Julien Freund (8 January 1921 – 10 September 1993) was a French

philosopher A philosopher is a person who practices or investigates philosophy. The term ''philosopher'' comes from the grc, φιλόσοφος, , translit=philosophos, meaning 'lover of wisdom'. The coining of the term has been attributed to the Greek th ...

and sociologist. Freund was called an "unsatisfied

liberal-conservative Liberal conservatism is a political ideology combining conservative policies with liberal stances, especially on economic issues but also on social and ethical matters, representing a brand of political conservatism strongly influenced by libe ...

" by

Pierre-André Taguieff Pierre-André Taguieff (born 4 August 1946) is a French philosopher who has specialised in the study of racism and antisemitism. He is the director of research at the French National Centre for Scientific Research in an Institut d'Etudes Politique ...

, for introducing

France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...

to the ideas of

Max Weber Maximilian Karl Emil Weber (; ; 21 April 186414 June 1920) was a German sociologist, historian, jurist and political economist, who is regarded as among the most important theorists of the development of modern Western society. His ideas profo ...

. His work as a sociologist and political theorist is a continuation of

Carl Schmitt Carl Schmitt (; 11 July 1888 – 7 April 1985) was a German jurist, political theorist, and prominent member of the Nazi Party. Schmitt wrote extensively about the effective wielding of political power. A conservative theorist, he is noted as a ...

's. Freund, like many people from Alsace, was fluent in German and French. His works have been translated into nearly 20 languages.

Biography

Born in

Henridorff Henridorff (; ) is a commune in the Moselle department in Grand Est in north-eastern France. Geography The village is located 3 km south of the national road 4, north of the valley of the Zorn. The pass of Henridorff, the "Steig", with ...

(

Moselle The Moselle ( , ; german: Mosel ; lb, Musel ) is a river that rises in the Vosges mountains and flows through north-eastern France and Luxembourg to western Germany. It is a bank (geography), left bank tributary of the Rhine, which it jo ...

) on 8 January 1921, to a peasant mother and a

socialist Socialism is a left-wing economic philosophy and movement encompassing a range of economic systems characterized by the dominance of social ownership of the means of production as opposed to private ownership. As a term, it describes the e ...

working class father, Freund was the eldest of six siblings. When his father died he had to end his studies. He became a teacher aged 17, and secretary to the council in his hometown. His brother Antoine, conscripted against his will into the

Wehrmacht The ''Wehrmacht'' (, ) were the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945. It consisted of the ''Heer'' (army), the ''Kriegsmarine'' (navy) and the ''Luftwaffe'' (air force). The designation "''Wehrmacht''" replaced the previous ...

, was injured in the battle of Orel in

Russia Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia, Northern Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the ...

and then deserted. This should have caused the deportation of his family, who were also aiding the resistance in Lorraine. However, they were able to destroy the Gestapo-held documents relating to their proposed deportation.

The resistance

During

World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...

, Freund was a member of the resistance. A member of the Libération group founded by

Jean Cavaillès Jean Cavaillès (; ; 15 May 1903 – 4 April 1944) was a French philosopher and logician who specialized in philosophy of mathematics and philosophy of science. He took part in the French Resistance within the ''Libération'' movement and was ar ...

, he was taken hostage by the Germans in July 1940. He managed to escape to the Free Zone of France. In January 1941, he began fighting for the

Libération ''Libération'' (), popularly known as ''Libé'' (), is a daily newspaper in France, founded in Paris by Jean-Paul Sartre and Serge July in 1973 in the wake of the protest movements of May 1968. Initially positioned on the far-left of France's ...

movement of Emmanuel d’Astier de la Vigerie, then in combat groups run by

Henri Frenay Henri Frenay Sandoval (1905–1988) was a French military officer and French Resistance member. He was born in Lyon, France, on 11 November 1905, into a Catholic family with a military tradition. He studied the Germanic languages at the Universit ...

, all the while getting his degree in philosophy. Arrested in June 1942 in

Clermont-Ferrand Clermont-Ferrand (, ; ; oc, label=Auvergnat (dialect), Auvergnat, Clarmont-Ferrand or Clharmou ; la, Augustonemetum) is a city and Communes of France, commune of France, in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes regions of France, region, with a population ...

, then again in September in

Lyon Lyon,, ; Occitan: ''Lion'', hist. ''Lionés'' also spelled in English as Lyons, is the third-largest city and second-largest metropolitan area of France. It is located at the confluence of the rivers Rhône and Saône, to the northwest of t ...

, he was accused alongside

Emmanuel Mounier Emmanuel Mounier (; ; 1 April 1905 – 22 March 1950) was a French philosopher, theologian, teacher and essayist. Biography Mounier was the guiding spirit in the French personalist movement, and founder and director of '' Esprit'', the magazine ...

in the trial of Combat. Jailed in the central prison of Elysses, then in the fortress of

Sisteron Sisteron (; , oc, label=Mistralian norm, Sisteroun; from oc, label=Old Occitan, Sestaron) is a commune in the Alpes-de-Haute-Provence department, Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, southeastern France. Sisteron is situated on the banks of the rive ...

, he escaped on 8 June 1944. Returning to

Strasbourg Strasbourg (, , ; german: Straßburg ; gsw, label=Bas Rhin Alsatian, Strossburi , gsw, label=Haut Rhin Alsatian, Strossburig ) is the prefecture and largest city of the Grand Est region of eastern France and the official seat of the Eu ...

in November 1944, he became a journalist and political activist.

Academic career

Initially, Freund was a young teacher in Hommarting (Moselle). He then became professor of philosophy in collège Mangin de

Sarrebourg Sarrebourg (; also , ; Lorraine Franconian: ; older la, Pons Saravi) is a commune of northeastern France. In 1895 a Mithraeum was discovered at Sarrebourg at the mouth of the pass leading from the Vosges Mountains. Geography Sarrebourg is ...

(1946–49), lycée Fabert de

Metz Metz ( , , lat, Divodurum Mediomatricorum, then ) is a city in northeast France located at the confluence of the Moselle and the Seille rivers. Metz is the prefecture of the Moselle department and the seat of the parliament of the Grand E ...

(1949–53) and then the lycée

Fustel de Coulanges Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges (; 18 March 1830 – 12 September 1889) was a French historian. Joseph M. McCarthy argues that his first great book, '' The Ancient City'' (1864), was based on his in-depth knowledge of the primary Greek and Latin te ...

(1953–60). From 1960 to 1965, he was a head of research at

CNRS The French National Centre for Scientific Research (french: link=no, Centre national de la recherche scientifique, CNRS) is the French state research organisation and is the largest fundamental science agency in Europe. In 2016, it employed 31,637 ...

. In 1965, the year of his thesis at

Sorbonne Sorbonne may refer to: * Sorbonne (building), historic building in Paris, which housed the University of Paris and is now shared among multiple universities. *the University of Paris (c. 1150 – 1970) *one of its components or linked institution, ...

, he was elected professor of sociology at the

University of Strasbourg The University of Strasbourg (french: Université de Strasbourg, Unistra) is a public research university located in Strasbourg, Alsace, France, with over 52,000 students and 3,300 researchers. The French university traces its history to the ea ...

, where he founded the departement of social sciences. He then taught from 1973 to 1975 at the

College of Europe The College of Europe (french: Collège d'Europe) is a post-graduate institute of European studies with its main campus in Bruges, Belgium and a second campus in Warsaw, Poland. The College of Europe in Bruges was founded in 1949 by leading ...

Bruges Bruges ( , nl, Brugge ) is the capital and largest City status in Belgium, city of the Provinces of Belgium, province of West Flanders in the Flemish Region of Belgium, in the northwest of the country, and the sixth-largest city of the countr ...

, then in 1975 at

Université de Montréal The Université de Montréal (UdeM; ; translates to University of Montreal) is a French-language public research university in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The university's main campus is located in the Côte-des-Neiges neighborhood of Côte-de ...

Beliefs

Freund was a support of limited democracy and that growing democratisation increases the reach of government, allowing it to become ever more invasive. Politics, Freund believed, cannot solve any cultural problems or impose social values upon society, and it should not be involved in religious affairs. Equally, religion also cannot impose upon the principles of democracy. Freund's work also drew attention to the corruption of language and its misuse in democracy: "''La démocratie se décompose quand elle dilapide la sincérité en démagogie et en flatterie''" - "Democracy breaks down when it squanders sincerity in demagoguery and flattery." His idea of "mesocracy" was first used in 1978, against the overuse and overreach of democracy.LA MÉSOCRATIE : CRITÈRES Montréal No 22, 1978 p. 31-46. Mesocracy from its Greek roots, is a form of power that exists in tandem with other 'counter powers'. Rather than speaking of a singular, abstract “freedom”, Freund preferred to refer to specific freedoms, freedom of the press, of association, of conscience etc. Without such concrete freedoms, Freund argued, we will never have freedom in the singular.

Bibliography

* ''L’Essence du politique'' (Sirey, 1965 ; Dalloz, 2003, 870 p.). * ''Sociologie de Max Weber'' (PUF, 1966 et 1983). * ''Europa ohne Schminke'' (Drückerei Winkelhagen, Goslar 1967). * ''Qu’est-ce que la politique ?'' (Seuil, 1968 et 1978). * ''Max Weber'' (Collection « Sup-Philosophie » PUF, 1969). * ''Le Nouvel âge. Éléments pour la théorie de la démocratie et de la paix'' (Marcel Rivière, 1970). * ''Le Droit d’aujourd’hui'' (PUF, 1972). * ''Les Théories des sciences humaines'' (PUF, 1973). * ''Pareto. La théorie de l’équilibre'' (Seghers, 1974). * ''Georges Sorel. Eine geistige Biographie'' (Siemens-Stiftung, Munich 1977). * ''Les Problèmes nouveaux posés à la politique de nos jours'' (Université européenne des affaires, 1977), * ''Utopie et violence'' (Marcel Rivière, 1978). * ''Il luogo della violenza'' (Cappelli, Bologna 1979). * ''La Fin de la Renaissance'' (PUF, 1980). * ''La crisis del Estado y otros estudios'' (Instituto de Ciencia política, Santiago de Chile 1982). * ''Idées et expériences. Les activités sociales : regards d’un sociologue'' (Institut des Sciences Politiques et Sociales de l’U.C.L., Louvain-la-Neuve 1983). * ''Sociologie du conflit'' (PUF, 1983). * ''Idées et expériences'' (Institut de sociologie de l’UCL, Louvain-la-Neuve 1983). * ''La Décadence. Histoire sociologique et philosophique d’une catégorie de l’expérience humaine'' (Sirey, 1984). * ''Philosophie et sociologie'' (Cabay, Louvain-la-Neuve 1984). * ''Politique et impolitique'' (Sirey, 1987). * ''Philosophie philosophique'' (Découverte, 1990). * ''Études sur Max Weber'' (Droz, Genève 1990). * ''Essais de sociologie économique et politique'' (Faculté catholique Saint-Louis, Bruxelles 1990). * ''L’Aventure du politique. Entretiens avec Charles Blanchet'' (Critérion, 1991). * ''D’Auguste Comte à Max Weber'' (Economica, 1992). * ''L’Essence de l’économique'' (Presses universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg 1993). * ''Diritto e Politica. Saggi di filosofia giuridica'' (Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, Napoli 1994). * ''Il Terzo, il nemico, il conflitto. Materiali per una teoria del Politico'' (Giuffrè, Milano 1995). * ''Warfare in the modern world: a short but critical analysis'' (Plutarch Press, Washington D.C. 1996). * ''Voci di teoria politica'' (Antonio Pellicani Editore, Roma, 2001). * ''Vista de conjunto sobre la obra de Carl Schmitt'' (Struhart & Cía., Buenos Aires, 2002). * ''Les Lettres de la vallée'' (non paru). * ''Die Industrielle Konfliktgesellschaft''(1977) * ''Der Unauffindbare Friede''(1964 Berlin pour le 75ème anniversaire de Carl Schmitt) * ''Die Politik als Heillehre''(1974) * ''Die Demokratie und das Politische''(Berlin 1967 288 pages) * ''Die neue Bewertung des Krieges als Mittel der auswärtigen Politik nach 1870''(1970)

Translations

* Max Weber, ''Le Savant et le Politique'', Plon, Paris 1959. * Max Weber, ''Essais sur la théorie de la science'', Plon, Paris 1965, et Agora/Presses-Pocket, 1992. * Max Weber, ''Économie et société'', Plon, Paris 1971.

Studies on Julien Freund

* ''Revue européenne des sciences sociales'', « Critique des théories du social et épistémologie des sciences humaines : études en l’honneur de Julien Freund », 19, n^o 54-55, Droz, Genève 1981. * ''Revue des sciences sociales de la France de l’Est'', « Région et conflits. Hommage à Julien Freund » (Strasbourg), n^o 10. * ''Tijdschrift voor de studie van de verlichting en van het vrije denken'', "Politiek en decadentie volgens Julien Freund", 11, n^o 4, 1983. * ''Studi Perugini'', Università degli Studi di Perugia, n^o 1, 1996.
''Empresas políticas''
Sociedad de Estudios Políticos de la Región de Murcia, n^o 5, 2004. * BIHR,A., "L’extrême droite à l’université : le cas Julien Freund",''Revue Agone'', n° 54, 2014. * BLANCHET, C., "Julien Freund 1921-1993 Le maître de l’intelligence du politique et notre ami à l’« enfance éternelle »", ''Paysans'' (París), vol. 37, nº 221, 1993, pp. 7-20.
CAMPI, A.
''

, Freund, Miglio: figure e temi del realismo politico europeo'', La Roccia di Erec, Fiorenza 1996. * DELANNOI, G.; HINTERMETER, P.; RAYNAUD, P.; TAGUIEFF, P.-A., ''Julien Freund La dynamique des conflits'', Berg International, Paris, 2011 * HOLEINDRE, J.-V., "Penser la ruse avec Julien Freund", in: KLINGER, M. (dir.), ''Héritage et actualité de la polémologie'', Tétraèdre, París, 2007, pp. 55–67. * LE BOT, J.-M.,
Julien Freund and the Essence of the Political, a “Mediationnist” Reading
, ''Tétralogiques'', n°20, 2015. * MOLINA CANO, J., ''La filosofía económica de Julien Freund ante la economía moderna'', Cuadernos Veintiuno, n^o 10, Madrid 1997. * MOLINA CANO, J., ''Julien Freund, lo político y la política'', Sequitur, Madrid, 1999. * MOLINA CANO, J., ''Conflicto, gobierno y economía (cuatro ensayos sobre Julien Freund)'', Struhart & Cía., Buenos Aires 2004. * PAQUOT, T., "Julien Freund, l’intellectuel frontière qui n’a pas de frontière", ''

Revue des sciences sociales The Revue des sciences sociales, formerly Revue des sciences sociales de la France de l'Est, is a French-language journal in social sciences (mainly sociology, ethnology and demography), founded in 1972 by Julien Freund, a French sociologist known ...

'', n^o 40, 2008, p. 154-161. * TAGUIEFF, P.-A., "Julien Freund, political thinker" (tr. Kathy Ackermann),
Telos
' (NY), nº 125, 2002, pp. 37–68. * TOUANNE, S. DE LA, ''Julien Freund — Penseur « machiavélien » de la politique''
L’Harmattan
Paris, 2004. * ULMEN, Gary G., "Reflections of a Partisan: Julien Freund (1921-1993)",
Telos
'(NY), nº 102, 1995, pp. 3–10. * VALDERRAMA ABENZA, J.C.,
Julien Freund, la imperiosa obligación de lo real. Estudio bio-bibliográfico
', Sociedad de Estudios Políticos de la Región de Murcia, 2005. * VALDERRAMA ABENZA, J.C
"El dolor y la muerte en Julien Freund
, in: ANRUBIA, E. (ed.), ''Filosofías del dolor y la muerte'', Comares, Granada 2007, pp. 53-89. * VALDERRAMA ABENZA, J.C
"El orden social: Síntesis de la actualidad de las esencias
, in: CORBETTA, J. C. & PIANA, R. S., ''El valor de lo político: Estudios sobre Julien Freund'', Prometeo Libros, Buenos Aires 2010, pp. 95–120. * VALDERRAMA ABENZA, J.C
"Julien Freund, analista político. Contextos y perspectivas de investigación
, in: SÁNCHEZ GARRIDO, P. & MARTÍNEZ SICLUNA, C.(eds.), ''Miradas liberales. Análisis político en la Europa del s. XX'', Biblioteca Nueva, Madrid 2014.