvnə ʂpʲɪlʲˈrɛjn; 7 November 25 October 1885 OS – 11 August 1942) was a Russian physician and one of the first fema ...
, a Russian woman who became his lover and student and, later, an analyst herself. * More recently, Robert Eggers psychological thriller, The Lighthouse (2019 film), The Lighthouse has elements strongly influenced by Jung's work with Eggers hoping that "it's a movie where both Jung and Freud would be furiously eating their popcorn". * ''Soul (2020 film), Soul'', a 2020 Pixar film written by Pete Docter, Mike Jones (screenwriter), Mike Jones and Kemp Powers, includes brief appearances of Jung as an ethereal cartoon character, "Soul Carl Jung". * In the online animated series, Super Science Friends, Jung, voiced by Tom Park, is featured as one of the recurrent antagonists against Sigmund Freud. * Matter of Heart (1986), Documentary on the famous Swiss psychoanalyst, Carl Gustav Jung, featuring interviews with those who knew him and archive footage of Jung. *On 2 December 2004, BBC Radio 4's In Our Time (radio series), ''In Our Time'' broadcast a programme on 'the mind and theories' of Jung.


Video games

* The Persona (series), ''Persona'' series of games is heavily based on Jung's theories, as is the ''Nights into Dreams'' series of games. *''Xenogears'' for the original PlayStation and its associated works—including its reimagination as the "Xenosaga" trilogy and a graphic novel published by the game's creator, ''Perfect Works''—center around Jungian concepts. Control centers around Jung's theories of the darkness and the astral plane. Jungian concepts are present in the Xeno (series), Xenoseries. *''Jung's Labyrinth'' is a psychological exploration PC game that uses Jungian psychology, mythology, alchemical, and dream symbolism in a series of active imaginations to map the process of individuation. The Jungian concepts are represented mostly by the 12 archetypes that the player engages in a conversation. *The game Control (video game), Control is heavily influenced by Carl Jung's ideas, particularly synchronicity and shadow selves.


Bibliography


Books

* 1910 ''Über Konflikte der kindlichen Seele, About the conflicts of a child's soul'' * 1912 ''
Psychology of the Unconscious ''Psychology of the Unconscious'' (german: Wandlungen und Symbole der Libido) is an early work of Carl Jung, first published in 1912. The English translation by Beatrice M. Hinkle appeared in 1916 under the full title of ''Psychology of the Uncon ...
'' * 1916 ''Seven Sermons to the Dead'' (a part of the ''The Red Book (Jung), Red Book'', published privately) * 1921 '' Psychological Types'' * 1933 ''Modern Man in Search of a Soul'' (essays) * 1944 '' Psychology and Alchemy'' * 1951 ''Aion: Researches into the Phenomenology of the Self'' * 1952 '' Symbols of Transformation'' (revised edition of ''Psychology of the Unconscious'') * 1954 ''Answer to Job'' * 1956 ''
Mysterium Coniunctionis ''The Collected Works of C. G. Jung'' (german: Gesammelte Werke) is a book series containing the first collected edition, in English translation, of the major writings of Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung. The twenty volumes, including a Bibliog ...
: An Inquiry into the Separation and Synthesis of Psychic Opposites in Alchemy'' * 1959 ''Flying Saucers: A Modern Myth of Things Seen in the Skies'' (Translated by R. F. C. Hull) * 1960 ''Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting Principle'' * 1961 ''Memories, Dreams, Reflections'' (autobiography, co-written with Aniela Jaffé) * 1964 ''
Man and His Symbols ''Man and His Symbols'' is the last work undertaken by Carl Jung before his death in 1961. First published in 1964, it is divided into five parts, four of which were written by associates of Jung: Marie-Louise von Franz, Joseph L. Henderson, A ...
'' (Jung contributed one part, his last writing before his death in 1961; the other four parts are by Marie-Louise von Franz, Joseph L. Henderson, Jaffé, and Jolande Jacobi) * 2009 ''The Red Book (Jung), The Red Book: Liber Novus'' (manuscript produced circa 1915–1932) * 2020 ''Black Books (Jung), Black Books'' (private journals produced circa 1913–1932, on which the ''Red Book'' is based)


''Collected Works''

'' The Collected Works of C. G. Jung''. Eds. Herbert Read,
Michael Fordham Michael Scott Montague Fordham (4 August 1905 – 14 April 1995) was an English child psychiatrist and Jungian analyst. He was a co-editor of the English translation of C.G. Jung's Collected Works. His clinical and theoretical collaboratio ...
, Gerhard Adler. Executive ed. W. McGuire. Trans R.F.C. Hull. London: Routledge Kegan Paul (1953–1980). :1. ''Psychiatric Studies'' (1902–06) :2. ''Experimental Researches'' (1904–10) (trans L. Stein and D. Riviere) :3. ''Psychogenesis of Mental Disease'' (1907–14; 1919–58) :4. ''Freud and Psychoanalysis'' (1906–14; 1916–30) :5. ''Symbols of Transformation'' (1911–12; 1952) :6. '' Psychological Types'' (1921) :7. ''Two Essays on Analytical Psychology'' (1912–28) :8. ''Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche'' (1916–52) :9.1 ''Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious'' (1934–55) :9.2 ''Aion: Researches into the Phenomenology of the Self'' (1951) :10. ''Civilization in Transition'' (1918–1959) :11. ''Psychology and Religion: West and East'' (1932–52) :12. '' Psychology and Alchemy'' (1936–44) :13. ''Alchemical Studies'' (1919–45): :14. ''Mysterium Coniunctionis'' (1955–56): :15. ''Spirit in Man, Art, and Literature'' (1929–1941) :16. ''The Practice of Psychotherapy'' (1921–25) :17. ''The Development of Personality'' (1910; 1925–43) :18. ''The Symbolic Life: Miscellaneous Writings'' :19. ''General Bibliography'' :20. ''General Index'' Supplementary volumes :A. ''The Zofingia Lectures'' :B. ''
Psychology of the Unconscious ''Psychology of the Unconscious'' (german: Wandlungen und Symbole der Libido) is an early work of Carl Jung, first published in 1912. The English translation by Beatrice M. Hinkle appeared in 1916 under the full title of ''Psychology of the Uncon ...
'' (trans. Beatrice M. Hinckle) Seminars :''Analytical Psychology'' (1925) :''Dream Analysis (1928-30), Dream Analysis'' (1928–30) :''Visions'' (1930-34) :''The Kundalini Yoga'' (1932) :''Nietzsche's Zarathustra'' (1934-39) :''Children's Dreams'' (1936-1940)


See also

Topics * Archetypal literary criticism * Archetypal pedagogy * Archetypal psychology * Big Five personality traits * Cryptomnesia * Jungian Type Index * Jung Type Indicator * Keirsey Temperament Sorter * Logos * Logotherapy * Myers–Briggs Type Indicator * Neo-Freudian * Nekyia * Participation mystique * Psychodynamics * Reincarnation * Synesthesia * The Sekhmet Hypothesis – archetypal symbolism presented by youth trends * Wounded healer People * Gerhard Adler—friend and co-editor of the ''Collected Works'' in English * John Beebe—Jungian analyst, typologist, and commentator on Jungian ideas * Martin Buber—see the Buber–Jung disputations * Irene Claremont de Castillejo—an analytical psychologist who trained with the Jungs and
Toni Wolff Toni Anna Wolff (18 September 1888 – 21 March 1953) was a Swiss Jungian analyst and a close collaborator of Carl Jung. During her analytic career Wolff published relatively little under her own name, but she helped Jung identify, define, and na ...
and author on the feminine * Isabel Briggs Myers & Katharine Cook Briggs-American writers and co-creators of a personality inventory known as the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and based on theories of Carl Jung * Linda Fierz-David—one of the earliest Jungian analysts in Zurich * Otto Gross—colleague, analyst, and influence on Jung * Mary Esther Harding—British doctor who became one of the earliest Jungian analysts in the United States * Carl Kerenyi—Hungarian scholar of Greek mythology, colleague, and influence on Jung * Margaret Lowenfeld—British doctor and creator of sandplay and tutor of the Swiss Jungian, Dora Kalff, who developed sandplay as a diagnostic tool * Winifred Rushforth—Edinburgh doctor, missionary in India, and clinic founder who corresponded with Jung * Herbert Silberer—Early colleague and influence on Jung * Anthony Stevens (Jungian analyst), Anthony Stevens—analytical psychologist, psychiatrist, and author * D. T. Suzuki—see ''An Introduction to Zen Buddhism'', for which C. G. Jung wrote a preface * Frances Wickes—early American Jungian child therapist, lecturer, author, and friend of Jung


Notes


References


Sources

*


Further reading

Introductory texts * Carl Gustav Jung, ''Analytical Psychology: Its Theory and Practice (The Tavistock Lectures)'' (Ark Paperbacks), 1990, * * ''The Basic Writings of C. G. Jung'', edited by V. S. de Laszlo (The Modern Library, 1959), * Edward F Edinger, ''Ego and Archetype'', (Shambhala Publications), * Robert Hopcke, ''A Guided Tour of the Collected Works of C. G. Jung'', * Edward C. Whitmont, ''The Symbolic Quest: Basic Concepts of Analytical Psychology'', Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1969, 1979, * * Texts in various areas of Jungian thought * Robert Aziz, ''C. G. Jung's Psychology of Religion and Synchronicity'' (1990), currently in its 10th printing, is a refereed publication of State University of New York Press. * Robert Aziz, ''Synchronicity and the Transformation of the Ethical in Jungian Psychology'' in Carl B. Becker, ed., ''Asian and Jungian Views of Ethics''. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1999. * Robert Aziz, ''The Syndetic Paradigm: The Untrodden Path Beyond Freud and Jung'' (2007), a refereed publication of The State University of New York Press. * Robert Aziz, Foreword in Lance Storm, ed., ''Synchronicity: Multiple Perspectives on Meaningful Coincidence''. Pari, Italy: Pari Publishing, 2008. * Wallace Clift, ''Jung and Christianity: The Challenge of Reconciliation''. New York: The Crossroad Publishing Company, 1982. * Edward F. Edinger, ''The Mystery of The Coniunctio'', * Wolfgang Giegerich, ''The Soul's Logical Life'', * James A Hall M.D., ''Jungian Dream Interpretation'', * James Hillman, "Healing Fiction", * Montiel, Luis, "El rizoma oculto de la psicología profunda. Gustav Meyrink y Carl Gustav Jung", Frenia, 2012, * Catherine M Nutting, ''Concrete Insight: Art, the Unconscious, and Transformative Spontaneity'', UVic Thesis 2007 214 * Stanton Marlan,
Jung's Alchemical Philosophy. Psyche and the Mercurial Play of Image and Idea
', Routledge, 2022, ISBN 9781032105444 * Andrew Samuels, ''Critical Dictionary of Jungian Analysis'', * June Singer, ''Boundaries of the Soul'', . On psychotherapy * Anthony Storr, ''Jung'' (1973) * — ''The Essential Jung'' (1983) * — ''The Essential Jung: Selected Writings'' (1999) * Marion Woodman, ''The Pregnant Virgin: A Process of Psychological Transformation'', * Simosko, Vladimir. ''Jung, Music, and Music Therapy: Prepared for the Occasion of the C.G. "Jung and the Humanities" Colloquium, 1987''. Winnipeg, Man., The Author, 1987 Academic texts * Andrew Samuels, ''The Political Psyche'' (Routledge), * Lucy Huskinson, ''Nietzsche and Jung: The Whole Self in the Union of Opposites'' (Routledge), * Andrey Davydov, Davydov, Andrey. ''From Carl Gustav Jung's Archetypes of the Collective Unconscious to Individual Archetypal Pattern''. HPA Press, 2014. * Remo, F. Roth: ''Return of the World Soul, Wolfgang Pauli, C.G. Jung and the Challenge of Psychophysical Reality [unus mundus], Part 1: The Battle of the Giants''. Pari Publishing, 2011, * Remo, F. Roth: ''Return of the World Soul, Wolfgang Pauli, C.G. Jung and the Challenge of Psychophysical Reality [unus mundus], Part 2: A Psychophysical Theory''. Pari Publishing, 2012, Journals
The Journal of Analytical PsychologyJAP at John Wiley & Sons

International Journal for Jungian StudiesIJJS at Brill
Jung-Freud relationship * Kerr, John. ''A Most Dangerous Method: The Story of Jung, Freud, and Sabina Spielrein''. Knopf, 1993. . Other people's recollections of Jung * van der Post, Laurens, ''Jung and the Story of Our Time'', New York: Pantheon Books, 1975. * Hannah, Barbara, ''Jung, his life and work: a biographical memoir'', New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1976. SBN: 399-50383-8 * David Bailey's biography of his Great Aunt, Ruth Bailey, 'The English Woman and C.G.Jung' drawing extensively on her diaries and correspondence, explores the deep and long-lasting friendship between Ruth, Jung, and Jung's wife and family. Critical scholarship * Maidenbaum, Aryeh (ed), ''Jung and the Shadow of Anti-Semitism'', Berwick ME: Nicolas-Hays Inc, 2002. * Dohe, Carrie B. ''Jung's Wandering Archetype: Race and Religion in Analytical Psychology. '' London: Routledge, 2016. * * * *
Richard Noll Richard Noll (born 1959 in Detroit, Michigan) is an American clinical psychologist and historian of medicine. He has published on the history of psychiatry, including two critical volumes on the life and work of Carl Gustav Jung, books and articles ...
, ''The Aryan Christ: The Secret Life of Carl Jung'' (Random House, 1997) * * *


External links

* * *
C.G. Jung Institute, Zurich

Museum House of C.G. Jung
Küsnacht, Zurich (Switzerland)
Carl Jung Resources

The Jung PagePhilemon Foundation




Full-text article from 1916. Originally Published in the ''Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology''.

Carl Gustav Jung
The Theory of Psychoanalysis
Full-text article from 1915. Originally published in ''The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease''
Jung's "Essay on Wotan"


From th
Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress

BBC ''Face to Face'' interview
Carl Jung and John Freeman, 22 October 1959.
The Journal of Analytical Psychology

International Journal for Jungian Studies
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jung, Carl Gustav Carl Jung, 1875 births 1961 deaths 20th-century Swiss philosophers 20th-century Swiss writers 20th-century psychologists ETH Zurich faculty History of mental health History of psychiatry Pantheists People associated with the University of Zurich People from Arbon District People from Küsnacht People from Rapperswil-Jona Psychodynamics Jungian psychologists Psychological astrology Psychologists of religion Psychology writers Schizophrenia researchers Swiss astrologers Swiss autobiographers Swiss people of German descent Swiss philosophers Swiss psychiatrists Swiss psychologists Swiss Protestants, Calvinists Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians Symbologists University of Basel alumni Members of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society