G. P. Wells on ''
The Science of Life
''The Science of Life'' is a book written by H. G. Wells, Julian Huxley and G. P. Wells, published in three volumes by The Waverley Publishing Company Ltd in 1929–30, giving a popular account of all major aspects of biology as known in the 1 ...
'' (
see below). For some time Huxley retained his room at King's College, continuing as Honorary Lecturer in the Zoology Department, and from 1927 to 1931 he was also
Fullerian Professor of Physiology The Fullerian Chairs at the Royal Institution in London, England, were established by John 'Mad Jack' Fuller.
Fullerian Professors of Physiology & Comparative Anatomy
* 1834–1837 Peter Mark Roget
* 1837–1838 Robert Edmond Grant
* 1841–1844 Th ...
at the
Royal Institution, where he gave an annual lectures series, but this marked the end of his life as a university academic.
In 1929, after finishing work on ''The Science of Life'', Huxley visited East Africa to advise the
Colonial Office
The Colonial Office was a government department of the Kingdom of Great Britain and later of the United Kingdom, first created to deal with the colonial affairs of British North America but required also to oversee the increasing number of c ...
on education in
British East Africa
East Africa Protectorate (also known as British East Africa) was an area in the African Great Lakes occupying roughly the same terrain as present-day Kenya from the Indian Ocean inland to the border with Uganda in the west. Controlled by Bri ...
(for the most part
Kenya
)
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, image_map =
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Nairobi
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, largest_city = Nairobi
, ...
,
Uganda
}), is a landlocked country in East Africa
East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa, is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territor ...
and
Tanganyika
Tanganyika may refer to:
Places
* Tanganyika Territory (1916–1961), a former British territory which preceded the sovereign state
* Tanganyika (1961–1964), a sovereign state, comprising the mainland part of present-day Tanzania
* Tanzania Main ...
). He discovered that the wildlife on the
Serengeti
The Serengeti ( ) ecosystem is a Geography of Africa, geographical region in Africa, spanning northern Tanzania. The protected area within the region includes approximately of land, including the Serengeti National Park and several game res ...
plain was almost undisturbed because the
tsetse fly
Tsetse ( , or ) (sometimes spelled tzetze; also known as tik-tik flies), are large, biting flies that inhabit much of tropical Africa. Tsetse flies include all the species in the genus ''Glossina'', which are placed in their own family, Glos ...
(the vector for the
trypanosome parasite which causes
sleeping sickness
African trypanosomiasis, also known as African sleeping sickness or simply sleeping sickness, is an insect-borne parasitic infection of humans and other animals. It is caused by the species ''Trypanosoma brucei''. Humans are infected by two typ ...
in humans) prevented human settlement there. He tells about these experiences in ''Africa view'' (1931), and so does his wife. She reveals that he fell in love with an 18-year-old American girl on board ship (when Juliette was not present), and then presented Juliette with his ideas for an open marriage: "What Julian really wanted was… a definite freedom from the conventional bonds of marriage." The couple separated for a while; Julian travelled to the US, hoping to land a suitable appointment and, in due course, to marry Miss Weldmeier. He left no account of what transpired, but he was evidently not successful, and returned to England to resume his marriage in 1931. For the next couple of years Huxley still angled for an appointment in the US, without success.
Mid career
As the 1930s started, Huxley travelled widely and took part in a variety of activities which were partly scientific and partly political. In 1931 Huxley visited the
USSR
The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen nationa ...
at the invitation of
Intourist
Intourist (russian: Интурист, a contraction of , "foreign tourist") was a Russian tour operator, headquartered in Moscow. It was founded on April 12, 1929, and served as the primary travel agency for foreign tourists in the Soviet Uni ...
, where initially he admired the results of social and economic planning on a large scale. Later, back in the United Kingdom, he became a founding member of the think tank
Political and Economic Planning Political and Economic Planning (PEP) was a British policy think tank, formed in 1931 in response to Max Nicholson's article ''A National Plan for Britain'' published in February of that year in Gerald Barry's magazine ''The Week-End Review''.
His ...
.
In the 1930s Huxley visited
Kenya
)
, national_anthem = "Ee Mungu Nguvu Yetu"()
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Nairobi
, coordinates =
, largest_city = Nairobi
, ...
and other East African countries to see the conservation work, including the creation of
national parks
A national park is a natural park in use for conservation purposes, created and protected by national governments. Often it is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or owns. Although individua ...
.
In 1933, he was one of eleven people involved in the appeal that led to the foundation of the
British Trust for Ornithology (BTO), an organisation for the study of
birds
Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweigh ...
in the British Isles. From 1933 to 1938 he was a member of the committee for Lord Hailey's African Survey.
In 1935 Huxley was appointed secretary to the
Zoological Society of London
The Zoological Society of London (ZSL) is a charity devoted to the worldwide conservation of animals and their habitats. It was founded in 1826. Since 1828, it has maintained the London Zoo, and since 1931 Whipsnade Park.
History
On 29 ...
, and spent much of the next seven years running the society and its zoological gardens, the
London Zoo and
Whipsnade Park
ZSL Whipsnade Zoo, formerly known as Whipsnade Wild Animal Park, is a zoo and safari park located at Whipsnade, near Dunstable in Bedfordshire, England. It is one of two zoos (the other being ZSL London Zoo in Regent's Park, London) that are o ...
, alongside his writing and research. The previous Director,
Peter Chalmers Mitchell
Sir Peter Chalmers Mitchell (23 November 1864 – 2 July 1945) was a Scottish zoologist who was Secretary of the Zoological Society of London from 1903 to 1935. During this time, he directed the policy of the Zoological Gardens of London and c ...
, had been in post for many years, and had skillfully avoided conflict with the Fellows and Council. Things were rather different when Huxley arrived. Huxley was not a skilled administrator; his wife said "He was impatient… and lacked tact". He instituted a number of changes and innovations, more than some approved of. For example, Huxley introduced a whole range of ideas designed to make the Zoo child-friendly. Today, this would pass without comment; but then it was more controversial. He fenced off the Fellows' Lawn to establish Pets Corner; he appointed new assistant curators, encouraging them to talk to children; he initiated the Zoo Magazine. Fellows and their guests had the privilege of free entry on Sundays, a closed day to the general public. Today, that would be unthinkable, and Sundays are now open to the public. Huxley's mild suggestion (that the guests should pay) encroached on territory the Fellows thought was theirs by right.
In 1941 Huxley was invited to the United States on a lecturing tour, and generated some controversy by saying that he thought the United States should join
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
: a few weeks later came the
attack on Pearl Harbor
The attack on Pearl HarborAlso known as the Battle of Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service upon the United States against the naval base at Pearl Harbor in Honolulu, Territory of Hawaii ...
. When the US joined the war, he found it difficult to get a passage back to the UK, and his lecture tour was extended. The Council of the Zoological Society—"a curious assemblage… of wealthy amateurs, self-perpetuating and autocratic"—uneasy with their secretary, used this as an opportunity to remove him. This they did by abolishing his post "to save expenses". Since Huxley had taken a half-salary cut at the start of the war, and no salary at all whilst he was in America, the council's action was widely read as a personal attack on Huxley. A public controversy ensued, but eventually the Council got its way.
In 1943 he was asked by the British government to join the Colonial Commission on Higher Education. The commission's remit was to survey the West African
Commonwealth countries for suitable locations for the creation of universities. There he acquired a disease, went down with
hepatitis
Hepatitis is inflammation of the liver tissue. Some people or animals with hepatitis have no symptoms, whereas others develop yellow discoloration of the skin and whites of the eyes ( jaundice), poor appetite, vomiting, tiredness, abdominal ...
, and had a serious mental breakdown. He was completely disabled, treated with
ECT, and took a full year to recover. He was 55.
Later career
Huxley, a lifelong internationalist with a concern for education, got involved in the creation of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...
), and became the organization's first director-general in 1946. His term of office, six years in the Charter, was cut down to two years at the behest of the American delegation. The reasons are not known for sure, but his left-wing tendencies and humanism were likely factors. In a fortnight he dashed off a 60-page booklet on the purpose and philosophy of UNESCO, eventually printed and issued as an official document. There were, however, many conservative opponents of his scientific humanism. His idea of restraining population growth with birth control was anathema to both the
Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
and the
Comintern/
Cominform
The Information Bureau of the Communist and Workers' Parties (), commonly known as Cominform (), was a co-ordination body of Marxist-Leninist communist parties in Europe during the early Cold War that was formed in part as a replacement of the ...
. In its first few years UNESCO was dynamic and broke new ground; since Huxley it has become larger, more bureaucratic and stable. The personal and social side of the years in Paris are well described by his wife.
[Huxley, Juliette 1986. ''Leaves of the tulip tree''. Murray, London.]
Huxley's internationalist and conservation interests also led him, with
Victor Stolan Victor Stolan (born 1893) provided "the germ of the idea"Sir Arthur Norman (1981) The story of the World Wildlife Fund. Contemporary Review vol 239, 23-29. that led Julian Huxley and Max Nicholson with him to start the World Wildlife Fund. They to ...
,
Sir Peter Scott
Sir Peter Markham Scott, (14 September 1909 – 29 August 1989) was a British ornithologist, conservationist, painter, naval officer, broadcaster and sportsman. The only child of Antarctic explorer Robert Falcon Scott, he took an interest in ...
,
Max Nicholson
Edward Max Nicholson (12 July 1904 – 26 April 2003) was a pioneering environmentalist, ornithologist and internationalist, and a founder of the World Wildlife Fund.
Early life
Max Nicholson, as he was known to all, was born in Kilternan, Ir ...
and
Guy Mountfort
Guy Mountfort (4 December 1905 – 23 April 2003) was an English advertising executive, amateur ornithologist and conservationist. He is known for writing the pioneering ''A Field Guide to the Birds of Britain and Europe'', published in 1954 ...
, to set up the WWF (
World Wide Fund for Nature
The World Wide Fund for Nature Inc. (WWF) is an international non-governmental organization founded in 1961 that works in the field of wilderness preservation and the reduction of human impact on the environment. It was formerly named the Wor ...
under its former name of the
World Wildlife Fund
The World Wide Fund for Nature Inc. (WWF) is an international non-governmental organization founded in 1961 that works in the field of wilderness preservation and the reduction of human impact on the environment. It was formerly named the Wo ...
).
Another post-war activity was Huxley's attack on the Soviet politico-scientist
Trofim Lysenko
Trofim Denisovich Lysenko (russian: Трофим Денисович Лысенко, uk, Трохи́м Дени́сович Лисе́нко, ; 20 November 1976) was a Soviet agronomist and pseudo-scientist.''An ill-educated agronomist with hu ...
, who had espoused a
Lamarck
Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, chevalier de Lamarck (1 August 1744 – 18 December 1829), often known simply as Lamarck (; ), was a French naturalist, biologist, academic, and soldier. He was an early proponent of the idea that biolo ...
ian heredity, made unscientific pronouncements on agriculture, used his influence to destroy classical genetics in Russia and to move genuine scientists from their posts. In 1940, the leading botanical geneticist
Nikolai Vavilov
Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov ( rus, Никола́й Ива́нович Вави́лов, p=nʲɪkɐˈlaj ɪˈvanəvʲɪtɕ vɐˈvʲiləf, a=Ru-Nikolay_Ivanovich_Vavilov.ogg; – 26 January 1943) was a Russian and Soviet agronomist, botanist ...
was arrested, and Lysenko replaced him as director of the Institute of Genetics. In 1941, Vavilov was tried, found guilty of 'sabotage' and sentenced to death. Reprieved, he died in jail of malnutrition in 1943. Lysenko's machinations were the cause of his arrest. Worse still,
Lysenkoism
Lysenkoism (russian: Лысенковщина, Lysenkovshchina, ; uk, лисенківщина, lysenkivščyna, ) was a political campaign led by Soviet biologist Trofim Lysenko against genetics and science-based agriculture in the mid-20th ce ...
not only denied proven genetic facts, it stopped the
artificial selection of crops on Darwinian principles. This may have contributed to the regular shortage of food from the Soviet agricultural system (
Soviet famines). Huxley, who had twice visited the Soviet Union, was originally not anti-communist, but the ruthless adoption of Lysenkoism by
Joseph Stalin
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (born Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili; – 5 March 1953) was a Georgian revolutionary and Soviet political leader who led the Soviet Union from 1924 until his death in 1953. He held power as General Secretar ...
ended his tolerant attitude. Lysenko ended his days in a Soviet mental hospital, and Vavilov's reputation was posthumously restored in 1955.
In the 1950s Huxley played a role in bringing to the
English-speaking
Speakers of English are also known as Anglophones, and the countries where English is natively spoken by the majority of the population are termed the '' Anglosphere''. Over two billion people speak English , making English the largest langua ...
public the work of the French
Jesuit
, image = Ihs-logo.svg
, image_size = 175px
, caption = ChristogramOfficial seal of the Jesuits
, abbreviation = SJ
, nickname = Jesuits
, formation =
, founders ...
-
palaeontologist
Paleontology (), also spelled palaeontology or palæontology, is the scientific study of life that existed prior to, and sometimes including, the start of the Holocene epoch (roughly 11,700 years before present). It includes the study of fossi ...
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin ( (); 1 May 1881 – 10 April 1955) was a French Jesuit priest, scientist, paleontologist, theologian, philosopher and teacher. He was Darwinian in outlook and the author of several influential theological and phil ...
, who he believed had been unfairly treated by the Catholic and Jesuit hierarchy. Both men believed in evolution, but differed in its interpretation as Teilhard de Chardin was a Christian, whilst Huxley was an atheist. Huxley wrote the foreword to ''
The Phenomenon of Man
''The Phenomenon of Man'' (french: link=no, Le phénomène humain) is an essay by the French geologist, paleontologist, philosopher, and Jesuit priest Pierre Teilhard de Chardin. In this work, Teilhard describes evolution as a process that leads t ...
'' (1959) and was bitterly attacked by his rationalist friends for doing so.
On Huxley's death at 87 on 14 February 1975, John Owen (Director of National Parks for
Tanganyika
Tanganyika may refer to:
Places
* Tanganyika Territory (1916–1961), a former British territory which preceded the sovereign state
* Tanganyika (1961–1964), a sovereign state, comprising the mainland part of present-day Tanzania
* Tanzania Main ...
) wrote "Julian Huxley was one of the world's great men… he played a seminal role in wild life conservation in
astAfrica in the early days…
nd inthe far-reaching influence he exerted
nthe international community".
In addition to his international and humanist concerns, his research interests covered evolution in all its aspects,
ethology
Ethology is the scientific study of animal behaviour, usually with a focus on behaviour under natural conditions, and viewing behaviour as an evolutionarily adaptive trait. Behaviourism as a term also describes the scientific and objecti ...
,
embryology
Embryology (from Greek ἔμβρυον, ''embryon'', "the unborn, embryo"; and -λογία, ''-logia'') is the branch of animal biology that studies the prenatal development of gametes (sex cells), fertilization, and development of embryos ...
,
genetics
Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms.Hartl D, Jones E (2005) It is an important branch in biology because heredity is vital to organisms' evolution. Gregor Mendel, a Moravian Augustinian friar wor ...
,
anthropology
Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures, societies, and linguistics, in both the present and past, including past human species. Social anthropology studies patterns of behavi ...
and to some extent the infant field of
cell biology. Julian's eminence as an advocate for evolution, and especially his contribution to the modern evolutionary synthesis, led to his awards of the
Darwin Medal
The Darwin Medal is one of the medals awarded by the Royal Society for "distinction in evolution, biological diversity and developmental, population and organismal biology".
In 1885, International Darwin Memorial Fund was transferred to the ...
of the
Royal Society
The Royal Society, formally The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, is a learned society and the United Kingdom's national academy of sciences. The society fulfils a number of roles: promoting science and its benefits, re ...
in 1956,
and the Darwin–Wallace Medal of the
Linnaean Society
The Linnean Society of London is a learned society dedicated to the study and dissemination of information concerning natural history, evolution, and taxonomy. It possesses several important biological specimen, manuscript and literature colle ...
in 1958. 1958 was the centenary anniversary of the joint presentation ''On the tendency of species to form varieties; and the perpetuation of varieties and species by natural means of selection'' by Darwin and Wallace.
Huxley was a friend and mentor of the biologists and
Nobel laureates
Konrad Lorenz
Konrad Zacharias Lorenz (; 7 November 1903 – 27 February 1989) was an Austrian zoologist, ethologist, and ornithologist. He shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Nikolaas Tinbergen and Karl von Frisch. He is often regarded ...
and
Niko Tinbergen
Nikolaas "Niko" Tinbergen (; ; 15 April 1907 – 21 December 1988) was a Dutch biologist and ornithologist who shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Karl von Frisch and Konrad Lorenz for their discoveries concerning the or ...
, and taught and encouraged many others. In general, he was more of an all-round naturalist than his famous grandfather, and contributed much to the acceptance of natural selection. His outlook was international, and somewhat idealistic: his interest in progress and evolutionary humanism runs through much of his published work. He was one of the signers of the
Humanist Manifesto
''Humanist Manifesto'' is the title of three manifestos laying out a humanist worldview. They are the original '' Humanist Manifesto'' (1933, often referred to as Humanist Manifesto I), the ''Humanist Manifesto II'' (1973), and ''Humanism and I ...
.
Special themes
Evolution
Huxley and biologist
August Weismann
August Friedrich Leopold Weismann FRS (For), HonFRSE, LLD (17 January 18345 November 1914) was a German evolutionary biologist. Fellow German Ernst Mayr ranked him as the second most notable evolutionary theorist of the 19th century, after Cha ...
insisted on natural selection as the primary agent in
evolution
Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. These characteristics are the expressions of genes, which are passed on from parent to offspring during reproduction. Variation ...
. Huxley was a major player in the mid-twentieth century modern evolutionary synthesis. He was a prominent
populariser of
biological science to the
public
In public relations and communication science, publics are groups of individual people, and the public (a.k.a. the general public) is the totality of such groupings. This is a different concept to the sociological concept of the ''Öffentlichkei ...
, with a focus on three aspects in particular.
Personal influence
In the early 20th century he was one of the minority of biologists who believed that
natural selection
Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype. It is a key mechanism of evolution, the change in the heritable traits characteristic of a population over generations. Cha ...
was the main driving force of evolution, and that evolution occurred by small steps and not by
saltation (jumps). These opinions are now standard.
Though his time as an academic was quite brief, he taught and encouraged evolutionary biologists at the University of Oxford in the 1920s.
Charles Elton (ecology),
Alister Hardy
Sir Alister Clavering Hardy (10 February 1896 – 22 May 1985) was an English marine biologist, an expert on marine ecosystems spanning organisms from zooplankton to whales. He had the artistic skill to illustrate his books with his own drawing ...
(
marine biology) and
John Baker (
cytology
Cell biology (also cellular biology or cytology) is a branch of biology that studies the structure, function, and behavior of cells. All living organisms are made of cells. A cell is the basic unit of life that is responsible for the living an ...
) all became highly successful, and Baker eventually wrote Huxley's Royal Society obituary memoir.
Perhaps the most significant was
Edmund Brisco Ford
Edmund Brisco "Henry" Ford (23 April 1901 – 2 January 1988) was a British ecological geneticist. He was a leader among those British biologists who investigated the role of natural selection in nature. As a schoolboy Ford became interested i ...
, who founded a field of research called
ecological genetics
Ecological genetics is the study of genetics in natural populations. Traits in a population can be observed and quantified to represent a species adapting to a changing environment.
This contrasts with classical genetics, which works mostly on ...
, which played a role in the evolutionary synthesis. Another important disciple was
Gavin de Beer
Sir Gavin Rylands de Beer (1 November 1899 – 21 June 1972) was a British evolutionary embryologist, known for his work on heterochrony as recorded in his 1930 book ''Embryos and Ancestors''. He was director of the Natural History Museum, Lond ...
, who wrote on
evolution and development, and became Director of the
Natural History Museum
A natural history museum or museum of natural history is a scientific institution with natural history collections that include current and historical records of animals, plants, fungi, ecosystems, geology, paleontology, climatology, and more. ...
. Both these scholars had attended Huxley's lectures on
genetics
Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms.Hartl D, Jones E (2005) It is an important branch in biology because heredity is vital to organisms' evolution. Gregor Mendel, a Moravian Augustinian friar wor ...
, experimental
zoology
Zoology ()The pronunciation of zoology as is usually regarded as nonstandard, though it is not uncommon. is the branch of biology that studies the Animal, animal kingdom, including the anatomy, structure, embryology, evolution, Biological clas ...
(including
embryology
Embryology (from Greek ἔμβρυον, ''embryon'', "the unborn, embryo"; and -λογία, ''-logia'') is the branch of animal biology that studies the prenatal development of gametes (sex cells), fertilization, and development of embryos ...
) and
ethology
Ethology is the scientific study of animal behaviour, usually with a focus on behaviour under natural conditions, and viewing behaviour as an evolutionarily adaptive trait. Behaviourism as a term also describes the scientific and objecti ...
. Later, they became his collaborators, and then leaders in their own right.
In an era when scientists did not travel so frequently as today, Huxley travelled widely in Europe, Africa and the United States. He was therefore able to learn from and influence other scientists, naturalists and administrators. In the US he was able to meet other evolutionists at a critical time in the reassessment of
natural selection
Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype. It is a key mechanism of evolution, the change in the heritable traits characteristic of a population over generations. Cha ...
. In Africa he was able to influence colonial administrators about education and wildlife
conservation
Conservation is the preservation or efficient use of resources, or the conservation of various quantities under physical laws.
Conservation may also refer to:
Environment and natural resources
* Nature conservation, the protection and managem ...
. In Europe, through
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...
, he was at the centre of the post-
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
revival of education. In Russia, however, his experiences were mixed. His initially favourable view was changed by his growing awareness of Stalin's murderous repression, and the Trofim Lysenko, Lysenko affair. There seems little evidence that he had any effect on the Soviet Union, and the same could be said for some other Western scientists. "Marxist-Leninism had become a dogmatic religion… and like all dogmatic religions, it had turned from reform to persecution."
Evolutionary synthesis
Huxley was one of the main architects of the modern evolutionary synthesis which took place around the time of
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
. The synthesis of genetic and population ideas produced a consensus which reigned in biology from about 1940, and which is still broadly tenable. "The most informative episode in the history of evolutionary biology was the establishment of the 'neo-Darwinian synthesis'." The synthesis was brought about "not by one side being proved right and the others wrong, but by the exchange of the most viable components of the previously competing research strategies". Ernst Mayr, 1980.
Huxley's first 'trial run' was the treatment of evolution in the ''Science of Life'' (1929–30), and in 1936 he published a long and significant paper for the British Association. In 1938 came three lengthy reviews on major evolutionary topics. Two of these papers were on the subject of sexual selection, an idea of Darwin's whose standing has been revived in recent times. Huxley thought that sexual selection was "…merely an aspect of natural selection which… is concerned with characters which subserve mating, and are usually sex-limited". This rather grudging acceptance of sexual selection was influenced by his studies on the courtship of the
great crested grebe
The great crested grebe (''Podiceps cristatus'') is a member of the grebe family of water birds noted for its elaborate mating display.
Taxonomy
The great crested grebe was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in t ...
(and other birds that pair for life): the courtship takes place mostly ''after'' mate selection, not before.
Huxley to tackled the subject of evolution at full length, in what became the defining work of his life. His role was that of a synthesiser, and it helped that he had met many of the other participants. His book ''Evolution: The Modern Synthesis'' was written whilst he was secretary to the Zoological Society, and made use of his collection of reprints covering the first part of the century. It was published in 1942. Reviews of the book in learned journals were little short of ecstatic; the American Naturalist called it "The outstanding evolutionary treatise of the decade, perhaps of the century. The approach is thoroughly scientific; the command of basic information amazing".
Huxley's main co-respondents in the modern evolutionary synthesis are usually listed as Ernst Mayr, Theodosius Dobzhansky, George Gaylord Simpson, Bernhard Rensch, Ledyard Stebbins and the population geneticists J. B. S. Haldane, Ronald Fisher and Sewall Wright. However, at the time of Huxley's book several of these had yet to make their distinctive contribution. Certainly, for Huxley,
E. B. Ford and his co-workers in
ecological genetics
Ecological genetics is the study of genetics in natural populations. Traits in a population can be observed and quantified to represent a species adapting to a changing environment.
This contrasts with classical genetics, which works mostly on ...
were at least as important; and Cyril Darlington, the chromosome expert, was a notable source of facts and ideas.An analysis of the 'authorities cited' index of ''Evolution the modern synthesis'' shows indirectly those whom Huxley regarded as the most important contributors to the synthesis up to 1941 (the book was published in 1942, and references go up to 1941). The authorities cited 20 or more times are: Cyril Darlington, Darlington, Charles Darwin, Darwin, Theodosius Dobzhansky, Dobzhansky, Ronald Fisher, Fisher, E. B. Ford, Ford, Richard Goldschmidt, Goldschmidt, J. B. S. Haldane, Haldane, J. S. Huxley, Hermann J. Muller, Muller, Bernhard Rensch, Rensch, W. B. Turrill, Turrill, Sewall WWright.
Goldschmidt was an influential geneticist who advocated evolution by saltation, and was sometimes mentioned in disagreement. Turrill provided Huxley with botanical information. The list omits three key members of the synthesis who are listed above: Ernst Mayr, Mayr, G. Ledyard Stebbins, Stebbins the botanist and George Gaylord Simpson, Simpson the palaeontologist. Mayr gets 16 citations and more in the two later editions; all three published outstanding and relevant books some years later, and their contribution to the synthesis is unquestionable. Their lesser weight in Huxley's citations was caused by the early publication date of his book. Huxley's book is not strong in palaeontology, which illustrates perfectly why Simpson's later works were such an important contribution.
Huxley coined the terms ''the new synthesis'' and ''evolutionary synthesis''; he also invented the term ''cline (population genetics), cline'' in 1938 to refer to species whose members fall into a series of sub-species with continuous change in characters over a geographical area. The classic example of a cline is the circle of subspecies of the gull ''Larus'' round the Arctic zone. This cline is an example of a ''ring species''.
Some of Huxley's last contributions to the evolutionary synthesis were on the subject of
ecological genetics
Ecological genetics is the study of genetics in natural populations. Traits in a population can be observed and quantified to represent a species adapting to a changing environment.
This contrasts with classical genetics, which works mostly on ...
. He noted how widespread polymorphism (biology), polymorphism is in nature, with visible morphism much more prevalent in some groups than others. The immense diversity of colour and pattern in small bivalve molluscs, brittlestars, sea-anemones, tubicular polychaetes and various grasshoppers is perhaps maintained by making recognition by predators more difficult.
Evolutionary progress
Although Huxley believed that on a broad view evolution led to advances in organisation, he rejected classical Aristotle, Aristotelian teleology: "The ordinary man, or at least the ordinary poet, philosopher and theologian, always was anxious to find purpose in the evolutionary process. I believe this reasoning to be totally false.". Huxley coined the phrase ''Progress without a goal'' to summarise his case in ''Evolution the modern synthesis'' that evolutionary progress was "a raising of the upper level of biological efficiency, this being defined as increased control over and independence of the environment." In ''Evolution in action'' he wrote that
Natural selection plus time produces biological improvement… 'Improvement' is not yet a recognised technical term in biology … however, living things are improved during evolution… Darwin was not afraid to use the word for the results of natural selection in general… I believe that improvement can become one of the key concepts in evolutionary biology.
Can it be scientifically defined? Improvements in biological machinery… the limbs and teeth of grazing horses… the increase in brain-power… The eyes of a dragon-fly, which can see all round [it] in every direction, are an improvement over the mere microscopic eye-spots of early forms of life.
[Over] the whole range of evolutionary time we see general advance—improvement in all the main properties of life, including its general organization. 'Advance' is thus a useful term for long-term improvement in some general property of life. [But] improvement is not universal. Lower forms manage to survive alongside higher".
Huxley's views on progressive evolution were similar to those of G. Ledyard Stebbins and Bernhard Rensch, and were challenged in the latter part of the twentieth century with objections from Cladism, Cladists, among others, to any suggestion that one group could be scientifically described as 'advanced' and another as 'primitive'. Modern assessments of these views have been surveyed in Nitecki and Dawkins.
Secular humanism
Huxley's secular humanism, humanism came from his appreciation that mankind was in charge of its own destiny (at least in principle), and this raised the need for a sense of direction and a system of ethics. His grandfather T. H. Huxley, when faced with similar problems, had promoted agnosticism, but Julian chose humanism as being more directed to supplying a basis for ethics. Julian's thinking went along these lines: "The critical point in the evolution of man… was when he acquired the use of [language]… Man's development is potentially open… He has developed a new method of evolution: the transmission of organized experience by way of tradition, which… largely overrides the automatic process of natural selection as the agent of change." Both Huxley and his grandfather gave Romanes Lectures on the possible connection between evolution and ethics (see evolutionary ethics). Huxley's views on God could be described as being that of an agnostic atheist.
Huxley had a close association with the British rationalist movement, rationalist and secular humanism, secular humanist movements. He was an Honorary Associate of the Rationalist Press Association from 1927 until his death, and on the formation of the
British Humanist Association
Humanists UK, known from 1967 until May 2017 as the British Humanist Association (BHA), is a charitable organisation which promotes secular humanism and aims to represent "people who seek to live good lives without religious or superstitious b ...
in 1963 became its first President, to be succeeded by Alfred Ayer, AJ Ayer in 1965. He was also closely involved with the International Humanist and Ethical Union. Many of Huxley's books address humanist themes. In 1962 Huxley accepted the American Humanist Association's annual "Humanist of the Year" award.
Huxley also presided over the founding Congress of the International Humanist and Ethical Union and served with John Dewey, Albert Einstein and Thomas Mann on the founding advisory board of the First Humanist Society of New York.
Religious naturalism
Huxley wrote that "There is no separate supernatural realm: all phenomena are part of one natural process of evolution. There is no basic cleavage between science and religion;… I believe that [a] drastic reorganization of our pattern of religious thought is now becoming necessary, from a god-centered to an evolutionary-centred pattern."
[Huxley, Julian. 1969. The New Divinity in ''Essays of a Humanist''. Penguin, London.] Some believe the appropriate label for these views is religious naturalism.
Many people assert that this abandonment of the god hypothesis means the abandonment of all religion and all moral sanctions. This is simply not true. But it does mean, once our relief at jettisoning an outdated piece of ideological furniture is over, that we must construct something to take its place.
Parapsychology
Huxley took interest in investigating the claims of parapsychology and spiritualism. He joined the Society for Psychical Research in 1928. After investigation he found the field to be unscientific and full of charlatans. In 1934, he joined the International Institute for Psychical Research but resigned after a few months due to its members' spiritualist bias and non-scientific approach to the subject.
After attending séances, Huxley concluded that the phenomena could be explained "either by natural causes, or, more usually by fraud". Huxley, Harold Dearden and others were judges for a group formed by the ''Sunday Chronicle'' to investigate the Materialization (paranormal), materialization medium Harold Evans. During a séance Evans was exposed as a fraud. He was caught masquerading as a spirit, in a white nightshirt.
In 1952, Huxley wrote the foreword to Donovan Rawcliffe's ''The Psychology of the Occult''.
Eugenics and race
Huxley was a prominent member of the
British Eugenics Society, and was Vice-President (1937–1944) and President (1959–1962). He thought eugenics was important for removing undesirable variants from the human gene pool, though after
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
he believed Race (classification of human beings), race was a meaningless concept in biology, and its application to humans was highly inconsistent.
Huxley was an outspoken critic of the most extreme eugenicism in the 1920s and 1930s (the stimulus for which was the greater fertility of the 'feckless' poor compared to the 'responsible' prosperous classes). He was, nevertheless, a leading figure in the eugenics movement (see, for example, Eugenics manifesto). He gave the Galton memorial lecture twice, in 1936 and 1962. In his writing he used this argument several times: "''no one doubts the wisdom of managing the germ plasm of agricultural stocks, so why not apply the same concept to human stocks?"'' The agricultural analogy appears over and over again as it did in the writings of many American eugenicists.
Huxley was one of many intellectuals at the time who believed that the lowest class in society was genetically inferior. In this passage, from 1941, he investigates a hypothetical scenario where Social Darwinism, capitalism, nationalism and the class society is taken for granted:
If so, then we must plan our eugenic policy along some such lines as the following:... The lowest strata, allegedly less well-endowed genetically, are reproducing relatively too fast. Therefore birth-control methods must be taught them; they must not have too easy access to relief or hospital treatment lest the removal of the last check on natural selection should make it too easy for children to be produced or to survive; long unemployment should be a ground for sterilization, or at least relief should be contingent upon no further children being brought into the world; and so on. That is to say, much of our eugenic programme will be curative and remedial merely, instead of preventive and constructive.
Here, he does not demean the working class in general, but aims for ''"the virtual elimination of the few lowest and most degenerate types"''. The sentiment is not at all atypical of the time, and similar views were held by many geneticists (William E. Castle, C. B. Davenport, H. J. Muller are examples), and by other prominent intellectuals.
Huxley advocated ensuring the lower classes have a nutritious diet, education and facilities for recreation:
We must therefore concentrate on producing a single equalized environment; and this clearly should be one as favourable as possible to the expression of the genetic qualities that we think desirable. Equally clearly, this should include the following items. A marked raising of the standard of diet for the great majority of the population, until all should be provided both with adequate calories and adequate accessory factors; provision of facilities for healthy exercise and recreation; and upward equalization of educational opportunity. ... we know from various sources that raising the standard of life among the poorest classes almost invariably results in a lowering of their fertility. In so far, therefore, as differential class-fertility exists, raising the environmental level will reduce any dysgenic effects which it may now have.
Concerning a public health and racial policy in general, Huxley wrote that "…unless [civilised societies] invent and enforce adequate measures for regulating human reproduction, for controlling the quantity of population, and ''at least preventing the deterioration of quality of racial stock'', they are doomed to decay …" and remarked how biology should be the chief tool for rendering social politics scientific.
In the opinion of Duvall, "His views fell well within the spectrum of opinion acceptable to the English liberal intellectual elite. He shared ''Nature (journal), Nature''s enthusiasm for birth control, and 'voluntary' sterilization." However, the word 'English' in this passage is unnecessary: such views were widespread. Duvall comments that Huxley's enthusiasm for centralised Social engineering (political science), social and economic planning and Anti-industrialism, anti-industrial values was common to leftist Ideology, ideologists during the inter-war years. Towards the end of his life, Huxley himself must have recognised how unpopular these views became after the end of
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
. In the two volumes of his autobiography, there is no mention of eugenics in the index, nor is Galton mentioned; and the subject has also been omitted from many of the obituaries and biographies. An exception is the proceedings of a conference organised by the
British Eugenics Society.
In response to the rise of European fascism in the 1930s, he was asked to write ''We Europeans'' with the ethnologist Alfred Cort Haddon, A. C. Haddon, the zoologist Alexander Carr-Saunders and the historian of science Charles Singer. Huxley suggested the word 'race' be replaced with ethnic group. After the Second World War, he was instrumental in producing the
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...
statement ''The Race Question'', which asserted that:
A race, from the biological standpoint, may therefore be defined as one of the group of populations constituting the species ''Homo sapiens''"… "National, religious, geographic, linguistic and cult groups do not necessary coincide with racial groups: the cultural traits of such groups have no demonstrated genetic connexion with racial traits. Because serious errors of this kind are habitually committed when the term 'race' is used in popular parlance, it would be better when speaking of human races to drop the term 'race' altogether and speak of ''ethnic groups''"… "Now what has the scientist to say about the groups of mankind which may be recognized at the present time? Human races can be and have been differently classified by different anthropologists, but at the present time most anthropologists agree on classifying the greater part of present-day mankind into three major divisions, as follows: The Mongoloid Division; The Negroid Division; The Caucasoid Division." … "Catholics, Protestants, Moslems and Jews are not races … The biological fact of race and the myth of 'race' should be distinguished. For all practical social purposes 'race' is not so much a biological phenomenon as a social myth. The myth 'race' has created an enormous amount of human and social damage. In recent years it has taken a heavy toll in human lives and caused untold suffering. It still prevents the normal development of millions of human beings and deprives civilization of the effective co-operation of productive minds. The biological differences between ethnic groups should be disregarded from the standpoint of social acceptance and social action. The unity of mankind from both the biological and social viewpoint is the main thing. To recognize this and to act accordingly is the first requirement of modern man ...
Huxley won the second Anisfield-Wolf Book Award for ''We Europeans'' in 1937.
In 1951, Huxley coined the term ''transhumanism'' for the view that humans should better themselves through science and technology, possibly including eugenics, but also, importantly, the improvement of the social environment.
Public life and popularisation
Huxley was a capable and willing popularizer of science. Well over half his books are addressed to an educated general audience, and he wrote often in periodicals and newspapers. The most extensive bibliography of Huxley lists some of these ephemeral articles, though there are others unrecorded.
These articles, some reissued as ''Essays of a Biologist'' (1923), probably led to the invitation from H. G. Wells to help write a comprehensive work on biology for a general readership, ''The Science of Life''.
This work was published in stages in 1929–30, and in one volume in 1931. Of this Robert Olby said "Book IV ''The essence of the controversies about evolution'' offers perhaps the clearest, most readable, succinct and informative popular account of the subject ever penned. It was here that he first expounded his own version of what later developed into the evolutionary synthesis". In his memoirs, Huxley says that he made almost £10,000 from the book.
In 1934 Huxley collaborated with the naturalist Ronald Lockley to create for Alexander Korda the world's first natural history documentary ''The Private Life of the Gannets''. For the film, shot with the support of the Royal Navy around Grassholm off the Pembrokeshire coast, they won an Academy Awards, Oscar for best documentary.
Huxley had given talks on the radio since the 1920s, followed by written versions in ''The Listener (magazine), The Listener''. In later life, he became known to an even wider audience through television. In 1939 the BBC asked him to be a regular panelist on a BBC Home Service, Home Service general knowledge show, ''The Brains Trust'', in which he and other panelists were asked to discuss questions submitted by listeners. The show was commissioned to keep up war time morale, by preventing the war from "disrupting the normal discussion of interesting ideas". The audience was not large for this somewhat elite programme; however, listener research ranked Huxley the most popular member of the Brains Trust from 1941 to 1944.
Later, he was a regular panelist on one of the BBC's first quiz shows (1955) ''Animal, Vegetable, Mineral?'' in which participants were asked to talk about objects chosen from museum and university collections.
In 1937 Huxley was invited to deliver the Royal Institution Christmas Lectures, Royal Institution Christmas Lecture on ''Rare Animals and the Disappearance of Wild Life''.
In his essay ''The Crowded World'' Huxley was openly critical of Communist and Catholic attitudes to birth control, population control and Human overpopulation, overpopulation. Based on variable rates of compound interest, Huxley predicted a probable world population of 6 billion by 2000. The United Nations Population Fund marked 12 October 1999 as The Day of Six Billion.
There is a public house named after Sir Julian in Selsdon, London Borough of Croydon, close to the Selsdon Wood Nature Reserve which he helped establish.
Terms coined
* Clade (1957): a monophyletic taxon; a single species and its descendants
* Cline (population genetics), Cline (1938): a gradient of gene frequencies in a population, along a given transect
* Ethnic group (1936): as opposed to Race (classification of human beings), race
* Evolutionary grade (1959): a level of evolutionary advance, in contrast to a clade
* Mentifact (1955): objects which consist of ideas in people's minds
* Polymorphism (biology), Morph (1942): as more correct and simpler than polymorphism (biology), polymorph
* Ritualization (1914): formalised activities in bird behaviour, caused by inherited behaviour chains
* Sociofact (1955): objects which consist of interactions between members of a social group
* Transhumanism (1957): the transforming of human beings
Titles and phrases
* ''Religion Without Revelation'' (1927, 1957)
* ''The New Systematics'' (1940)
* ''The Uniqueness of Man'' (1941)
* ''Evolution: Modern synthesis (20th century), The Modern Synthesis'' (1942)
* ''Evolutionary Ethics'' (1943)
* ''Evolution as a Process'' (1954)
* ''Essays of a Humanist'' (1964)
* ''The Future of Man'' (1966)
Selected works
Articles
"Transhumanism."''Journal of Humanistic Psychology'', vol. 8, no. 1 (January 1968): 73-76. .
::"Huxley gives the outline of what he believes future humanity could – and should – look like. By pointing out the numerous limitations and feebleness the human nature is – at the time – prone to, and by confronting them with the possibilities humankind has, Huxley expresses the need to research and put into use all possible measures that would enable man achieve utmost perfection."
Books
''The Individual in the Animal Kingdom'' Cambridge University Press (1912)
* ''Courtship Habits of the Great Crested Grebe'' (1914) "A landmark in
ethology
Ethology is the scientific study of animal behaviour, usually with a focus on behaviour under natural conditions, and viewing behaviour as an evolutionarily adaptive trait. Behaviourism as a term also describes the scientific and objecti ...
."
* ''Essays of a Biologist'' (1923)
* ''Essays in Popular Science'' (1926)
* ''The Stream of Life'' (1926)
* ''The Tissue-Culture King'' (1926) [short story]
* ''Animal Biology'', with J. B. S. Haldane (1927)
* ''Religion Without Revelation'' (1927) [Revised ed. 1957]
* ''Ants'' (1929)
* ''Science of Life: A Summary of Contemporary Knowledge About Life and its Possibilities'', with H. G. Wells, H. G. &
G. P. Wells (1929–30)
** First issued in 31 fortnightly parts published by Amalgamated Press, 1929–31, bound up in three volumes as publication proceeded. First issued in one volume by Cassell in 1931, reprinted 1934, 1937, popular edition, fully revised, 1938. Published as separate volumes by Cassell 1934–37: I ''The Living Body''. II ''Patterns of life'' (1934). III ''Evolution—fact and theory''. IV Reproduction, heredity and the development of sex. V ''The history and adventure of life''. VI ''The drama of life''. VII ''How animals behave'' (1937). VIII ''Man's mind and behaviour''. IX ''Biology and the human race''. Published in New York by Doubleday, Doran & Co. 1931, 1934, 1939; and by The Literary Guild 1934. Three of the Cassell spin-off books were also published by Doubleday in 1932: ''Evolution, fact and theory''; ''The human mind and the behavior of Man''; ''Reproduction, genetics and the development of sex''.
* ''Bird-watching and Bird Behaviour'' (1930)
* ''An Introduction to Science'' with Edward Andrade (1931–34)
* ''What Dare I Think?: The Challenge of Modern Science to Human Action and Belief''. London: Chatto & Windus; New York: Harper (publisher), Harper (1931)
* ''Africa View'' (1931)
* ''Captive Shrew and Other Poems'' (1932)
* ''Problems of Relative Growth'' (1932) (on allometry)
* ''A Scientist Among the Soviets'' (1932)
* ''If I Were Dictator''. London: Methuen; New York: Harper (publisher), Harper (1934)
* ''Scientific Research and Social Needs'' (1934)
* ''Elements of Experimental Embryology'', with
Gavin de Beer
Sir Gavin Rylands de Beer (1 November 1899 – 21 June 1972) was a British evolutionary embryologist, known for his work on heterochrony as recorded in his 1930 book ''Embryos and Ancestors''. He was director of the Natural History Museum, Lond ...
(1934)
* ''Thomas Huxley's Diary of the Voyage of HMS Rattlesnake (1822), HMS ''Rattlesnake'''' (1935)
* ''We Europeans'', with Alfred Cort Haddon, A.C. Haddon (1936)
* ''Animal Language'' (1938) [Reprinted 1964] Photographs and audio recordings of animal calls by Ylla.
* Present Standing of the Theory of Sexual Selection. In:
Gavin de Beer
Sir Gavin Rylands de Beer (1 November 1899 – 21 June 1972) was a British evolutionary embryologist, known for his work on heterochrony as recorded in his 1930 book ''Embryos and Ancestors''. He was director of the Natural History Museum, Lond ...
(ed). ''Evolution: Essays on Aspects of Evolutionary Biology''. Oxford: Clarendon Press (1938): 11-42.
* ''Living Thoughts of Darwin'' (1939)
* ''New Systematics''. Oxford (1940)
::"...this multi-author volume, edited by Huxley, is one of the foundation stones of the 'Modern synthesis (20th century), Modern synthesis', with essays on Taxonomy (biology), taxonomy,
evolution
Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. These characteristics are the expressions of genes, which are passed on from parent to offspring during reproduction. Variation ...
,
natural selection
Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype. It is a key mechanism of evolution, the change in the heritable traits characteristic of a population over generations. Cha ...
, Mendelian genetics and population genetics."
* iarchive:democracymarches00huxl, ''Democracy Marches''. London: Chatto & Windus with Hogarth Press; New York: Harper (publisher), Harper (1941). Foreword by Thomas Horder, 1st Baron Horder, Lord Horder. .
''The Uniqueness of Man''.London: Chatto & Windus (1941
(Reprinted 1943)** Published in U.S. as ''Man Stands Alone''. New York: Harper (publisher), Harper (1941)
* ''On Living in a Revolution''. New York: Harper (publisher), Harper (1944)
''Evolution: The Modern Synthesis.''London: Allen & Unwin (1942); New York: Harper (publisher), Harper (1943)
** "Summarizes research on all topics relevant to the modern synthesis of
evolution
Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. These characteristics are the expressions of genes, which are passed on from parent to offspring during reproduction. Variation ...
and Mendelian genetics up to the Second World War."
*** Reprinted (1943), (1944), (1945), (1948), (1955).
*** 2nd ed. (1963) New introduction and bibliography by the author.
*** 3rd ed. (1974) New introduction and bibliography by nine contributors.
*** New ed. (2010) Cambridge: MIT Press. Foreword by Massimo Pigliucci and Gerd B. Müller.
* ''Evolutionary Ethics'' (1943)
* ''TVA: Adventure in Planning'' (1944)
* ''Evolution and Ethics, 1893–1943''. London: Pilot.
** Published in U.S. as ''Touchstone for Ethics'' New York: Harper (publisher), Harper (1947) with text from Thomas Henry Huxley, T. H. (Thomas Henry) Huxley.
''Man in the Modern World''(1947) Essays selected from ''The Uniqueness of Man'' (1941) and ''On Living in a Revolution'' (1944)
* ''Soviet Genetics and World Science: Lysenko and the Meaning of Heredity''. London: Chatto & Windus
** Published in U.S. as ''Heredity, East and West.'' New York: Schuman (1949).
* ''Evolution in Action'' (1953)
* ''Evolution as a Process'' with Alister Hardy, Hardy A. C. and Edmund Brisco Ford, Ford E. B. (editors). London: Allen & Unwin (1954)
* ''From an Antique Land: Ancient and Modern in the Middle East'' (1954)
** Revised ed. (1966)
* ''Kingdom of the Beasts'' with W. Suschitzky (1956)
* ''Biological Aspects of Cancer'' (1957)
* iarchive:newbottlesfornew00juli, ''New Bottles for New Wine''. London: Chatto & Windus; New York: Harper (publisher), Harper (1957)
** Reprinted as iarchive:knowledgemoralit00huxl, ''Knowledge, Morality, Destiny''. New York: New American Library (1960) .
** Reprinted as "Knowledge, Morality, Destiny, I." ''Psychiatry'', vol. 14, no. 2 (1960): 129-140. . .
The Treasure House of Wild Life13 Nov
More meat from game than cattle13 Nov
Cropping the wild protein20 Nov
Wild life as a World Assetsecond page27 Nov; The Observer newspaper articles that led to the setting up of the
World Wildlife Fund
The World Wide Fund for Nature Inc. (WWF) is an international non-governmental organization founded in 1961 that works in the field of wilderness preservation and the reduction of human impact on the environment. It was formerly named the Wo ...
(1960)
* ''The Humanist Frame'' (editor) (1961)
* ''The Coming New Religion of Humanism'' (1962)
* ''Essays of a Humanist'' (1964) [reprinted 1966, 1969, 1992]. .
* ''The Human Crisis'' (1964)
* ''Darwin and his World'' with Bernard Kettlewell (1965)
* ''Aldous Huxley 1894–1963: A Memorial Volume''. (editor) (1965)
* ''The Future of Man: evolutionary Aspects''. (1966)
* ''The Wonderful World of Evolution'' (1969)
* ''Memories'' (autobiography).
** volume 1 (1970)
** volume 2 (1973)
* ''Mitchell Beazley Atlas of World Wildlife''. London: Mitchell Beazley &
Zoological Society of London
The Zoological Society of London (ZSL) is a charity devoted to the worldwide conservation of animals and their habitats. It was founded in 1826. Since 1828, it has maintained the London Zoo, and since 1931 Whipsnade Park.
History
On 29 ...
(1973)
** Republished as ''The Atlas of World Wildlife''. Cape Town: Purnell (1973)
Notes
References
Biographies
* Baker John R. 1978. ''Julian Huxley, scientist and world citizen, 1887–1975''. UNESCO, Paris.
* Clark, Ronald W. 1960. ''Sir Julian Huxley''. Phoenix, London.
* Clark, Ronald W. 1968. ''The Huxleys''. Heinemann, London.
* Dronamraju, Krishna R. 1993. ''If I am to be remembered: the life & work of Julian Huxley, with selected correspondence''. World Scientific, Singapore.
* Green, Jens-Peter 1981. ''Krise und Hoffnung, der Evolutionshumanismus Julian Huxleys''. Carl Winter Universitätsverlag.
* Huxley, Julian. 1970, 1973. ''Memories'' and ''Memories II''. George Allen & Unwin, London.
* Huxley, Juliette 1986. ''Leaves of the tulip tree''. Murray, London [her autobiography includes much about Julian]
* Keynes, Milo and Harrison, G. Ainsworth (eds) 1989. ''Evolutionary studies: a centenary celebration of the life of Julian Huxley''. Proceedings of the 24th annual symposium of the Eugenics Society, London 1987. Macmillan, London.
* Biography of Julian Huxley by Chloé Maurel in the Biographical Dictionary of SG IOs
* Chloé Maurel, L'Unesco de 1945 à 1974, PhD history, université Paris 1, 2005
[archive] (on J. Huxley, p. 47–65)* Olby, Robert 2004. Huxley, Sir Julian Sorell (1887–1975). In ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''. (2680 words)
* Waters, C. Kenneth and Van Helden, Albert (eds) 1993. ''Julian Huxley: biologist and statesman of science''. Rice University Press, Houston. [scholarly articles by historians of science on Huxley's work and ideas]
External links
Short biography.''A Guide to the Papers of Julian Sorell Huxley''by Sarah C. Bates and Mary G. Winkler. Houston, Tex.: Woodson Research Center,
Rice University
William Marsh Rice University (Rice University) is a Private university, private research university in Houston, Houston, Texas. It is on a 300-acre campus near the Houston Museum District and adjacent to the Texas Medical Center. Rice is ranke ...
. Rev. ed. (June 1987) [February 1984]. . "...with the assistance of Christina Riquelmy."
Julian Huxley’s philosophy By John Toye and Richard Toye. In ''60 Years of Science at UNESCO 1945–2005'', UNESCO, 2006.
One World, Two Cultures? Alfred Zimmern, Julian Huxley and the Ideological Origins of UNESCO By John Toye and Richard Toye. ''History'', 95, 319: 308–331, 2010
"Guide to the Julian Sorell Huxley Papers, 1899–1980"(Woodson Research Center, Fondren Library, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA)—"Julian Huxley papers documenting his career as a biologist and a leading intellectual. 180 boxes of materials ranging in date from 1899–1980." Extent: 91 linear feet.
"Transhumanism"in ''New Bottles for New Wine''. London: Chatto & Windus, 1957.
''Essays of a Biologist'' (1923)at Project Gutenberg
"The New Divination"in ''Essays of a Humanist''. London: Chatto & Windus, 1964.
* Archival material at
*
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