Sextus Julius Frontinus (c. 40 – 103 AD) was a prominent
Roman
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
*Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lette ...
civil engineer, author, soldier and senator of the late 1st century AD. He was a successful general under
Domitian
Domitian (; la, Domitianus; 24 October 51 – 18 September 96) was a Roman emperor who reigned from 81 to 96. The son of Vespasian and the younger brother of Titus, his two predecessors on the throne, he was the last member of the Fl ...
, commanding forces in
Roman Britain
Roman Britain was the period in classical antiquity when large parts of the island of Great Britain were under occupation by the Roman Empire. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410. During that time, the territory conquered wa ...
, and on the
Rhine
), Surselva, Graubünden, Switzerland
, source1_coordinates=
, source1_elevation =
, source2 = Rein Posteriur/Hinterrhein
, source2_location = Paradies Glacier, Graubünden, Switzerland
, source2_coordinates=
, so ...
and
Danube
The Danube ( ; ) is a river that was once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire and today connects 10 European countries, running through their territories or being a border. Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for , p ...
frontiers. A ''
novus homo
''Novus homo'' or ''homo novus'' (Latin for 'new man'; ''novi homines'' or ''homines novi'') was the term in ancient Rome for a man who was the first in his family to serve in the Roman Senate or, more specifically, to be elected as consul. Whe ...
'', he was
consul
Consul (abbrev. ''cos.''; Latin plural ''consules'') was the title of one of the two chief magistrates of the Roman Republic, and subsequently also an important title under the Roman Empire. The title was used in other European city-states throu ...
three times. Frontinus ably discharged several important administrative duties for
Nerva and
Trajan
Trajan ( ; la, Caesar Nerva Traianus; 18 September 539/11 August 117) was Roman emperor from 98 to 117. Officially declared ''optimus princeps'' ("best ruler") by the senate, Trajan is remembered as a successful soldier-emperor who presi ...
. However, he is best known to the post-Classical world as an author of technical treatises, especially ''
De aquaeductu
( en, On aqueducts) is a two-book official report given to the emperor Nerva or Trajan on the state of the aqueducts of Rome, and was written by Sextus Julius Frontinus at the end of the 1st century AD. It is also known as or . It is the earlie ...
'', dealing with the
aqueducts of Rome
The Romans constructed aqueducts throughout their Republic and later Empire, to bring water from outside sources into cities and towns. Aqueduct water supplied public baths, latrines, fountains, and private households; it also supported mining o ...
.
Family
Due to a lack of either a ''
titulus honorarius'' or ''sepulcralis'', there is no outline of Frontinus' life, the names of his parents, or of his wife. Some details can be inferred from chance mentions: He is thought to be of
Narbonese origins, and originally of the
equestrian class. From the nomenclature of the name of
Publius Calvisius Ruso Julius Frontinus
Publius may refer to:
Roman name
* Publius (praenomen)
* Ancient Romans with the name:
** Publius Valerius Publicola (died 503 BC), Roman consul, co-founder of the Republic
**Publius Clodius Pulcher (c. 93 BC – 52 BC), Republican politician
...
(consul c. 84), it is likely Frontinus had a sister, who was the other's mother. Frontinus had at least one daughter, the wife of
Quintus Sosius Senecio
Quintus Sosius Senecio ( 1st century AD) was a Roman senator who was favored by the emperors Domitian and Trajan. As a result of this relationship, he was twice ordinary consul, an unusual and prestigious honor: first in 99, with Aulus Cornelius P ...
(cos. 99, II 107) and mother of Sosia Polla.
Career
In AD 70, Frontinus participated in the suppression of the Rhineland revolt, and later recorded that he received the surrender of 70,000
Lingones
The Lingones (Gaulish: 'the jumpers') were a Gallic tribe of the Iron Age and Roman periods. They dwelled in the region surrounding the present-day city of Langres, between the provinces of Gallia Lugdunensis and Gallia Belgica.
Name
Attes ...
. Between that date and being appointed
governor
A governor is an administrative leader and head of a polity or political region, ranking under the head of state and in some cases, such as governors-general, as the head of state's official representative. Depending on the type of political ...
of
Britain
Britain most often refers to:
* The United Kingdom, a sovereign state in Europe comprising the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands
* Great Britain, the largest island in the United King ...
to succeed
Quintus Petillius Cerialis a few years later, Frontinus was appointed
suffect consul. While governor of Britain, he subjugated the
Silures of South Wales and is thought to have likewise campaigned against the
Brigantes.
[Birley, ''Fasti'', p. 71] He was succeeded by
Gnaeus Julius Agricola
Gnaeus Julius Agricola (; 13 June 40 – 23 August 93) was a Roman general and politician responsible for much of the Roman conquest of Britain. Born to a political family of senatorial rank, Agricola began his military career as a military tribu ...
, the father-in-law of the famous historian
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historians by modern scholars.
The surviving portions of his two major works—the ...
, in 77. Birley believes it "is fair to speculate" that Frontinus was with Domitian during the German campaign of 83. An inscription at
Hieropolis
Hierapolis (; grc, Ἱεράπολις, lit. "Holy City") was originally a Phrygian cult centre of the Anatolian mother goddess of Cybele and later a Greek city. Its location was centred upon the remarkable and copious hot springs in classica ...
in
Phrygia, as well as a number of coins of
Smyrna
Smyrna ( ; grc, Σμύρνη, Smýrnē, or , ) was a Greek city located at a strategic point on the Aegean coast of Anatolia. Due to its advantageous port conditions, its ease of defence, and its good inland connections, Smyrna rose to promi ...
, attests that he was
proconsul
A proconsul was an official of ancient Rome who acted on behalf of a consul. A proconsul was typically a former consul. The term is also used in recent history for officials with delegated authority.
In the Roman Republic, military command, or ...
of
Asia
Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an are ...
in AD 86.
[
In 97, he was appointed '']curator aquarum
The ''Curator Aquarum'' was a Roman official responsible for managing Rome's water supply and distributing free grain. Curators were appointed by the emperor. The first curator was Agrippa. Another notable ''Curator Aquarum'' was Frontinus, a R ...
'' (supervisor of the aqueducts
Aqueduct may refer to:
Structures
*Aqueduct (bridge), a bridge to convey water over an obstacle, such as a ravine or valley
*Navigable aqueduct, or water bridge, a structure to carry navigable waterway canals over other rivers, valleys, railw ...
) by the emperor Nerva, an office only conferred upon persons of very high standing. In this capacity, he followed another distinguished Roman statesman, Agrippa Agrippa may refer to:
People Antiquity
* Agrippa (mythology), semi-mythological king of Alba Longa
* Agrippa (astronomer), Greek astronomer from the late 1st century
* Agrippa the Skeptic, Skeptic philosopher at the end of the 1st century
* Agri ...
, the friend, ally and son-in-law of Augustus, who organised in 34 BC a campaign of public repairs and improvements, including renovation of the aqueduct Aqua Marcia and an extension of its pipes to cover more of the city.
The following year Frontinus held a second consulship as suffect in February, with Trajan
Trajan ( ; la, Caesar Nerva Traianus; 18 September 539/11 August 117) was Roman emperor from 98 to 117. Officially declared ''optimus princeps'' ("best ruler") by the senate, Trajan is remembered as a successful soldier-emperor who presi ...
as his colleague, and two years later he was made ''consul ordinarius'' with Trajan. Birley notes, "This exceptional honour underlines the high regard in which he rontinuswas held, and suggests, further, that Trajan had a debt to repay."[ He was also a member of the College of Augurs.][Birley, ''Fasti'', p. 72] He died in 103 or 104, a date based on Pliny the Younger writing to his friends that he was elected to the college of augurs to fill the vacancy Frontinus' death had created.[
]
Writings
Aqueducts of Rome
Frontinus's chief work is ''De aquaeductu
( en, On aqueducts) is a two-book official report given to the emperor Nerva or Trajan on the state of the aqueducts of Rome, and was written by Sextus Julius Frontinus at the end of the 1st century AD. It is also known as or . It is the earlie ...
'', in two books, an official report to the emperor on the state of the aqueducts of Rome
The Romans constructed aqueducts throughout their Republic and later Empire, to bring water from outside sources into cities and towns. Aqueduct water supplied public baths, latrines, fountains, and private households; it also supported mining o ...
. It presents a history and description of the water-supply of Rome, including the laws relating to its use and maintenance. He provides the history, sizes and discharge rates of all of the nine aqueducts of Rome
The Romans constructed aqueducts throughout their Republic and later Empire, to bring water from outside sources into cities and towns. Aqueduct water supplied public baths, latrines, fountains, and private households; it also supported mining o ...
at the time at which he was writing at the turn of the 1st century AD: the Aqua Marcia, Aqua Appia
The Aqua Appia was the first Roman aqueduct, constructed in 312 BC by the co-censors Gaius Plautius Venox and Appius Claudius Caecus, the same Roman censor who also built the important Via Appia.
The Appia fed the city of Rome with an estima ...
, Aqua Alsietina
In Ancient Rome, the Aqua Alsietina (sometimes called Aqua Augusta) was the earlier of the two western Roman aqueducts (with the aqua Traiana), erected sometime around 2 BC, during the reign of emperor Augustus. It was the only water supply fo ...
, Aqua Tepula
The Aqua Tepula is an ancient Roman aqueduct completed in 125 BC by censors Gnaeus Servilius Caepio, who had served as consul in 141 BC, and Lucius Cassius Longinus Ravilla.
The water from the Aqua Tepula was, as implied in the nam ...
, Anio Vetus
The Aniene (; la, Aniō), formerly known as the Teverone, is a river in Lazio, Italy. It originates in the Apennines at Trevi nel Lazio and flows westward past Subiaco, Vicovaro, and Tivoli to join the Tiber in northern Rome. It formed th ...
, Anio Novus
Aqua Anio Novus ( Latin for "New Anio aqueduct") was an ancient Roman aqueduct. Like the Aqua Claudia, it was begun by emperor Caligula in 38 AD and completed in 52 AD by Claudius, who dedicated them both on August 1. Together with the Aqua Ani ...
, Aqua Virgo, Aqua Claudia
Aqua Claudia ("the Claudian water") was an ancient Roman aqueduct that, like the Aqua Anio Novus, was begun by Emperor Caligula (37–41 AD) in 38 AD and finished by Emperor Claudius (41–54 AD) in 52 AD.
Together with Aqua Anio Novus, Aqua ...
and Aqua Augusta. Frontinus describes the quality of water delivered by each, mainly depending on their source, be it river, lake, or spring.
Fraud and theft
One of the first jobs he undertook when he was appointed water commissioner was to prepare maps of the system so that he could assess their condition before undertaking their maintenance. He says that many had been neglected and were not working at their full capacity. He was especially concerned by diversion of the supply by unscrupulous farmers and tradesmen, among many others. They would insert pipes into the channel of the aqueducts to tap the supply. He, therefore, made a meticulous survey of the intake and the supply of each line, and then investigated the discrepancies. Lead pipe stamps bearing the name of the owner were also used to prevent such water theft
Water theft is illegal tapping of water supply systems. Together with losses from water leaks in the piping, water theft is one of the major factors contributing to non-revenue water.
Thames Water estimated losses by theft to amount to 2 to pe ...
. He was well aware of the seminal work '' De architectura'' by Vitruvius
Vitruvius (; c. 80–70 BC – after c. 15 BC) was a Roman architect and engineer during the 1st century BC, known for his multi-volume work entitled '' De architectura''. He originated the idea that all buildings should have three attribut ...
, which mentions aqueduct construction and maintenance published in the previous century; Frontinus refers to the possible influence of Vitruvius on the plumbers.
Distribution system
Distribution of the water depended in a complex way on its height entering the city, the quality of the water, and its rate of discharge. Thus, poor-quality water would be sent for irrigation, gardens, or flushing, while only the best would be reserved for drinking water. Intermediate-quality water would be used for the many baths and fountains. However, Frontinus criticized the practice of mixing supplies from different sources, and one of his first decisions was to separate the waters from each system.
Maintenance
He was very concerned by leaks in the system, especially those in the underground conduits, which were difficult to locate and mend, a problem still faced by water engineers today. The aqueducts above ground needed care to ensure that the masonry was kept in good condition, especially those running on arched superstructures. It was, he said, essential to keep trees at a distance so that their roots would not damage the structures. He reviewed the existing law governing the state aqueducts, as well as the need for enforcement of those statutes.
Military tactics
Frontinus also wrote a theoretical treatise on military science, which is lost. His extant work on military matters, the '' Stratagems'' (Latin: ''Strategemata''), is a collection of examples of military stratagems from Greek and Roman history, for the use of generals. He draws on his own experience as a general in Germania under Domitian
Domitian (; la, Domitianus; 24 October 51 – 18 September 96) was a Roman emperor who reigned from 81 to 96. The son of Vespasian and the younger brother of Titus, his two predecessors on the throne, he was the last member of the Fl ...
, but similarities between the anecdotes he records and versions of other Roman authors like Valerius Maximus
Valerius Maximus () was a 1st-century Latin writer and author of a collection of historical anecdotes: ''Factorum ac dictorum memorabilium libri IX'' ("Nine books of memorable deeds and sayings", also known as ''De factis dictisque memorabilibus'' ...
and Livy
Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding in ...
suggest that he drew mainly on literary sources. The authenticity of the fourth book has been challenged.
One example he gives of control of river water during a siege reads:
Selected editions and translations
![Frontinus, Sextus Iulius – Stratagemata, 1664 – BEIC 11311375](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Frontinus%2C_Sextus_Iulius_%E2%80%93_Stratagemata%2C_1664_%E2%80%93_BEIC_11311375.jpg)
''De aquaeductu''
* The standard edition of the Latin text of Frontinus' major work, with extensive commentary in English, is now R.H. Rodgers, ''Frontinus: De aquaeductu urbis Romae'' (Cambridge University Press
Cambridge University Press is the university press of the University of Cambridge. Granted letters patent by King Henry VIII in 1534, it is the oldest university press in the world. It is also the King's Printer.
Cambridge University Pre ...
, 2004).
* Rodgers has published his English translation onlin
* An English translation by Charles E. Bennet, edited by Mary B. McElwain, has been published in the Loeb Classical Library.[no. L174, Stratagems. De aquaeductu (1925)]
* A translation by Herschel is useful for his commentary on the engineering aspects of the ''De aquaeductu''.
Other works
* The latest edition of the '' Stratagems'' is by R. I. Ireland (Teubner
The Bibliotheca Teubneriana, or ''Bibliotheca Scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana'', also known as Teubner editions of Greek and Latin texts, comprise one of the most thorough modern collection published of ancient (and some medieval) ...
, 1990 ) ; English translation in Loeb Classical Library (translated by Charles Bennet and edited by Mary B. McElwain), 1925.
* Extracts from a treatise on land surveying ascribed to Frontinus are preserved in B. Campbell (2000), ''The Writings of the Roman Land Surveyors: Introduction, Text, Translation and Commentary,'' London.
The Stratagems and The Aqueducts of Rome
, translated by Charles E. BENNETT (1858 - 1921), available on Librivox as an audiobook.
In fiction
He appears as a fictionalised character in the Marcus Didius Falco
Lindsey Davis (born 1949) is an English historical novelist, best known as the author of the Falco series of historical crime stories set in ancient Rome and its empire. She is a recipient of the Cartier Diamond Dagger award.
Life and caree ...
novels '' The Silver Pigs'', '' Shadows in Bronze'', '' Three Hands in the Fountain'', and ''The Jupiter Myth
''The Jupiter Myth'' is a 2002 historical mystery crime novel by Lindsey Davis and the 14th book in the Marcus Didius Falco Mysteries series. Set in Londinium, Britannia in August AD 75, the novel stars Marcus Didius Falco, informer and imperial ...
''. He also appears as a character in The Centurions novels '' Barbarian Princess'' and '' The Emperor's Games''.
See also
* Cloaca Maxima
The Cloaca Maxima ( lat, Cloāca Maxima, lit. ''Greatest Sewer'') was one of the world's earliest sewage systems. Its name derives from Cloacina, a Roman goddess. Built during either the Roman Kingdom or early Roman Republic, it was constructed ...
* Dolaucothi
The Dolaucothi Gold Mines (; cy, Mwynfeydd Aur Dolaucothi) (), also known as the Ogofau Gold Mine, are ancient Roman surface and underground mines located in the valley of the River Cothi, near Pumsaint, Carmarthenshire, Wales. The gold mi ...
* Gromatici
''Gromatici'' (from Latin '' groma'' or ''gruma'', a surveyor's pole) or ''agrimensores'' was the name for land surveyors amongst the ancient Romans. The "gromatic writers" were technical writers who codified their techniques of surveying, most ...
* List of aqueducts in the city of Rome
This article lists ancient Roman aqueducts in the city of Rome.
Introduction
In order to meet the massive water needs of its huge population, the city of Rome was eventually supplied with 11 aqueducts by 226 AD, which were some of the city's ...
* List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire
This is a list of aqueducts in the Roman Empire. For a more complete list of known and possible Roman aqueducts and Roman bridges see List of Roman bridges.
Aqueducts in the Roman Empire
See also
* List of aqueducts
Map of Roman Aqueduct i ...
* List of Roman aqueducts by date
This is a list of aqueducts in the city of Rome listed in chronological order of their construction.
Ancient Rome
Modern Rome
* Acqua Vergine Antica
** built in 1453
** source: springs in Salone, east of Rome
** length: ; underground from ...
* Quinaria
A quinaria (plural: quinariae) is a Roman unit of area, roughly equal to . Its primary use was to measure the cross-sectional area of pipes in Roman water distribution systems. A "one quinaria" pipe is in diameter.
In Roman times, there was c ...
* Roman aqueducts
The Romans constructed aqueducts throughout their Republic and later Empire, to bring water from outside sources into cities and towns. Aqueduct water supplied public baths, latrines, fountains, and private households; it also supported mining ...
* Roman conquest of Britain
* Aggenus Urbicus
References
*
Further reading
* Ashby, Thomas (1934) ''The Aqueducts of Rome'', Oxford.
* Blackman, Deane R., Hodge, A. Trevor (2001). ''Frontinus' Legacy: Essays on Frontinus' de aquis urbis Romae''. University of Michigan Press.
* Dahm, Murray K (1997)
''The Career and Writings of Sextus Julius Frontinus''
Master's Thesis, University of Auckland.
* Herschel, C (1973) ''The Two Books on The Water Supply of the City of Rome of Frontinus'', (trans with explanatory chapters) New England Water Works Association.
* Hodge, A.T. (2001). ''Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply'', 2nd ed. London: Duckworth.
External links
full texts of ''De aquis'' and ''Strategemata'' in Latin and English; illustrated with some of the Monscassinensis manuscript from the Herschel edition.
*
*
*
Sextus Iulius Frontinus
(fr)
Routes of Various Aqueducts of Ancient Rome
Spanish site dedicated to Roman technology, especially aqueducts and mines
{{DEFAULTSORT:Frontinus
40s births
Year of birth uncertain
103 deaths
1st-century Romans
1st-century writers
2nd-century Romans
Ancient Romans in Britain
Ancient Roman civil engineers
Augurs of the Roman Empire
Frontinus, Sextus
Imperial Roman consuls
Roman aqueducts
Roman governors of Britain
Roman governors of Asia
Roman military writers
Silver Age Latin writers