Joseon (; ;
Middle Korean
Middle Korean is the period in the history of the Korean language succeeding Old Korean and yielding in 1600 to the Modern period.
The boundary between the Old and Middle periods is traditionally identified with the establishment of Goryeo in 9 ...
: 됴ᇢ〯션〮 Dyǒw syéon or 됴ᇢ〯션〯 Dyǒw syěon), officially the Great Joseon (; ), was the last dynastic kingdom of
Korea
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic ...
, lasting just over 500 years.
It was founded by
Yi Seong-gye
Taejo of Joseon (4 November 1335 – 27 June 1408), born Yi Seong-gye (), was the founder and first ruler of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. After ascending to the throne, he changed his name to Yi Dan (), and reigned from 1392 to 1398. He was ...
in July 1392 and replaced by the
Korean Empire
The Korean Empire () was a Korean monarchical state proclaimed in October 1897 by Emperor Gojong of the Joseon dynasty. The empire stood until Japan's annexation of Korea in August 1910.
During the Korean Empire, Emperor Gojong oversaw the Gwan ...
in October 1897. The kingdom was founded following the aftermath of the overthrow of
Goryeo
Goryeo (; ) was a Korean kingdom founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korean Peninsula until 1392. Goryeo achieved what has been called a "true national unificat ...
in what is today the city of
Kaesong
Kaesong (, ) is a special city in the southern part of North Korea (formerly in North Hwanghae Province), and the capital of Korea during the Taebong kingdom and subsequent Goryeo dynasty. The city is near the Kaesong Industrial Region close t ...
. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day
Seoul
Seoul (; ; ), officially known as the Seoul Special City, is the Capital city, capital and largest metropolis of South Korea.Before 1972, Seoul was the ''de jure'' capital of the North Korea, Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea ...
. The kingdom's northernmost borders were expanded to the natural boundaries at the rivers of
Amrok and
Tuman through the subjugation of the
Jurchens
Jurchen (Manchu: ''Jušen'', ; zh, 女真, ''Nǚzhēn'', ) is a term used to collectively describe a number of East Asian Tungusic-speaking peoples, descended from the Donghu people. They lived in the northeast of China, later known as Manch ...
.
During its 500-year duration, Joseon encouraged the entrenchment of
Confucian
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or ...
ideals and doctrines in Korean society.
Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism (, often shortened to ''lǐxué'' 理學, literally "School of Principle") is a moral, ethical, and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, and originated with Han Yu (768–824) and Li Ao (772–841) ...
was installed as the new state's ideology.
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
was accordingly discouraged, and occasionally the practitioners faced persecutions. Joseon consolidated its effective rule over the territory of current Korea and saw the height of classical Korean culture, trade, literature, and science and technology. In the 1590s, the kingdom was severely weakened due to
Japanese invasions. Several decades later, Joseon was invaded by the
Later Jin dynasty and the
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
in
1627 and
1636–1637 respectively, leading to an increasingly harsh isolationist policy, for which the country became known as the "
hermit kingdom" in
Western literature
Western literature, also known as European literature, is the literature written in the context of Western culture in the languages of Europe, as well as several geographically or historically related languages such as Basque and Hungarian, an ...
. After the end of these invasions from
Manchuria
Manchuria is an exonym (derived from the endo demonym " Manchu") for a historical and geographic region in Northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day Northeast China (Inner Manchuria) and parts of the Russian Far East (Outer M ...
, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace and prosperity, along with cultural and technological development. What power the kingdom recovered during its isolation waned as the 18th century came to a close. Faced with internal strife, power struggles, international pressure, and rebellions at home, the kingdom declined rapidly in the late 19th century.
The Joseon period has left a substantial legacy to modern Korea; much of modern
Korean culture
The traditional culture of Korea is the shared cultural and historical heritage of Korea and southern Manchuria before the division of Korea in 1945. Manchuria refers to the ancient geographical and historical region in Northeast Asia, includ ...
, etiquette, norms, and societal attitudes toward current issues, along with the modern
Korean language
Korean (South Korean: , ''hangugeo''; North Korean: , ''chosŏnmal'') is the native language for about 80 million people, mostly of Korean descent. It is the official and national language of both North Korea and South Korea (geographica ...
and
its dialects, derive from the culture and traditions of Joseon. Modern Korean bureaucracy and administrative divisions were also established during the Joseon period.
History
Early
Founding
By the late 14th century, the nearly 500-year-old
Goryeo
Goryeo (; ) was a Korean kingdom founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korean Peninsula until 1392. Goryeo achieved what has been called a "true national unificat ...
established in 918 was tottering, its foundations collapsing from years of war spilled over from the disintegrating
Yuan dynasty
The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fif ...
. Following the emergence of the
Ming dynasty
The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
, the royal court in Goryeo split into two conflicting factions, one supporting the Ming and the other standing by the Yuan. In 1388, a Ming messenger came to Goryeo to demand that territories of the former
Ssangseong Prefectures
The Ssangseong Prefectures were administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty established in 1258 in modern-day Kumya County, South Hamgyong Province, North Korea. It was founded as a base for conquest and domination of northern Goryeo territory ...
be handed over to Ming China. The tract of land was taken by Mongol forces during
the invasion of Korea, but had been reclaimed by Goryeo in 1356 as the Yuan dynasty weakened. The act caused an uproar among the Goryeo court, and General
Choe Yeong
Choi Young (Korean: 최영; 1316–1388), also romanized as Choe Yeong, was a Korean general born in Hongseong or CheorwonKBS World"Choe Yeong, the Victorious General of Goryeo Dynasty", Koreans in History, 2011-02-04. during the Goryeo peri ...
seized the chance to argue for an invasion of the Ming-controlled
Liaodong Peninsula
The Liaodong Peninsula (also Liaotung Peninsula, ) is a peninsula in southern Liaoning province in Northeast China, and makes up the southwestern coastal half of the Liaodong region. It is located between the mouths of the Daliao River ...
.
General
Yi Seong-gye
Taejo of Joseon (4 November 1335 – 27 June 1408), born Yi Seong-gye (), was the founder and first ruler of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. After ascending to the throne, he changed his name to Yi Dan (), and reigned from 1392 to 1398. He was ...
was chosen to lead the attack;
he revolted, swept back to the capital Gaegyeong (present-day
Kaesong
Kaesong (, ) is a special city in the southern part of North Korea (formerly in North Hwanghae Province), and the capital of Korea during the Taebong kingdom and subsequent Goryeo dynasty. The city is near the Kaesong Industrial Region close t ...
) and initiated a
coup d'état
A coup d'état (; French for 'stroke of state'), also known as a coup or overthrow, is a seizure and removal of a government and its powers. Typically, it is an illegal seizure of power by a political faction, politician, cult, rebel group, m ...
, overthrowing
King U
U of Goryeo (25 July 1365 – 31 December 1389) ruled Goryeo (Korea) as the 32nd king from 1374 until 1388. He was the only son of King Gongmin.
Cultural background
In the thirteenth century, Mongol forces had invaded China and established th ...
in favor of his son,
Chang of Goryeo
King Chang of Goryeo (6 September 1380 – 31 December 1389) was the 33rd and youngest ruler of the Goryeo Dynasty of Korea. His life and death is often compared with Grand Prince Yeongchang.
Biography
Prince Chang was the only son of King U ...
(1388). He later killed King U and his son after a failed restoration and forcibly placed a royal named Wang Yo on the throne (he became King
Gongyang of Goryeo
Gongyang of Goryeo (9 March 1345 – 17 May 1394) was the 34th and final ruler of the Goryeo Dynasty of Korea. He was the descendant of Duke Yangyang, brother of King Huijong. He was deposed by Yi Seong-gye, who then established the new Jos ...
). In 1392, Yi eliminated
Jeong Mong-ju
Jeong Mong-ju (Korean: 정몽주, Hanja: 鄭夢周, January 13, 1338 – April 26, 1392), also known by his pen name Poeun (Korean: 포은), a historical figure during the transition period of the Korean dynasty moving from Goryeo (918-1392) to ...
, a highly respected leader of a group loyal to Goryeo dynasty, and dethroned King Gongyang, exiling him to
Wonju
Wonju () is the most populous city in Gangwon Province, South Korea. The city is located approximately east of Seoul. Wonju was the site of three crucial battles during the Korean War.
Geography
Wonju sits at the southwestern corner of Gangw ...
, and he ascended the throne himself. The Goryeo kingdom had come to an end after 474 years of rule.
In the beginning of his reign, Yi Seong-gye, now ruler of Korea, intended to continue to use of the name Goryeo for the country he ruled and simply change the royal line of descent to his own, thus maintaining the façade of continuing the 500-year-old Goryeo tradition. After numerous threats of mutiny from the drastically weakened but still influential Gwonmun nobles, who continued to swear allegiance to the remnants of the Goryeo and to the now-demoted
Wang clan, the consensus in the reformed court was that a new dynastic title was needed to signify the change. In naming the new kingdom, Taejo contemplated two possibilities – "Hwaryeong" (his place of birth) and "Joseon". After much internal deliberation, as well as endorsement by the neighboring Ming dynasty's emperor, Taejo declared the name of the kingdom to be Joseon, a tribute to the ancient Korean state of
Gojoseon
Gojoseon () also called Joseon (), was the first kingdom on the Korean Peninsula. According to Korean mythology, the kingdom was established by the legendary founder named Dangun. Gojoseon possessed the most advanced culture in the Korean P ...
. He also moved the capital to
Hanseong
Seoul (; ; ), officially known as the Seoul Special City, is the capital and largest metropolis of South Korea.Before 1972, Seoul was the ''de jure'' capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) as stated iArticle 103 ...
(modern
Seoul
Seoul (; ; ), officially known as the Seoul Special City, is the Capital city, capital and largest metropolis of South Korea.Before 1972, Seoul was the ''de jure'' capital of the North Korea, Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea ...
) from
Gaegyeong (modern Kaesong).
Strifes of princes
![Gyeongbok-gung palace-01 (xndr)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Gyeongbok-gung_palace-01_%28xndr%29.jpg)
When the new dynasty was brought into existence, Taejo brought up the issue of which son would be his successor. Although
Yi Bang-won, Taejo's fifth son by
Queen Sinui
Queen Sinui (Hangul: 신의왕후 한씨, Hanja: 神懿王后 韓氏; 1337 – 21 October 1391), of the Cheongju Han clan, was the first wife of Yi Seong-gye (future Taejo of Joseon). She was the mother of King Jeongjong and King Taejong.
She ...
, had contributed the most to assisting his father's rise to power,
Chief State Councillor
Chief may refer to:
Title or rank
Military and law enforcement
* Chief master sergeant, the ninth, and highest, enlisted rank in the U.S. Air Force and U.S. Space Force
* Chief of police, the head of a police department
* Chief of the boa ...
Jeong Do-jeon
Jeong Dojeon ( Korean: 정도전, Hanja: 鄭道傳, 1342 – October 6, 1398), also known by his pen name Sambong ( Korean: 삼봉), was a prominent Korean scholar-official during the late Goryeo to the early Joseon periods. He served as the firs ...
and
Nam Eun
Nam, Nam, or The Nam are shortened terms for:
* Vietnam, which is also spelled ''Viet Nam''
* The Vietnam War
Nam, The Nam or NAM may also refer to:
Arts and media
* Nam, a fictional character in anime series ''Dragon Ball''
* ''NAM'' (video ...
used their influence on the king to name Yi Bang-seok, his eighth son (second son of
Queen Sindeok
Queen Sindeok (신덕왕후 강씨; 12 July 1356 – 15 September 1396), of the Goksan Kang clan, was a posthumous name bestowed to the second wife and queen consort of Yi Dan, King Taejo; the first monarch of the Korean Joseon Dynasty. She was ...
), as crown prince in 1392. This conflict arose largely because Jeong Do-jeon, who shaped and laid down ideological, institutional, and legal foundations of the new kingdom more than anyone else, saw Joseon as a kingdom led by ministers appointed by the king while Yi Bang-won wanted to establish an absolute monarchy ruled directly by the king. With Taejo's support, Jeong Do-jeon kept limiting the royal family's power by prohibiting political involvement of princes and attempting to abolish their private armies. Both sides were well aware of each other's great animosity and were getting ready to strike first.
After the sudden death of Queen Sindeok, while King Taejo was still in mourning for his second wife, Yi Bang-won struck first by raiding the palace and killed Jeong Do-jeon and his supporters as well as Queen Sindeok's two sons (his half-brothers) including the crown prince in 1398. This incident became known as the "First Strife of Princes".
Aghast at the fact that his sons were willing to kill each other for the crown, and psychologically exhausted from the death of his second wife, King Taejo abdicated and immediately crowned his second son Yi Bang-gwa as
King Jeongjong. One of King Jeongjong's first acts as monarch was to revert the capital to Gaegyeong, where he is believed to have been considerably more comfortable, away from the toxic power strife. Yet Yi Bang-won retained real power and was soon in conflict with his disgruntled older brother, Yi Bang-gan, who also yearned for power. In 1400, the tensions between Yi Bang-won's faction and Yi Bang-gan's camp escalated into an all-out conflict that came to be known as the "Second Strife of Princes". In the aftermath of the struggle, the defeated Yi Bang-gan was exiled to
Dosan
Ahn Changho, sometimes An Chang-ho (; , November 9, 1878 – March 10, 1938) was a Korean independence activist and one of the early leaders of the Korean-American immigrant community in the United States. He is also referred to by his pen na ...
while his supporters were executed. Thoroughly intimidated, King Jeongjong immediately invested Yi Bang-won as heir presumptive and voluntarily abdicated. That same year, Yi Bang-won assumed the throne of Joseon at long last as
King Taejong, third king of the dynasty.
Consolidation of royal power
In the beginning of Taejong's reign, the former King Taejo refused to relinquish the royal seal that signified the legitimacy of any king's rule. Regardless, Taejong initiated policies he believed would prove his qualification to rule. One of his first acts as king was to abolish the privilege enjoyed by the upper echelons of government and the aristocracy to maintain private armies. His revocation of such rights to field independent forces effectively severed their ability to muster large-scale revolts, and drastically increased the number of men employed in the national military. Taejong's next act as king was to revise the existing legislation concerning the taxation of land ownership and the recording of state of subjects. With the discovery of previously hidden land, national income increased twofold.
In 1399, Taejong had played an influential role in scrapping the
Dopyeong Assembly, a council of the old government administration that held a monopoly in court power during the waning years of
Goryeo
Goryeo (; ) was a Korean kingdom founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korean Peninsula until 1392. Goryeo achieved what has been called a "true national unificat ...
, in favor of the
State Council of Joseon
The State Council of Joseon or Uijeongbu was the highest organ of government under the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. It was led by three officials known as the High State Councillors. The Councilors were entrusted to deliberate over key problems of s ...
, a new branch of central administration that revolved around the king and his edicts. After passing the subject documentation and taxation legislation, he issued a new decree in which all decisions passed by the State Council could only come into effect with the approval of the king. This ended the custom of court ministers and advisors making decisions through debate and negotiations amongst themselves, and thus brought the royal power to new heights.
Shortly thereafter, Taejong installed an office, known as the
Sinmun Office Sinmun may refer to:
King
*Sinmun of Silla (r. 681–692), the thirty-first king of Silla, a Korean state that originated in the southwestern Korean peninsula
Newspaper
* Gyeongju Sinmun, weekly newspaper published in the city of Gyeongju, No ...
, to hear cases in which aggrieved subjects felt that they had been exploited or treated unjustly by government officials or
aristocrats
Aristocracy (, ) is a form of government that places strength in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class, the aristocrats. The term derives from the el, αριστοκρατία (), meaning 'rule of the best'.
At the time of the word' ...
. He kept Jeong Do-jeon's reforms intact for most part. In addition, Taejong executed or exiled many of his supporters who helped him ascend on the throne in order to strengthen his own royal authority. To limit influence of in-laws, he also killed all four of
his wife's brothers and
Shim On
Shim On (1375 – 18 January 1419) was a Korean politician. He was the Chief State Councillor of the Korean Joseon from September 1418 to December 1418 and the father of Queen Soheon and father-in-law to King Sejong. He is known for his treason c ...
, the father-in-law of his son
Sejong
Sejong of Joseon (15 May 1397 – 8 April 1450), personal name Yi Do ( Korean: 이도; Hanja: 李祹), widely known as Sejong the Great ( Korean: 세종대왕; Hanja: 世宗大王), was the fourth ruler of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. I ...
.
Taejong remains a controversial figure who killed many of his rivals and relatives to gain power and yet ruled effectively to improve the populace's lives, strengthen national defense, and lay down a solid foundation for his successor Sejong's rule.
Sejong the Great
![Hunmin jeong-eum](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Hunmin_jeong-eum.jpg)
In August 1418, following Taejong's abdication two months earlier,
Sejong the Great
Sejong of Joseon (15 May 1397 – 8 April 1450), personal name Yi Do (Korean: 이도; Hanja: 李祹), widely known as Sejong the Great (Korean: 세종대왕; Hanja: 世宗大王), was the fourth ruler of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. Initial ...
ascended the throne. In May 1419, King Sejong, under the advice and guidance of his father Taejong, embarked upon the
Gihae Eastern Expedition to remove the nuisance of
waegu
''Wokou'' (; Japanese: ''Wakō''; Korean: 왜구 ''Waegu''), which literally translates to "Japanese pirates" or "dwarf pirates", were pirates who raided the coastlines of China and Korea from the 13th century to the 16th century.[Tsushima Island
is an island of the Japanese archipelago situated in-between the Tsushima Strait and Korea Strait, approximately halfway between Kyushu and the Korean Peninsula. The main island of Tsushima, once a single island, was divided into two in 167 ...]
.
In September 1419, the ''
daimyō
were powerful Japanese magnates, feudal lords who, from the 10th century to the early Meiji period in the middle 19th century, ruled most of Japan from their vast, hereditary land holdings. They were subordinate to the shogun and nominall ...
'' of Tsushima, Sadamori, capitulated to the Joseon court. In 1443, The
Treaty of Gyehae
The Gyehae Treaty was signed in 1443 ("gyehae" is the Korean name of the year in the sexagenary cycle) between the Joseon dynasty and Sō Sadamori as a means of controlling Japanese piracy and legitimizing trade between Tsushima island and three ...
was signed in which the ''daimyō'' of Tsushima was granted rights to conduct trade with Korea in fifty ships per year in exchange for sending tribute to Korea and aiding to stop any Waegu coastal pirate raids on Korean ports.
On the northern border, Sejong established four forts and six posts to safeguard his people from the
Jurchens
Jurchen (Manchu: ''Jušen'', ; zh, 女真, ''Nǚzhēn'', ) is a term used to collectively describe a number of East Asian Tungusic-speaking peoples, descended from the Donghu people. They lived in the northeast of China, later known as Manch ...
, who later became the
Manchus
The Manchus (; ) are a Tungusic East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized ethnic minority in China and the people from whom Manchuria derives its name. The Later Jin (1616–1636) and ...
, living in Manchuria. In 1433, Sejong sent
Kim Jong-seo
Kim Jong-Seo (김종서) (February 23, 1965 – ) is a South Korean rock musician. He debuted in 1985 as part of the band Boohwal. After Boohwal, Kim Jong-Seo was part of several rock bands, among others: Sinawe, Charisma (카리스마), and Li ...
, a government official, north to fend off the Jurchens. Kim's military campaign captured several castles, pushed north, and restored Korean territory, roughly the present-day border between North Korea and China.
During the rule of Sejong, Korea saw advances in
natural science
Natural science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatab ...
,
agriculture
Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people ...
,
literature
Literature is any collection of Writing, written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially prose fiction, drama, and poetry. In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to ...
,
traditional Chinese medicine
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is an alternative medical practice drawn from traditional medicine in China. It has been described as "fraught with pseudoscience", with the majority of its treatments having no logical mechanism of acti ...
, and
engineering
Engineering is the use of scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items, including bridges, tunnels, roads, vehicles, and buildings. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more speciali ...
. Because of such success, Sejong was given the title "Sejong the Great".
The most remembered contribution of King Sejong is the creation of
Hangul
The Korean alphabet, known as Hangul, . Hangul may also be written as following South Korea's standard Romanization. ( ) in South Korea and Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea, is the modern official writing system for the Korean language. The l ...
, the Korean alphabet, in 1443; everyday use of
Hanja
Hanja (Hangul: ; Hanja: , ), alternatively known as Hancha, are Chinese characters () used in the writing of Korean. Hanja was used as early as the Gojoseon period, the first ever Korean kingdom.
(, ) refers to Sino-Korean vocabulary, ...
in writing eventually was surpassed by Hangul in the later half of the 20th century.
Six martyred ministers
After King Sejong's death, his son
Munjong continued his father's legacy but soon died of illness in 1452, just two years after coronation. He was succeeded by his twelve-year-old son,
Danjong
Danjong of Joseon (18 August 1441 – 17 November 1457), personal name Yi Hong-wi ( Korean: 이홍위; Hanja: 李弘暐), was the sixth ruler of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. He was forced to abdicate by his uncle, Grand Prince Suyang (the ...
. In addition to two regents,
Princess Gyeonghye also served as Danjong's guardian and, along with the general Kim Jong-seo, attempted to strengthen royal authority.
Danjong's uncle,
Grand Prince Suyang, gained control of the government and eventually deposed his nephew to become the seventh king of Joseon himself in 1455. After
six ministers loyal to Danjong attempted to assassinate Sejo to return Danjong to the throne, Sejo executed the six ministers and also killed Danjong in his place of exile.
King Sejo enabled the government to determine exact population numbers and to mobilize troops effectively. He also revised the land ordinance to improve the national economy and encouraged the publication of books. Most importantly, he compiled the
Grand Code for State Administration, which became the cornerstone of dynastic administration and provided the first form of constitutional law in a written form in Korea.
Sejo undermined much of the foundation of many existing systems, including the
Jiphyeonjeon which his predecessors, Sejong and Munjong, had carefully laid down. He cut down on everything he deemed unworthy and caused countless complications in the long run. Many of these adjustments were done for his own power, not regarding the consequences and problems that would occur. The favoritism he showed toward the ministers who aided him in taking the throne led to increased corruption in the higher echelon of the political field.
Institutional arrangements and Prosper culture
Sejo's weak son
Yejong succeeded him as the eighth king, but died two years later in 1469. Yejong's nephew
Seongjong ascended the throne. His reign was marked by the prosperity and growth of the national economy and the rise of
neo-Confucian
Neo-Confucianism (, often shortened to ''lǐxué'' 理學, literally "School of Principle") is a moral, ethical, and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, and originated with Han Yu (768–824) and Li Ao (772–841) in t ...
scholars called
sarim who were encouraged by Seongjong to enter court politics. He established
Hongmungwan (), the royal library and advisory council composed of Confucian scholars, with whom he discussed philosophy and government policies. He ushered in a cultural golden age that rivaled Sejong's reign by publishing numerous books on geography, ethics, and various other fields.
He also sent several military campaigns against the Jurchens on the northern border in 1491, like many of his predecessors. The campaign, led by General
Heo Jong
Heo is a family name in Korea.
It is also often spelled as Hur or Huh, or less commonly as Her. In South Korea in 1985, out of a population of between roughly 40 and 45 million, there were approximately 264,000 people surnamed Heo. The name is al ...
, was successful, and the defeated Jurchens, led by the Udige clan (), retreated to the north of the
Yalu River
The Yalu River, known by Koreans as the Amrok River or Amnok River, is a river on the border between North Korea and China. Together with the Tumen River to its east, and a small portion of Paektu Mountain, the Yalu forms the border between ...
. King Seongjong was succeeded by his son,
Yeonsangun
Yeonsangun of Joseon or Prince Yeonsan of Joseon (23 November 1476 – 20 November 1506), personal name Yi Yung ( Korean: 이융; Hanja: 李㦕), was the tenth ruler of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. Often considered the worst tyrant in Joseon's ...
, in 1494.
Literati purges
Yeonsangun
Yeonsangun of Joseon or Prince Yeonsan of Joseon (23 November 1476 – 20 November 1506), personal name Yi Yung ( Korean: 이융; Hanja: 李㦕), was the tenth ruler of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. Often considered the worst tyrant in Joseon's ...
is often considered the worst tyrant in Joseon's history, whose reign was marked by
literati purges between 1498 and 1506. His behavior became erratic after he learned that his biological mother was not Queen Junghyeon but the
deposed Queen Yun
Deposed Queen Yun of the Haman Yun clan (15 July 1455 – 29 August 1482) was the second wife of Yi Hyeol, King Seongjong and the mother of Yi Yung, Prince Yeonsan. She was Queen of Joseon from 1476 until her deposition in 1479. She was an 11 ...
, who was forced to drink poison after poisoning one of Seongjong's concubines out of jealousy and leaving a scratch mark on Seongjong's face. When he was shown a piece of clothing that was allegedly stained with his mother's blood vomited after drinking poison, he beat to death two of Seongjong's concubines who had accused Queen Yun and he pushed his grandmother,
Grand Queen Dowager Insu, who died afterward. He executed government officials who supported Queen Yun's death along with their families. He also executed
sarim scholars for writing phrases critical of Sejo's usurpation of the throne.
Yeonsangun also seized a thousand women from the provinces to serve as palace entertainers and appropriated the
Sungkyunkwan
Sungkyunkwan was the foremost educational institution in Korea during the late Goryeo and Joseon Dynasties. Today, it sits in its original location, at the south end of the Humanities and Social Sciences Campus of Sungkyunkwan University in Seoul ...
as a personal pleasure ground. He abolished the Office of Censors, whose function was to criticize inappropriate actions and policies of the king, and Hongmungwan. He banned the use of hangul when the common people wrote with it on posters criticizing the king. After twelve years of misrule, he was finally deposed in a coup that placed his half-brother
Jungjong
Jungjong of Joseon (16 April 1488 – 29 November 1544), personal name Yi Yeok (Korean: 이역; Hanja: 李懌), firstly titled Grand Prince Jinseong (Korean: 진성대군; Hanja: 晉城大君), was the 11th ruler of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. ...
on the throne in 1506.
Jungjong was a fundamentally weak king because of the circumstances that placed him on the throne, but his reign also saw a period of significant reforms led by his minister
Jo Gwang-jo
Jo Gwangjo (, 23 August 1482 – 10 January 1520), also often called by his pen name Jeong-am (), was Korean Neo-Confucian scholar who pursued radical reforms during the reign of Jungjong of Joseon in the early 16th century.
He was framed with ...
, the charismatic leader of sarim. He established a local self-government system called
hyangyak to strengthen local autonomy and communal spirit among the people, sought to reduce the gap between the rich and poor with a land reform that would distribute land to farmers more equally and limit the amount of land and number of slaves that one could own, promulgated widely among the populace Confucian writings with vernacular translations, and sought to trim the size of government by reducing the number of bureaucrats. According to the
Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty
The ''Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty'' (also known as the ''Annals of the Joseon Dynasty'' or the ''True Record of the Joseon Dynasty''; ko, 조선왕조실록 and ) are the annual records of Joseon, the last royal house to rule K ...
, it was said that no official dared to receive a bribe or exploit the populace during this time because as Inspector General, he applied law strictly.
These radical reforms were very popular with the populace but were fiercely opposed by the conservative officials who helped to put Jungjong on the throne. They plotted to cause Jungjong to doubt Jo's loyalty. Jo Gwang-jo was executed, and most of his reform measures died with him in the resulting
third literati purge. For nearly 50 years afterward, the court politics were marred by bloody and chaotic struggles between factions backing rival consorts and princes. In-laws of the royal family wielded great power and contributed to much corruption in that era.
Middle
![정철](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/%EC%A0%95%EC%B2%A0.jpg)
The middle Joseon period was marked by intense and bloody power struggles between political factions that weakened the country, and large-scale invasions by Japan and Manchu nearly toppled the kingdom.
Factional struggle
The
Sarim faction had suffered a series of political defeats during the reigns of Yeonsangun, Jungjong, and
Myeongjong, but it gained control of the government during the reign of
King Seonjo. It soon split into opposing factions known as the
Easterners
The Easterners () were a political faction of the Joseon dynasty. This faction appeared during the reign of Seonjo of Joseon in sixteenth-century Korea. Originating from friends of Gim Hyowon, they soon encompassed most of the disciples of Jo ...
and the
Westerners
The Western world, also known as the West, primarily refers to the various nations and states in the regions of Europe, North America, and Oceania. . Within decades the Easterners themselves divided into the
Southerners and the
Northerners; in the seventeenth century the Westerners as well permanently split into the
Noron
The Noron () were a political faction of the Joseon Dynasty in Korea. They consisted of the supporters of Song Siyeol after the split of the Westerners. The Noron suffered setbacks with Kim Seok-ju's death in 1684 and Song's execution in 1689. In ...
and the
Soron
Soron Shookarakshetra is a town in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh.
History
Kasganj district was formed on 17 April 2008 by splitting Kasganj, Patiali and Sahawar Tehsils from Etah district. Sant Tulsidas was born in the district and Amir Khu ...
. The alternations in power among these factions were often accompanied by charges of treason and bloody purges, initiating a cycle of revenge with each change of regime.
One example is the
1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip, one of the bloodiest political purges of Joseon. Jeong Yeo-rip, an Easterner, had formed a society with group of supporters that also received military training to fight against
waegu
''Wokou'' (; Japanese: ''Wakō''; Korean: 왜구 ''Waegu''), which literally translates to "Japanese pirates" or "dwarf pirates", were pirates who raided the coastlines of China and Korea from the 13th century to the 16th century.[Honam
Honam (; literally "south of the lake") is a region coinciding with the former Jeolla Province in what is now South Korea. Today, the term refers to Gwangju, South Jeolla and North Jeolla Provinces. The name "Jeonla-do" is used in the names of ...]
. He was subsequently accused of conspiracy to start a rebellion.
Jeong Cheol
Jeong Cheol (Hangul: 정철, Hanja: 鄭澈; 18 December 1536 – 7 February 1594) was a Korean statesman and poet. He used the pen-names Gyeham (계함) and Songgang (송강), and studied under Kim Yunjae at Hwanbyeokdang. He was expelled by the ...
, head of the Western faction, was in charge of investigating the case and used this event to effect widespread purge of Easterners who had slightest connection with Jeong Yeo-rip. Eventually 1000 Easterners were killed or exiled in the aftermath.
Early Japanese invasions
![Korea-Tongyeong Port-Turtle ship replica-02](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Korea-Tongyeong_Port-Turtle_ship_replica-02.jpg)
Throughout Korean history, there was frequent
piracy
Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically with the goal of stealing cargo and other valuable goods. Those who conduct acts of piracy are called pirates, v ...
on sea and brigandage on land. The only purpose for the Joseon navy was to secure the maritime trade against the
waegu
''Wokou'' (; Japanese: ''Wakō''; Korean: 왜구 ''Waegu''), which literally translates to "Japanese pirates" or "dwarf pirates", were pirates who raided the coastlines of China and Korea from the 13th century to the 16th century.[fire arrows
Fire arrows were one of the earliest forms of weaponized gunpowder, being used from the 9th century onward. Not to be confused with earlier incendiary arrow projectiles, the fire arrow was a gunpowder weapon which receives its name from the tra ...]
in form of
singijeon
''Singijeon'' or ''shinkichon'' ( ko, 신기전; Hanja: ; literally "Divine machine arrows") was a type of Korean fire arrow rocket, used during the era of the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1897). Multiple ''singijeon'' could be launched by ''hwacha ...
deployed by
hwacha
The ''hwacha'' or ''hwach'a'' ( ko, 화차; Hanja: ; literally "fire cart") was a multiple rocket launcher and an organ gun of similar design which were developed in fifteenth century Korea. The former variant fired one or two hundred rocket- ...
.
During the
Japanese invasions in the 1590s,
Toyotomi Hideyoshi
, otherwise known as and , was a Japanese samurai and ''daimyō'' (feudal lord) of the late Sengoku period regarded as the second "Great Unifier" of Japan.Richard Holmes, The World Atlas of Warfare: Military Innovations that Changed the Cour ...
, plotting the conquest of
Ming China
The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han peo ...
with
Portuguese
Portuguese may refer to:
* anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Portugal
** Portuguese cuisine, traditional foods
** Portuguese language, a Romance language
*** Portuguese dialects, variants of the Portuguese language
** Portu ...
guns, invaded Korea with his ''
daimyōs'' and their troops, intending to use Korea as a stepping stone. Factional division in the Joseon court, inability to assess Japanese military capability, and failed attempts at diplomacy led to poor preparation on Joseon's part. The use of European firearms by the Japanese left most of the southern part of the Korean Peninsula occupied within months, with both
Hanseong
Seoul (; ; ), officially known as the Seoul Special City, is the capital and largest metropolis of South Korea.Before 1972, Seoul was the ''de jure'' capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) as stated iArticle 103 ...
(present-day
Seoul
Seoul (; ; ), officially known as the Seoul Special City, is the Capital city, capital and largest metropolis of South Korea.Before 1972, Seoul was the ''de jure'' capital of the North Korea, Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea ...
) and
Pyongyang
Pyongyang (, , ) is the capital and largest city of North Korea, where it is known as the "Capital of the Revolution". Pyongyang is located on the Taedong River about upstream from its mouth on the Yellow Sea. According to the 2008 populat ...
captured.
![Korea-Tongyeong Port-Turtle ship replica-Inside-02](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Korea-Tongyeong_Port-Turtle_ship_replica-Inside-02.jpg)
The invasion was slowed when Admiral
Yi Sun-shin
Admiral Yi Sun-sin (April 28, 1545 – December 16, 1598) was a Korean admiral and military general famed for his victories against the Japanese navy during the Imjin war in the Joseon Dynasty. Over the course of his career, Admiral Yi foug ...
destroyed the Japanese invasion fleet. The guerrilla resistance that eventually formed also helped. Local resistance slowed down the Japanese advance and decisive naval victories by Admiral Yi left control over sea routes in Korean hands, severely hampering Japanese supply lines. Furthermore, Ming China intervened on the side of the Koreans, sending a large force in 1593 which pushed back the Japanese together with the Koreans.
During the war, Koreans developed powerful firearms and the
turtle ship
A ''Geobukseon'' ( ko, script=Hang, 거북선, ), also known as turtle ship in western descriptions, was a type of large Korean warship that was used intermittently by the Royal Korean Navy during the Joseon dynasty from the early 15th century ...
s. The Joseon and Ming forces defeated the Japanese at a deep price. Following the war, relations between Korea and Japan were completely suspended until 1609.
Manchu invasions
![Jurchen warriors](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Jurchen_warriors.jpg)
After the Japanese invasions, the Korean Peninsula was devastated. Meanwhile,
Nurhaci
Nurhaci (14 May 1559 – 30 September 1626), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizu of Qing (), was a Jurchen chieftain who rose to prominence in the late 16th century in Manchuria. A member of the House of Aisin-Gioro, he reigned ...
(r. 1583–1626), the chieftain of the
Jianzhou Jurchens
The Jianzhou Jurchens () were one of the three major groups of Jurchens as identified by the Ming dynasty. Although the geographic location of the Jianzhou Jurchens changed throughout history, during the 14th century they were located south of ...
, was unifying the
Jurchen Jurchen may refer to:
* Jurchen people, Tungusic people who inhabited the region of Manchuria until the 17th century
** Haixi Jurchens, a grouping of the Jurchens as identified by the Chinese of the Ming Dynasty
** Jianzhou Jurchens, a grouping of ...
tribes of
Manchuria
Manchuria is an exonym (derived from the endo demonym " Manchu") for a historical and geographic region in Northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day Northeast China (Inner Manchuria) and parts of the Russian Far East (Outer M ...
into a strong coalition that his son
Hong Taiji
Hong Taiji (28 November 1592 – 21 September 1643), also rendered as Huang Taiji and sometimes referred to as Abahai in Western literature, also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizong of Qing, was the second khan of the Later Jin ...
(r. 1626–1643) would eventually rename the "Manchus." After he declared
Seven Grievances against Ming China in 1618, Nurhaci and the Ming engaged in several military conflicts. On such occasions, Nurhaci required help from
Gwanghaegun of Joseon
Gwanghae-gun or Prince Gwanghae (4 June 1575 – 7 August 1641), personal name Yi Hon (Hangul: 이혼, Hanja: 李琿), was the 15th ruler of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. As he was deposed in a coup d'état, he did not receive a temple name.
...
(r.1608–1623), putting the Korean state in a difficult position because the Ming court was also requesting assistance.
[.] Gwanghaegun tried to maintain neutrality, but most of his officials opposed him for not supporting Ming China, which had saved Joseon during Hideyoshi's invasions.
In 1623, Gwanghaegun was deposed and replaced by
Injo of Joseon
Injo of Joseon (7 December 1595 – 17 June 1649), born Yi Jong, was the sixteenth ruler of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. He was the grandson of King Seonjo and son of Prince Jeongwon. He was the king during the Later Jin invasion of Joseon, ...
(r. 1623–1649), who banished Gwanghaejun's supporters. Reverting his predecessor's foreign policy, the new king decided to openly support the Ming, but a
rebellion
Rebellion, uprising, or insurrection is a refusal of obedience or order. It refers to the open resistance against the orders of an established authority.
A rebellion originates from a sentiment of indignation and disapproval of a situation and ...
led by military commander
Yi Gwal
Yi Gwal (1587 – 15 February, 1624) was a general during the Joseon Dynasty, Korea, known for the failed Yi Gwal's Rebellion. His family belonged to the Gosung Yi clan.
He rebelled against King Injo in 1624, but failed. Yi Gwal was then kille ...
erupted in 1624 and wrecked Joseon's military defenses in the north.
Even after the rebellion had been suppressed, King Injo had to devote military forces to ensure the stability of the capital, leaving fewer soldiers to defend the northern borders.
In 1627, a Jurchen army of 30,000 led by Nurhaci's nephew
Amin overran Joseon's defenses. After a quick campaign that was assisted by northern
yangban
The ''yangban'' () were part of the traditional ruling class or gentry of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The ''yangban'' were mainly composed of highly educated civil servants and military officers—landed or unlanded aristocrats ...
who had supported Gwanghaegun, the Jurchens imposed a treaty that forced Joseon to accept "brotherly relations" with the Jurchen kingdom.
[.] Because Injo persisted in his anti-Manchu policies,
Qing
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
emperor Hong Taiji sent a punitive expedition of 120,000 men to Joseon in 1636. Defeated, King Injo was forced to end his relations with the Ming and recognize the Qing as suzerain instead. Injo's successor
Hyojong of Joseon
Hyojong of Joseon (3 July 1619 – 23 June 1659) was the seventeenth king of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea from 1649 to 1659. He is best known for his plan for an expedition to the Manchu Qing dynasty, and his campaigns against the Russian Empire a ...
(r. 1649–1659) tried to form an army to keep his enemies away and conquer the Qing for revenge, but could never act on his designs.
Despite reestablishing economic relations by officially entering the
imperial Chinese tributary system
The tributary system of China (), or Cefeng system () was a network of loose international relations focused on China which facilitated trade and foreign relations by acknowledging China's predominant role in East Asia. It involved multiple relati ...
, Joseon leaders and intellectuals remained resentful of the Manchus, whom they regarded as barbarians, and
regarded the Ming Dynasty as the center of the civilized world.
Joseon intellectuals, who had political and cultural allegiances to the Ming Dynasty,
were forced to reexamine their state identity when the Qing overthrew the Ming,
leading to an influx of Ming
refugees
A refugee, conventionally speaking, is a displaced person who has crossed national borders and who cannot or is unwilling to return home due to well-founded fear of persecution. into Joseon.
As a result, Joseon created the
Little China ideology, known as sojunghwa.
According to Youngmin Kim, " it held that the Joseon embodied Chineseness authentically while other neighboring countries failed to do so in the face of the barbarian domination of the center of the civilized world."
A set of standardized rites and unifying symbols were developed in Late Joseon Korea in order to maintain that sense of cultural identity.
Long after submitting to the Qing, the Joseon court and many Korean intellectuals kept using Ming
reign periods, as when a scholar marked 1861 as "the 234th year of
Chongzhen."
Late
Emergence of Silhak and renaissance of the Joseon
![Hwaseong2](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Hwaseong2.jpg)
After invasions from Japan and Manchuria, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace. Joseon witnessed the emergence of
Silhak (Practical Learning). The early group of Silhak scholars advocated comprehensive reform of civil service examination, taxation, natural sciences and the improvement in agromanagerial and agricultural techniques. It aimed to rebuild Joseon society after it had been devastated by the two invasions. Under the leadership of
Kim Yuk
Gim Yuk or Kim Yuk (Hangul: 김육; Hanja: 金堉; 1580 – September 1658) was a Korean Neo-Confucian scholar, politician and writer of the Korean Joseon Dynasty. His nickname was Jamgok (잠곡, 潛谷), Hoejeongdang (회정당, 晦靜堂), a c ...
, the chief minister of
King Hyeonjong, the implementation of reforms proved highly advantageous both to state revenues and to the lot of the peasants.
Factional conflict grew particularly intense under the reigns of the kings
Sukjong Sukjong () is the temple name of several Korean kings. It can refer to:
* Sukjong of Goryeo (1095-1105)
* Sukjong of Joseon
Sukjong of Joseon (7 October 1661 – 12 July 1720) was the 19th King of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea, ruling from 1674 un ...
and
Gyeongjong, with major rapid reversals of the ruling faction, known as hwanguk (換局; literally ''change in the state of affairs''), being commonplace. As a response, the next kings,
Yeongjo
Yeongjo of Joseon (31 October 1694 – 22 April 1776), personal name Yi Geum (Korean: 이금, Hanja: 李昑), was the 21st monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. He was the second son of King Sukjong, by his concubine Royal Noble Consort Suk ...
and
Jeongjo
Jeongjo of Joseon (28 October 1752 – 18 August 1800), personal name Yi San (Korean: 이산; Hanja: 李祘), sometimes called Jeongjo the Great (Korean: 정조대왕; Hanja: 正祖大王), was the 22nd monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. ...
, generally pursued the ''Tangpyeongchaek'' – a policy of maintaining balance and equality between the factions.
The two kings led a second renaissance of the Joseon kingdom. Yeongjo's grandson, the enlightened King Jeongjo enacted various reforms throughout his reign, notably establishing
Kyujanggak
The Kyujanggak, also known as Gyujanggak, was the royal library of the Joseon Dynasty. It was founded in 1776 by order of King Jeongjo of Joseon, at which time it was located on the grounds of Changdeokgung Palace. Today known as Kyujanggak Roy ...
, a royal library in order to improve the cultural and political position of Joseon and to recruit gifted officers to run the nation. King Jeongjo also spearheaded bold social initiatives, opening government positions to those who would previously have been barred because of their social status. King Jeongjo had the support of the many Silhak scholars. King Jeongjo's reign also saw the further growth and development of Joseon's popular culture. At that time, the group of Silhak scholars encouraged the individual to reflect on state traditions and lifestyle, initiating the studies of Korea that addressed its history, geography,
epigraphy
Epigraphy () is the study of inscriptions, or epigraphs, as writing; it is the science of identifying graphemes, clarifying their meanings, classifying their uses according to dates and cultural contexts, and drawing conclusions about the w ...
and language.
Government by in-law families
After the death of King Jeongjo, the Joseon faced difficult external and internal problems. Internally, the foundation of national law and order weakened as a result of "Sedo Politics" (in-law government) by royal in-laws.
The young
Sunjo succeeded his father, King Jeongjo, in 1800. With Jeongjo's death the
Noron
The Noron () were a political faction of the Joseon Dynasty in Korea. They consisted of the supporters of Song Siyeol after the split of the Westerners. The Noron suffered setbacks with Kim Seok-ju's death in 1684 and Song's execution in 1689. In ...
seized power with the regency of
Queen Dowager Jeongsun, whose family had strong ties to the faction, and initiated a
persecution of Catholics
Anti-Catholicism is hostility towards Catholics or opposition to the Catholic Church, its clergy, and/or its adherents. At various points after the Reformation, some majority Protestant states, including England, Prussia, Scotland, and the Uni ...
. However, after the retirement and death of the Queen Dowager, the Norons were gradually ousted, while the
Andong Kim clan
{{unreferenced, date=December 2014
The Andong Kim clan (Hangul: 안동 김씨, Hanja: 安東 金氏) refers to two Korean clans. They were prominent yangban families during Korea's Joseon Dynasty originating from Andong, North Gyeongsang provin ...
of
Kim Jo-sun
Kim Jo-Sun ( ko, 김조순, born June 13, 1975) is a female South Korean archer
Archery is the sport, practice, or skill of using a bow to shoot arrows.Paterson ''Encyclopaedia of Archery'' p. 17 The word comes from the Latin ''ar ...
, the father of the
Queen Sunwon
Queen Sunwon (순원왕후; 8 June 1789 – 21 September 1857), of the Andong Kim clan was the queen consort and wife of Sunjo of Joseon. She was known as Queen Dowager Myeonggyeong (명경왕대비) after her husband's death in 1834. She served ...
, gained power. Gradually the Andong Kims came to dominate the court.
With the domination of the Andong Kims, the era of Sedo Politics began. The formidable in-law lineage monopolized the vital positions in government, holding sway over the political scene, and intervening in the succession of the throne. These kings had no monarchic authority and could not rule over the government. The other aristocratic families, overwhelmed by the power exercised by the royal in-laws, could not speak out. As the power was concentrated in the hands of the royal in-law lineage, there was disorder in the governing process and corruption became rampant. Large sums were offered in bribes to the powerful lineages to obtain positions with nominally high rank. Even the low-ranking posts were bought and sold. This period, which spanned 60 years, saw the manifestation of both severe poverty among the Korean population and ceaseless rebellions in various parts of the country.
Externally, Joseon became increasingly
isolationist
Isolationism is a political philosophy advocating a national foreign policy that opposes involvement in the political affairs, and especially the wars, of other countries. Thus, isolationism fundamentally advocates neutrality and opposes entan ...
. Its rulers sought to limit contact with foreign countries.
End of the dynasty
![Korean headgear-Waryonggwan-01](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Korean_headgear-Waryonggwan-01.jpg)
In 1863,
King Gojong took the throne. His father,
Heungseon Daewongun
Heungseon Daewongun (흥선대원군, 興宣大院君, 21 December 1820 – 22 February 1898; ), also known as the Daewongun (대원군, 大院君), Guktaegong (국태공, 國太公, "The Great Archduke") or formally Internal King Heungseon Heon ...
, ruled for him until Gojong reached adulthood. During the mid-1860s the Regent was the main proponent of isolationism and the instrument of the persecution of native and foreign Catholics, a policy that led directly to the
French Campaign against Korea in 1866. The early years of his rule also witnessed a large effort to restore the dilapidated
Gyeongbok Palace
Gyeongbokgung (), also known as Gyeongbokgung Palace or Gyeongbok Palace, was the main royal palace of the Joseon dynasty. Built in 1395, it is located in northern Seoul, South Korea. The largest of the '' Five Grand Palaces'' built by the Joseo ...
, the seat of royal authority. During his reign, the power and authority of the in-law families such as the Andong Kims sharply declined. In order to get rid of the Andong Kim and
Pungyang Jo clans, he promoted persons without making references to political party or family affiliations, and in order to reduce the burdens of the people and solidify the basis of the nation's economy, he reformed the tax system. In 1871,
U.S. and Korean forces clashed in a U.S. attempt at "gunboat diplomacy" following on the
General Sherman incident
The ''General Sherman'' incident ( ko, 제너럴셔먼호 사건) was the destruction of the American merchant ship '' SS General Sherman'' in the Taedong River during an unsuccessful and illegal attempt by the ship's crew to open up trade with ...
of 1866.
In 1873, King Gojong announced his assumption of royal rule. With the subsequent retirement of Heungseon Daewongun, Queen Min (later called
Empress Myeongseong
Empress Myeongseong or Empress Myungsung (명성황후 민씨; 17 November 1851 – 8 October 1895In lunar calendar, the Empress was born on 25 September 1851 and died on 20 August 1895), informally known as Empress Min, was the official wife ...
) became a power in the court, placing
her family in high court positions.
Japan, after the
Meiji Restoration
The , referred to at the time as the , and also known as the Meiji Renovation, Revolution, Regeneration, Reform, or Renewal, was a political event that restored practical imperial rule to Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji. Although there were ...
, acquired Western military technology, and forced Joseon to sign the
Treaty of Ganghwa
A treaty is a formal, legally binding written agreement between actors in international law. It is usually made by and between sovereign states, but can include international organizations, individuals, business entities, and other legal perso ...
in 1876, opening three ports to trade and granting the Japanese extraterritoriality.
Port Hamilton was briefly occupied by the
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by English and Scottish kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were fought in the Hundred Years' War against Fr ...
in 1885.
![Portrait_of_Gojong_01](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Portrait_of_Gojong_01.jpg)
Many Koreans despised Japanese and foreign influences over their land and the corrupt oppressive rule of the Joseon Dynasty. In 1881, the
Byeolgigun, a modern elite military unit, was formed with Japanese trainers. The salaries of the other soldiers were held back and in 1882
rioting soldiers attacked the Japanese officers and even forced the queen to take refuge in the countryside. In 1894, the
Donghak Peasant Revolution
The Donghak Peasant Revolution (), also known as the Donghak Peasant Movement (), Donghak Rebellion, Peasant Revolt of 1894, Gabo Peasant Revolution, and a variety of other names, was an armed rebellion in Korea led by peasants and followers of ...
saw farmers rise up in a mass rebellion, with peasant leader
Jeon Bong-jun defeating the forces of local ruler Jo Byong-gap at the battle of
Gobu on 11 January 1894; after the battle, Jo's properties were handed out to the peasants. By May, the peasant army had reached
Jeonju
Jeonju () is the 16th largest city in South Korea and the capital of North Jeolla Province. It is both urban and rural due to the closeness of Wanju County which almost entirely surrounds Jeonju (Wanju County has many residents who work in Jeonj ...
, and the Joseon government asked the
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
government for assistance in ending the revolt. The Qing sent 3,000 troops and the rebels negotiated a truce, but the Japanese considered the Qing presence a threat and sent in 8,000 troops of their own, seizing the Royal Palace in Seoul and installing a pro-Japanese government on 8 June 1894. This soon escalated into
a war
''A War'' () is a 2015 Danish war drama film written and directed by Tobias Lindholm, and starring Pilou Asbæk and Søren Malling. It tells the story of a Danish military company in Afghanistan that is fighting the Taliban while trying to prote ...
(1894–1895) between Japan and the Qing Empire, fought largely in Korea. (The king made a deal with Japan, partially out of a distrust of the queen's support for open trade policies toward the Western civilizations and China. He ended up preempting a specific disadvantageous, exclusive negotiation with Japan previous to the Queen's decision, which was later used as a political premise for Japan to wage military action. Scholars, particularly during the Joseon era, were touted for expressing allegiance to the king.)
Empress Myeongseong
Empress Myeongseong or Empress Myungsung (명성황후 민씨; 17 November 1851 – 8 October 1895In lunar calendar, the Empress was born on 25 September 1851 and died on 20 August 1895), informally known as Empress Min, was the official wife ...
(referred to as Queen Min)
[Characteristics of Queen of Corea](_blank)
''The New York Times
''The New York Times'' (''the Times'', ''NYT'', or the Gray Lady) is a daily newspaper based in New York City with a worldwide readership reported in 2020 to comprise a declining 840,000 paid print subscribers, and a growing 6 million paid ...
'' 10 November 1895 had attempted to counter Japanese interference in Korea and was considering turning to the
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was an empire and the final period of the Russian monarchy from 1721 to 1917, ruling across large parts of Eurasia. It succeeded the Tsardom of Russia following the Treaty of Nystad, which ended the Great Northern War. ...
and to China for support. In 1895, Empress Myeongseong was assassinated by Japanese agents.
The Japanese minister to Korea,
Lieutenant-General
Lieutenant general (Lt Gen, LTG and similar) is a three-star military rank (NATO code OF-8) used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages, where the title of lieutenant general was held by the second-in-command on the ...
Viscount Miura, almost certainly orchestrated the plot against her. A group of Japanese agents
entered the
Gyeongbok Palace
Gyeongbokgung (), also known as Gyeongbokgung Palace or Gyeongbok Palace, was the main royal palace of the Joseon dynasty. Built in 1395, it is located in northern Seoul, South Korea. The largest of the '' Five Grand Palaces'' built by the Joseo ...
in Seoul, which was under Japanese control,
and Queen Min was killed and her body desecrated in the north wing of the palace.
The Qing acknowledged defeat in the
Treaty of Shimonoseki
The , also known as the Treaty of Maguan () in China and in the period before and during World War II in Japan, was a treaty signed at the , Shimonoseki, Japan on April 17, 1895, between the Empire of Japan and Qing China, ending the Firs ...
(17 April 1895), which officially guaranteed Korea's independence from China.
It was a step toward Japan gaining regional
hegemony
Hegemony (, , ) is the political, economic, and military predominance of one State (polity), state over other states. In Ancient Greece (8th BC – AD 6th ), hegemony denoted the politico-military dominance of the ''hegemon'' city-state over oth ...
in Korea.
Establishment of the Empire and Colonization
The Joseon court, pressured by encroachment from larger powers, felt the need to reinforce national integrity and declared the
Korean Empire
The Korean Empire () was a Korean monarchical state proclaimed in October 1897 by Emperor Gojong of the Joseon dynasty. The empire stood until Japan's annexation of Korea in August 1910.
During the Korean Empire, Emperor Gojong oversaw the Gwan ...
, along with the
Gwangmu Reform
The Gwangmu Reform ( Korean" 광무개혁, Hanja: 光武改革, ''Gwangmu Gaehyeok'') was a collection of reforms that were aimed at modernizing and westernizing the Korean Empire as it felt held back from what other countries had achieved in the ...
in 1897.
King Gojong assumed the title of
Emperor
An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereignty, sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), ...
in order to assert Korea's independence. In addition, other foreign powers were sought for military technology, especially Russia, to fend off the Japanese. Technically, 1897 marks the end of the Joseon period, as the official name of the empire was changed; the Joseon Dynasty still reigned, albeit perturbed by Japan and Russia.
In a complicated series of maneuvers and counter-maneuvers, Japan pushed back the Russian fleet at the
Battle of Port Arthur
The of 8–9 February 1904 marked the commencement of the Russo-Japanese War. It began with a surprise night attack by a squadron of Japanese destroyers on the neutral Russian fleet anchored at Port Arthur, Manchuria, and continued with an en ...
in 1904. With the conclusion of the 1904–1905
Russo-Japanese War
The Russo-Japanese War ( ja, 日露戦争, Nichiro sensō, Japanese-Russian War; russian: Ру́сско-япóнская войнá, Rússko-yapónskaya voyná) was fought between the Empire of Japan and the Russian Empire during 1904 and 1 ...
with the
Treaty of Portsmouth
A treaty is a formal, legally binding written agreement between actors in international law. It is usually made by and between sovereign states, but can include international organizations, individuals, business entities, and other legal perso ...
, the way was open for Japan to take control of Korea. After the signing of the
Protectorate Treaty in 1905, Korea became a
protectorate
A protectorate, in the context of international relations, is a State (polity), state that is under protection by another state for defence against aggression and other violations of law. It is a dependent territory that enjoys autonomy over m ...
of Japan.
Prince Itō was the first
Resident-General of Korea
The Japanese resident-general of Korea ( ja, 韓国統監, Kankokutōkan; ko, 일본의 대 한국통감, Ilbon-ui dae hangugtong-gam) was the leader of Korea under Japanese rule from 1905 to 1910. This post was highly hated among native Korea ...
, although he was assassinated by
Korean independence activist An Jung-geun
Ahn Jung-geun, sometimes spelled Ahn Joong-keun (; 2 September 1879 – 26 March 1910; baptismal name: Thomas Ahn ), was a Korean-independence activist, nationalist, and pan-Asianist. He is famous for assassination of Itō Hirobumi, the first ...
in 1909 at the train station at
Harbin
Harbin (; mnc, , v=Halbin; ) is a sub-provincial city and the provincial capital and the largest city of Heilongjiang province, People's Republic of China, as well as the second largest city by urban population after Shenyang and largest ...
. In 1910 the
Japanese Empire
The also known as the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan, was a historical nation-state and great power that existed from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 until the enactment of the post-World War II 1947 constitution and subsequent forma ...
finally
annexed
Annexation (Latin ''ad'', to, and ''nexus'', joining), in international law, is the forcible acquisition of one state's territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory. It is generally held to be an illegal act ...
Korea.
Government
Joseon was a highly centralized monarchy and neo-Confucian bureaucracy as codified by
Gyeongguk daejeon
''Gyeongguk daejeon'' (translated as the State Code or the National Code) is a complete code of law that comprises all the laws, customs and decrees released since the late Goryeo Dynasty to the early Joseon Dynasty. Sorted according to the relev ...
, a sort of Joseon constitution.
King
![Flag of the king of Joseon](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Flag_of_the_king_of_Joseon.svg)
The king had absolute authority, but his actual power varied with political circumstances. He was bound by tradition, precedents set by earlier kings,
Gyeongguk daejeon
''Gyeongguk daejeon'' (translated as the State Code or the National Code) is a complete code of law that comprises all the laws, customs and decrees released since the late Goryeo Dynasty to the early Joseon Dynasty. Sorted according to the relev ...
, and Confucian teachings. The king commanded absolute loyalty from his officials and subjects, but the officials were also expected to persuade the king to the right path if the latter was thought to be mistaken. Natural disasters were thought to be due to the king's failings, and therefore, Joseon kings were very sensitive to their occurrences. When there was severe drought or a series of disasters, the king often formally sought criticism from officials and citizenry. On those occasions,
critics were immune from prosecution, regardless of what they said or wrote (although there were a few exceptions).
Direct communication between the king and the common people was possible through the ''sangeon'' () written petition system and the ''gyeokjaeng'' () oral petition system. Through the ''gyeokjaeng'' oral petition system, commoners could strike a gong or drum in front of the palace or during the king's public processions in order to appeal their grievances or petition to the king directly. This allowed even the illiterate members of Joseon society to make a petition to the king. More than 1,300 ''gyeokjaeng''-related accounts are recorded in the
Ilseongnok
''Ilseongnok'' or ''Diary of Self-examination'' is a daily record of events at court made in order that the monarch might reflect upon them, ostensibly towards bettering government. ''Ilseongnok'' began as King Jeongjo's personal diary for self-r ...
.
Royal seals
Image:Joseon wang bo (Royal Seal Treasure of the Joseon King).svg, Seal used from 1392 to 1401.
Image:Joseongukwangjiin (The Seal of the King of Joseon).svg, Seal used from 1401 to 1637, for use in Ming-related state documents.
Image:Joseongukwangjiin (The Seal of the King of Joseon, 1637-1653).svg, Seal used between 1637 and 1653, for use in Qing-related state documents.
Image:Joseongukwangjiin (The Seal of the King of Joseon, 1653-1776).svg, Seal used between 1653 and 1776, for use in Qing-related state documents.
Image:Joseongukwangjiin (The Seal of the King of Joseon, 1776-1876).svg, Seal used between 1776 and 1876, for use in Qing-related state documents.
Image:Daejoseongukjusangjibo.svg, The seal was produced on December 15, 1876, for use in Japanese-related state documents.
Image:Daegunjubo.svg, "Daegunju bo" designed to replace the former sergeant "Joseon gukwang jiin", used as the seal of the king for documents such as appointment documents for high-ranking government officials and ordinances proclaimed in Korea, between 1882 and 1897[Journal of the Royal Secretariat, vol. 2902, year of 1882, 7th month, 1nd day](_blank)
/ref>
Image:DaejoseonDaegunjubo.svg, "Daejoseon Daegunju bo" were used as the 'seal of state' for credentials in diplomatic relations with other countries, between 1882
Officials
Government officials were ranked in 18 levels, ranging from first senior rank (정1품, 正一品) down to ninth junior rank (종9품, 從九品). Seniority and promotion was achieved through royal decree, based on examination or recommendation. The officials from 1st senior rank to 3rd senior rank wore red robes. Those from 3rd junior rank to 6th junior rank wore blue. Those below wore green robes.
Here, "government official" means one who occupied an office which gave its holder
yangban
The ''yangban'' () were part of the traditional ruling class or gentry of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The ''yangban'' were mainly composed of highly educated civil servants and military officers—landed or unlanded aristocrats ...
status – hereditary nobility for three generations. In order to become such an official, one had to pass a series of
gwageo
The ''gwageo'' or ''kwago'' were the national civil service examinations under the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties of Korea. Typically quite demanding, these tests measured candidates' ability of writing composition and knowledge of the Chinese cla ...
examinations. There were three kinds of gwageo exams – literary, military, and miscellaneous. The literary route was the most prestigious. Many key posts, including all
Censorate
The Censorate was a high-level supervisory agency in Imperial China, first established during the Qin dynasty (221–207 BC).
The Censorate was a highly effective agency during the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). During the M ...
posts, were open only to officials who advanced through literary exam. The literary route involved a series of four tests. To qualify, one had to pass them all. 33 candidates who were chosen in this manner would take the final exam, before the king. The candidate with the highest score was appointed to a position of 6th junior rank (a jump of six ranks). The two candidates with the next highest scores were appointed to a position of 7th junior rank. The seven candidates with next highest scores were assigned to 8th junior rank. The remaining 23 candidates were given 9th junior rank, the lowest of 18 ranks.
The officials of 1st senior rank, 1st junior rank, and 2nd senior rank were addressed with honorific "daegam" (대감, 大監) while those of 2nd junior rank and 3rd senior rank were addressed with honorific "
yeonggam
Yeong-gam or Younggam (hangul:영감, in hanja:令監) is a nickname or Korean honorific for an old man in Korea. Yeong-gam was historically an honorific title for second-level and third-level civil servants; Vice-Minister, Assistant Secretary of ...
" (영감, 令監). These red-robed officials, collectively called "dangsanggwan" (당상관, 堂上官), took part in deciding government policies by attending cabinet meetings. The rest of the ranked officials were called "danghagwan" (당하관, 堂下官).
Central government
![Joseon-Portrait_of_Cha_Jegong-Geumgwanjobok](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Joseon-Portrait_of_Cha_Jegong-Geumgwanjobok.jpg)
State Council
State Council State Council may refer to:
Government
* State Council of the Republic of Korea, the national cabinet of South Korea, headed by the President
* State Council of the People's Republic of China, the national cabinet and chief administrative auth ...
(Uijeongbu, 의정부, 議政府) was the highest deliberative body, whose power declined over the course of the period. The Chief State Councillor (
Yeonguijeong
''Yeonguijeong'' () was a title created in 1400, during the Joseon Kingdom and the Korean Empire times (1392–1910) and given to the Chief State Councillor as the highest government position of "Uijeongbu" (State Council). Existing for over 500 ...
, 영의정, 領議政), Left State Councillor (
Jwauijeong
The ''Jwauijeong'' was the Second State Councillor of the Uijeongbu (State Council), subordinate in rank only to the Yeonguijeong, during the Joseon Dynasty of Korea (1392 -1910). Only one official was appointed to the position and was variousl ...
, 좌의정, 左議政), and Right State Councillor (Uuijeong, 우의정, 右議政) were the highest-ranking officials in the government (all three were of 1st senior rank). They were assisted by Left Minister (Jwachanseong, 좌찬성, 左贊成) and Right Minister (Uichangseong, 우찬성, 右贊成), both of 1st junior rank, and seven lower ranking officials. The power of State Council was inversely proportional to the king's power. There were periods when it directly controlled the Six Ministries of Joseon, Six Ministries, the chief executive body of Joseon government, but it primarily served in advisory role under stronger kings. State councillors served in several other positions concurrently.
Six Ministries
Six Ministries of Joseon, Six Ministries (Yukjo, 육조, 六曹) make up the chief executive body. Each minister (Panseo, 판서, 判書) was of 2nd senior rank and was assisted by deputy minister (Champan, 참판, 參判), who was of 2nd junior rank. Ministry of Personnel was the most senior office of six ministries. As the influence of State Council waned over time, Minister of Personnel was often de facto head of ministers. Six ministries include in the order of seniority.
:*Ministry of Personnel (Ijo, 이조, 吏曹) – was primarily concerned with appointment of officials
:*Ministry of Taxation (Hojo, 호조, 戶曹) – taxation, finances, census, agriculture, and land policies
:*Ministry of Rites (Yejo, 예조, 禮曺) – rituals, culture, diplomacy, gwageo exam
:*Ministry of Defence (Byeongjo, 병조, 兵曺) – military affairs
:**Office of Police Bureau (Podocheong, 포도청, 捕盜廳) – office for public order
:*Ministry of Justice (Hyeongjo, 형조, 刑曺) – administration of law, slavery, punishments
:*Ministry of Commerce (Gongjo, 공조, 工曹) – industry, public works, manufacturing, mining
Three Offices
![윤봉구 초상](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/%EC%9C%A4%EB%B4%89%EA%B5%AC_%EC%B4%88%EC%83%81.jpg)
Three offices of Joseon, Three Offices, or ''Samsa'' (삼사), is a collective name for three offices that functioned as major organ of press and provided checks and balance on the king and the officials. While modeled after the Chinese system, they played much more prominent roles in Joseon government than their Chinese counterparts. In their role as organ of press, they did not have actual authority to decide or implement policies, but had influential voice in the ensuing debate.
The officials who served in these offices tended to be younger and of lower rank compared to other offices but had strong academic reputation and enjoyed special privileges and great prestige (for instance, censors were permitted to drink during working hours because of their function of criticizing the king). To be appointed, they went through more thorough review of character and family background. Three Offices provided the fastest route of promotion to high posts and was almost a requirement to becoming a State Councillor.
:*Office of Inspector General (Saheonbu, 사헌부) – It monitored government administration and officials at each level in both central and local governments for corruption, malfeasance, or inefficiency. It was also in charge of advancing public morals and Confucian customs and redressing grievances of the populace. It was headed by Inspector General (Daesaheon, 대사헌), a position of 2nd junior rank, who oversaw 30 largely independent officials.
:*Office of Censors (Saganwon, 사간원) – Its chief function was to remonstrate with the king if there was wrong or improper action or policy. Important decrees of the king were first reviewed by censors, who could ask to withdraw them if judged improper. It also issued opinions about the general state of affairs. It was composed of five officials, led by Chief Censor (Daesagan, 대사간), of 3rd senior rank.
While the primary focus for Office of Inspector General is the government officials and Office of Censors is focused on the king, two offices often performed each other's functions, and there was much overlap. Together they were called "Yangsa," (양사) which literally means "Both Offices," and often worked jointly especially when they sought to reverse the king's decision.
:*Office of Special Advisors (Hongmungwan, 홍문관, 弘文館) – It oversaw the royal library and served as research institute to study Confucian philosophy and answer the king's questions. Its officials took part in the daily lessons called ''gyeongyeon'' (경연), in which they discussed history and Confucian philosophy with the king. Since these discussions often led to commentary on current political issues, its officials had significant influence as advisors. It was headed by Chief Scholar (Daejehak, 대제학), a part-time post of 2nd senior rank that served concurrently in another high post (such as in State Council), and Deputy Chief Scholar (Bujehak, 부제학), a full-time post of 3rd senior rank that actually ran the office. There was great prestige attached to being Chief Scholar in this deeply Confucian society. The office was established to replace Hall of Worthies (Jiphyeonjeon, 집현전) after the latter was abolished by Sejo of Joseon, King Sejo in the aftermath of Six martyred ministers.
Other offices
The major offices include the following:
*Royal Secretariat (Seungjeongwon, 승정원) served as a liaison between the king and Six Ministries. There were six royal secretaries (승지), one for each ministry, and all were of 3rd senior rank. Their primary role was to pass down royal decree to the ministries and submit petitions from the officials and the populace to the king, but they also advised the king and served in other key positions close to the king. In particular Chief Royal Secretary (도승지), a liaison to Ministry of Personnel, served the king in the closest proximity of all government official and often enjoyed great power that was derived from the king's favor. Hong Guk-yeong (during
Jeongjo
Jeongjo of Joseon (28 October 1752 – 18 August 1800), personal name Yi San (Korean: 이산; Hanja: 李祘), sometimes called Jeongjo the Great (Korean: 정조대왕; Hanja: 正祖大王), was the 22nd monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. ...
's reign) and Han Myeong-hoe (during Sejo of Joseon, Sejo) are some examples of chief royal secretaries who were the most powerful officials of their time.
*Capital Bureau (Hanseongbu, 한성부) was in charge of running the capital, ''Hanseong'' or present-day Seoul. It was led by ''Panyoon'' (판윤), of 2nd senior second rank equivalent to today's mayor of Seoul.
*Royal Investigation Bureau (Uigeumbu, 의금부) was an investigative and enforcement organ under direct control of the king. It chiefly dealt with treason and other serious cases that concerned the king and royal family and served to arrest, investigate, imprison, and carry out sentences against the suspected offenders, who were often government officials.
*Office of Records (Chunchugwan, 춘추관) officials wrote, compiled, and maintained the government and historical records. It was headed by State Councillors, and many posts were held by officials serving in other offices concurrently. There were eight historiographers whose sole function was to record the meetings for history.
*
Sungkyunkwan
Sungkyunkwan was the foremost educational institution in Korea during the late Goryeo and Joseon Dynasties. Today, it sits in its original location, at the south end of the Humanities and Social Sciences Campus of Sungkyunkwan University in Seoul ...
or Royal Academy (성균관) prepared future government officials. Those who passed first two stages of
gwageo
The ''gwageo'' or ''kwago'' were the national civil service examinations under the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties of Korea. Typically quite demanding, these tests measured candidates' ability of writing composition and knowledge of the Chinese cla ...
examinations (literary exam) were admitted to Sungkyunkwan. The class size was usually 200 students, who lived in the residential hall and followed strict routine and school rules. (Tuition, room and board were provided by the government.) It also served as the state shrine for Confucianism, Confucian and Korean Confucianism, Korean Confucian sages. The students' opinions on government policies, especially collective statements and demonstrations, could be influential as they represented fresh and uncorrupted consensus of young scholars. The official in charge was Daesaseong (대사성), of 3rd senior rank, and 36 other officials including those from other offices were involved in running the academy.
Local government
The officials of high rank were sent from the central government. Sometimes a secret royal inspector (Amhaengeosa, 암행어사) was appointed by the king to travel incognito and monitor the provincial officials. These undercover inspectors were generally young officials of lower rank but were invested with the royal authority to dismiss corrupt officials.
* Provinces (Do, 도, 道) – There were eight provinces, each of which was governed by Governor (Gwanchalsa, 관찰사, 觀察使), a position of 2nd junior rank.
* Bu (부) – administrative offices in charge of major cities in provinces. Each bu was led by Buyoon (부윤), which was equivalent to Governor in rank.
* Mok (목, 牧) – There were twenty moks, which governed large counties named ju (주, 州). They were run by Moksa (목사, 牧使), of 3rd senior rank.
* County (Gun, 군, 郡) – There were eighty counties in Joseon, each governed by Gunsu (군수, 郡守), a 4th junior rank.
* Hyeon (현, 縣) – Large hyeons were governed by Hyeongryeong (현령, 縣令) of 5th junior rank while smaller hyeons were governed by Hyeonggam (현감, 縣監) of 6th junior rank.
Administrative divisions
During most of the Joseon period, Korea was divided into Eight Provinces of Korea, eight provinces (do, 도, 道). The eight provinces' boundaries remained unchanged for almost five centuries from 1413 to 1895, and formed a geographic paradigm that is still reflected today in the Korean Peninsula's administrative divisions, dialects, and regional distinctions. The names of all eight provinces are still preserved today, in one form or another.
![김후영정](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/%EA%B9%80%ED%9B%84%EC%98%81%EC%A0%95.jpg)
Military
Royal Guard
The Naegeumwi were royal guards defending the king, queen, and ministers. These were soldiers hand-selected by the king. The King's Royal Palace Gatekeepers, the ''Wanggung Sumunjang'' (왕궁수문장) were a royal guard unit tasked with defending the gates of the five palaces and Hanseong's city gates.
Army
The army consists of the central army and the provincial armies. Each is made of peasant soldiers, cavalry, ''pengbaesu'' and ''gabsa'' elite soldiers, archers, and artillery. The king appointed their generals.
Navy
The Joseon Navy consists of two types of main warships, the panokseon and the
turtle ship
A ''Geobukseon'' ( ko, script=Hang, 거북선, ), also known as turtle ship in western descriptions, was a type of large Korean warship that was used intermittently by the Royal Korean Navy during the Joseon dynasty from the early 15th century ...
. They also utilized small vessels and fishing boats for reconnaissance and landings. The king also appoints their admirals.
Foreign affairs
Joseon was a nominal tributary state of China but exercised full sovereignty, and maintained the highest position among China's tributary states, which also included countries such as the Ryukyu Kingdom, Vietnam, Burma, Brunei, Laos, Thailand, and the Philippines, among others. In addition, Joseon received tribute from Jurchens and Japanese until the 17th century, and had a small enclave in the Ryukyu Kingdom that engaged in trade with Siam and Java.
China
Although the Joseon dynasty considered 1392 as the foundation of the Joseon kingdom, Imperial China did not immediately recognize the new nation on the Korean peninsula. In 1401, the Ming court recognized Joseon as a tributary state in its Tributary system of China, tributary system. In 1403, the Yongle Emperor conveyed a patent and a gold seal to Taejong of Joseon, thus confirming his status and that of his dynasty.
[Kang, Etsuko H. (1997)]
''Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations: from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century,'' p. 49.
/ref>
In the 19th century, China faced major challenges due to the rise of the West and Japan. These countries, which had already established a system of sovereign states, asked about the status of the relationship between Qing and Joseon. Before the French expedition to Korea (1866) and the United States expedition to Korea, US expedition to Korea (1871), France and the U.S. asked if the war with Joseon would lead to an invasion of the Qing Dynasty, if the Qing Dynasty would intervene, and the nature of Qing-Joseon relationship. The Qing government replied that "Joseon is an independent state, but at the same time it is a dependent state.", which means it was a 'list of tributary states of China, sokgukjaju' (속국자주, 屬國自主). But it was the position of Joseon, the Western world, and Japan that tributary states such as Joseon were virtually independent countries at the time.
Ming dynasty, Ming and Qing
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
had a ''laissez-faire'' policy toward Joseon; despite being a tributary state of China, Joseon was independent in its internal and external affairs, and China did not manipulate or interfere in them. After 1882 Imo Incident, China abandoned its ''laissez-faire'' policy, signed the China–Korea Treaty of 1882, and became directly involved in the affairs of Joseon. This "radical change in China's policy" was in reaction to the growing influence of Western powers and Japan in Joseon, and to ensure China's national security. China's new policy toward Joseon was set by Li Hongzhang and implemented by Yuan Shikai. According to Ming-te Lin: "Li's control of Korea from 1885 to 1894 through Yuan Shikai as resident official represented an anachronistic policy of intervention toward Korea."
Gyorin
This long-term, strategic policy contrasts with the ''gyorin'' (''kyorin'') (neighborly relations) diplomacy in dealings with Jurchens
Jurchen (Manchu: ''Jušen'', ; zh, 女真, ''Nǚzhēn'', ) is a term used to collectively describe a number of East Asian Tungusic-speaking peoples, descended from the Donghu people. They lived in the northeast of China, later known as Manch ...
, Japan, Ryukyu Kingdom, Thailand, Siam and Java. Gyorin was applied to a multi-national foreign policy. The unique nature of these bilateral diplomatic exchanges evolved from a conceptual framework developed by the Chinese. Gradually, the theoretical models would be modified, mirroring the evolution of a unique relationship.
Japan
As an initial step, a diplomatic mission was dispatched to Japan in 1402. The Joseon envoy sought to bring about the re-establishment of amicable relations between the two countries and he was charged to commemorate the good relations which existed in ancient times. This mission was successful, and ''Shogun, shōgun'' Ashikaga Yoshimitsu was reported to have been favorably impressed by this initial embassy.[Titsingh, p. 320.] Not less than 70 diplomatic missions were dispatched from the Joseon capital to Japan before the beginning of Japan's Edo period.
Reciprocal missions were construed as a means of communication between Korean kings and Japanese ''shōguns'' of almost equal ranking. The emperors of Japan at the time were figureheads with no actual political or military power and the actual political and military rulers of Japan that Joseon communicated with were the shoguns who were represented as "tycoon of Japan" in many foreign communications in order to avoid the conflict with the Sinocentrism, Sinocentric system in which the emperor of China was the highest authority, and all rulers of tributary states were known as "kings".
Society
The exact population figures of Joseon-era Korea are disputed as government records of households are considered unreliable in this period. Between 1810 and 1850, the population declined approximately 10% and remained stable. Before the Gwangmu Reform#Health care system, introduction of modern medicine by the Korean Empire
The Korean Empire () was a Korean monarchical state proclaimed in October 1897 by Emperor Gojong of the Joseon dynasty. The empire stood until Japan's annexation of Korea in August 1910.
During the Korean Empire, Emperor Gojong oversaw the Gwan ...
government in the early 20th century, the average life expectancy for peasant and commoner Korean males was 24 years and for females 26 years, accounting for infant mortality.
Joseon Korea installed a centralised administrative system controlled by civil bureaucrats and military officers who were collectively called yangban
The ''yangban'' () were part of the traditional ruling class or gentry of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The ''yangban'' were mainly composed of highly educated civil servants and military officers—landed or unlanded aristocrats ...
. By the end of the 18th century, the yangban had acquired most of the traits of a hereditary nobility except that the status was based on a unique mixture of family position, gwageo
The ''gwageo'' or ''kwago'' were the national civil service examinations under the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties of Korea. Typically quite demanding, these tests measured candidates' ability of writing composition and knowledge of the Chinese cla ...
examinations for Confucian learning, and a civil service system. The family of a yangban who did not succeed to become a government official for the third generation lost their yangban status and became commoners. For most part, the only way to become a government official was to pass a series of gwageo exams (one had to pass "lesser gwageo" exam (소과) in both of two stages to qualify for greater gwageo exam, which again one had to pass in both of two stages to become a government official). The yangban and the king, in an uneasy balance, controlled the central government and military institutions. The proportion of yangban may have reached as high as 30% by 1800, due to the later practices of transaction of yangban status to peasants, although there was considerable local variation. As the government was small, a great many yangban were local gentry of high social status, but not always of high income.
Another portion of the population were slaves or Serfdom, serfs (''nobi''), "low borns" (''cheonmin'') or untouchability, untouchable outcastes (''baekjeong''). Slavery in Korea was hereditary, as well as a form of legal punishment. The nobi were socially indistinct from freemen other than the ruling yangban
The ''yangban'' () were part of the traditional ruling class or gentry of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The ''yangban'' were mainly composed of highly educated civil servants and military officers—landed or unlanded aristocrats ...
class, and some possessed property rights, legal entities and civil rights. Hence, some scholars argue that it's inappropriate to call them "slaves", while some scholars describe them as Serfdom, serfs. There were both government- and privately owned nobi, and the government occasionally gave them to yangban. Privately owned nobi could be inherited as personal property. During poor harvests, many sangmin people would voluntarily become nobi in order to survive. The nobi population could fluctuate up to about one-third of the population, but on average the nobi made up about 10% of the total population. Joseon slaves could, and often did, own property. Private slaves could buy their freedom.
Many of the remaining 40–50% of the population were surely farmers, but recent work has raised important issues about the size of other groups: merchants and traders, local government or quasi-governmental clerks (''Jungin''), craftsmen and laborers, textile workers, etc. Given the size of the population, it may be that a typical person had more than one role. Most farming was, at any rate, commercial, not subsistence. In addition to generating additional income, a certain amount of occupational dexterity may have been required to avoid the worst effects of an often heavy and corrupt tax system.
Gender roles tightened during the Joseon period compared to the Goryeo era. The influence of Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism (, often shortened to ''lǐxué'' 理學, literally "School of Principle") is a moral, ethical, and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, and originated with Han Yu (768–824) and Li Ao (772–841) ...
contributed to the increasingly male-dominated society of the time. Women were expected to be silent and not socialize with men who were not their relatives, they were required to be chaste to their husbands and widows were not allowed to remarry. Any doubt of a woman's chastity would bring dishonor to the family. To protect the family's honor, young girls would carry a small knife (''paedo'') and with this they were expected to take their own life if they were raped or even rumored to be caught in an affair. Laws were also enacted to prohibit women from riding horses or to play sports.
During the Late Joseon, the Confucian ideals of propriety and "filial piety" gradually came to be equated with a strict observance to a complex social hierarchy, with many fine gradations. By the early 18th century the social critic Yi Chung-hwan (1690–1756) sarcastically complained that "[W]ith so many different ranks and grades separating people from one another, people tend not to have a very large circle of friends." But, even as Yi wrote, the informal social distinctions of the Early Joseon were being reinforced by legal discrimination, such as Sumptuary law regulating the dress of different social groups, and laws restricting inheritance and property ownership by women. Precisely because of the tenets of the Confucian ''Classic of Filial Piety'', the adult male practice of Joseon Korea prescribed to keep both hair and beard, in contrast to the Japanese Tokugawa shogunate, Tokugawa period.
Yet, these laws may have been announced precisely because social mobility was increasing, particularly during the prosperous century beginning about 1710. The original social hierarchy of the Joseon era was developed based on the social hierarchy of the Goryeo
Goryeo (; ) was a Korean kingdom founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korean Peninsula until 1392. Goryeo achieved what has been called a "true national unificat ...
era. In the 14th–16th centuries, this hierarchy was strict and stable. Since economic opportunities to change status were limited, no law was needed.
In the late 17th to 19th centuries, new commercial groups emerged, and the old class system was extremely weakened. The situation was most marked in the Daegu region's Yangban class, where they were expected to reach nearly 70% in 1858.
In 1801, government-owned slaves were all emancipated, and the institution gradually died out over the next century. By 1858 the nobi population stood at about 1.5 percent of the total population of Korea. The institution was completely abolished as part of a social plan in the Gabo Reform of 1894.
Culture
The Joseon Dynasty presided over two periods of great cultural growth, during which Joseon culture created the first Korean tea ceremony, Korean gardens, and extensive historic works. The royal dynasty also built several fortresses and palaces.
Clothing
During the Joseon period, jeogori of women's hanbok became gradually tightened and shortened. In the 16th century, jeogori was baggy and reached below the waist, but by the 19th century, jeogori was shortened to the point that it did not cover the breasts, so another piece of cloth (''heoritti'') was used to cover them. At the end of the 19th century, Heungseon Daewongun
Heungseon Daewongun (흥선대원군, 興宣大院君, 21 December 1820 – 22 February 1898; ), also known as the Daewongun (대원군, 大院君), Guktaegong (국태공, 國太公, "The Great Archduke") or formally Internal King Heungseon Heon ...
introduced Magoja, a Manchu people, Manchu-style jacket, to Korea, which is often worn with hanbok to this day.
Chima was full-skirted and jeogori was short and tight in the late Joseon period. Fullness in the skirt was emphasized round the hips. Many undergarments were worn underneath chima such as darisokgot, soksokgot, dansokgot, and gojengi to achieve a desired silhouette. Because jeogori was so short it became natural to expose heoritti or ''heorimari'' which functioned like a corset. The white linen cloth exposed under jeogori in the picture is heoritti.
The upper classes wore hanbok of closely woven ramie cloth or other high-grade lightweight materials in warm weather and of plain and patterned silks the rest of the year. Commoners were restricted by law as well as resources to cotton at best. The upper classes wore a variety of colors, though bright colors were generally worn by children and girls and subdued colors by middle-aged men and women. Commoners were restricted by law to everyday clothes of white, but for special occasions they wore dull shades of pale pink, light green, gray, and charcoal. Formally, when Korean men went outdoors, they were required to wear overcoats known as ''durumagi'' which reach the knees.
Art
The Mid-Joseon period painting styles moved toward increased Realism (arts), realism. A national painting style of landscapes called "true view" began – moving from the traditional Chinese style of idealized general landscapes to particular locations exactly rendered. While not photographic, the style was academic enough to become established and supported as a standardized style in Korean painting. At this time China ceased to have pre-eminent influence, Korean art took its own course, and became increasingly distinctive to the traditional Chinese painting.
Ceramic art, Ceramics are a form of popular art during the Joseon period. Examples of ceramics include white porcelain or white porcelain decorated with cobalt, copper red underglaze, blue underglaze and iron underglaze. Ceramics from the Joseon period differ from other periods because artists felt that each piece of art deserved its own uniquely cultivated personality.
Beginning in the 10th century, white porcelain has been crafted in Korea
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic ...
. Historically overshadowed by the popularity of celadon, it was not until the 15th and 16th centuries that white porcelain was recognized for its own artistic value. Among the most prized of Korean ceramics are large white jars. Their shape is symbolic of the moon and their color is associated with the ideals of purity and modesty of Confucianism. During this period, the bureau that oversaw the meals and court banquets of the royal family strictly controlled the production of white porcelain.
Blue and white pottery, Blue and white porcelain artifacts decorating white porcelain with paintings and designs in underglaze by using natural cobalt pigment are another example of popular wares of the Joseon period. Many of these items were created by court painters employed by the royal family. During this period, the popular style of landscape paintings is mirrored in the decoration of ceramics. Initially developed by the Chinese at the Jingdezhen porcelain, Jingdezhen kilns in the mid-14th century, Joseon began to produce this type of porcelain from the 15th century under Chinese influence. The first cobalt imported from China was used by Korean artists. In 1463 when sources of cobalt were discovered in Korea
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic ...
, artists and their buyers found the material was inferior in quality and preferred the more expensive imported cobalt. Korean porcelain with imported cobalt decoration contradict the emphasis of an orderly, frugal and moderate life in Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism (, often shortened to ''lǐxué'' 理學, literally "School of Principle") is a moral, ethical, and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, and originated with Han Yu (768–824) and Li Ao (772–841) ...
.
Strikingly different from cobalt, porcelain items with a copper-red underglaze are the most difficult to successfully craft. During production, these items require great skill and attention or will turn gray during the process of firing. While the birthplace of ceramics with copper red underglaze is widely disputed, these items originated during 12th century in Korea
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic ...
and became increasingly popular during the second half of the Joseon period. Some experts have pointed to the kilns of Bunwon-ri in Gwangju, Gyeonggi, Gwangju, a city that played a significant role in the production of ceramics during the Joseon period, as a possible birthplace.
Porcelain was also decorated with iron. These items commonly consisted of jars or other utilitarian pieces.
Literature
During the Joseon period, the yangban scholars and educated literati studied Thirteen Classics, Confucian classics and Neo-Confucianism, Neo-Confucian literature.
The middle and upper classes of Joseon society were proficient in Classical Chinese. The Joseon official records (such as the Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty
The ''Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty'' (also known as the ''Annals of the Joseon Dynasty'' or the ''True Record of the Joseon Dynasty''; ko, 조선왕조실록 and ) are the annual records of Joseon, the last royal house to rule K ...
and Seungjeongwon ilgi) and the written works of the Yangban literati were written in Classical Chinese.
Newspapers like the Hwangseong Sinmun toward the end of the period were written in the Korean language
Korean (South Korean: , ''hangugeo''; North Korean: , ''chosŏnmal'') is the native language for about 80 million people, mostly of Korean descent. It is the official and national language of both North Korea and South Korea (geographica ...
using the Korean mixed script.
''Annals of the Joseon Dynasty''
The ''Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty'' (also known as the ''Annals of the Joseon Dynasty'') are the annual records of the Joseon dynasty, which were kept from 1413 to 1865. The annals, or ''sillok'', consist of 1,893 volumes and are thought to cover the longest continual period of a single dynasty in the world. With the exception of two ''sillok'' compiled during the Korea under Japanese rule, colonial era, the ''Annals'' are the 151st National Treasure (South Korea), national treasure of Korea and listed in UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme, Memory of the World registry.
Uigwe
''Uigwe'' is a collection of royal Protocol (diplomacy), protocols of the Joseon period, which records and prescribes through text and stylized illustration the important ceremonies and rites of the royal family.
Education
Buddhism and Confucianism
The Joseon kingdom was noted for having Confucianism as its main philosophy, and also included some Buddhism. The study of literary exchanges between Confucian scholar officials and Buddhists shows that Buddhism was not cast out. There literary exchanges show a middle ground of both philosophies. "scholar-officials – Some who in public castigated Buddhism as a heresy and deluded tradition, in private visited temples and associated closely with monks." This shows that while in public some scholars shamed Buddhism their exchanges with Buddhists show that in the very least it was not cast outside of the kingdom.
One example of this is a famous Joseon scholar official Park Se-dang (박세당, 朴世堂, 1629–1703). He argues against Buddhism with the following "People say that Han Yu and Ouyang Xiu have harshly criticized Buddhism and therefore have only discussed what is aberrant and have not fully investigated what is profound. People say, their understanding is lacking and they have not fully examined it [its profoundness]. I, myself, don’t think that is the case… The heresies under heaven, they are also rather foul. Among them, Buddhism is the worst. If a person is inclined to Buddhism then he is of the kind that pursues what is foul. Is it not clear that there is nothing further to discuss? It is like Mencius who [also felt no need to argue in detail when he] criticized Yang Zhu and Mozi. Surely, he did not argue further than to say Yang Zhu and Mozi did not respect their fathers and their emperors." He wrote a poem:
Buddhism was a part of the Joseon kingdom. While not supported publicly, privately it was very prevalent in Confucian-scholar officials.
Music
The ''Joseon'' period developed several musical forms. The form with the most extant pieces is ''sijo'' (시조, 時調)''.'' ''Sijo'' is a poetic form consisting of three lines, each with four feet, traditionally sung very slowly. In Korean verse, a foot is generally a short syntactic unit, such as a noun with an adjective or a verb with an adverb. For example:
Translation
''Can tiny insects devour a whole great spreading pine?''
''Where is the long-billed woodpecker? Why is he not here?''
''When I hear the sound of falling trees, I cannot contain myself for sorrow.''
Here, like other Korean musical forms, each foot can stand on its own. As ''sijo'' were sung in Korean, the pioneering of Hangul created the possibility for ''sijo'' to be written down without the use of substitutions such as Idu script. The first copy of ''sijo'' is of the 'Twelve Songs of ''Dosan''' by ''Yi Hwang'' written in 1565, which were written 100 years after the proclamation of Hangul
The Korean alphabet, known as Hangul, . Hangul may also be written as following South Korea's standard Romanization. ( ) in South Korea and Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea, is the modern official writing system for the Korean language. The l ...
. Additionally, the first anthology of ''sijo'' was compiled by ''Kim Cheontaek'' in 1728; before the anthology few ''sijo'' were written.
''Kim Cheontaek'''s anthology represents a change in the authorship of ''sijo''. At first, ''sijo'' were primarily composed by the yangban aristocracy and entertainers of the Kisaeng class. By the mid-seventeenth century, the jungin or “professional class” were composing ''sijo'' as well. This also coincided with a new form of ''sijo'' called “narrative ''sijo''” (사설시조, 辭說時調), in which the first two lines were greatly lengthened. This expansion is likely a development from the so-called “irregular ''sijo''” (엇시조, 旕時調), in which there was a minor lengthening of one of the first two lines. While there are very few remaining irregular ''sijo'', and the form has not been revived, there is a sizable body of narrative ''sijo'' and the form continues to evolve.
''Pansori, P'ansori'' (판소리) is another musical form that combines singing and prose to portray a story. Its development likely originates from shaman rituals and the songs within the Jeolla Province. It became a full-fledged musical form by the middle of the eighteenth century, and not long thereafter the yangban aristocracy also became interested in it. Originally there was a set of twelve stories that were sung, but only five were written down, and hence those five are the only ones sung today. Having been developed by commoners, ''p'ansori'' usually reflected their attitudes and aspirations, but by becoming popular with the ''yangban'', ''p'ansori'' shifted somewhat toward ''yangban'' sensibilities and restrictions. ''P'ansori'' had a strong influence of the writing of the time, both because of the ''p'ansori'' novel (each based on one of the twelve stories) and by increasing the realism of the classical novel.
Science and technology
15th century
The Joseon period under the reign of Sejong the Great
Sejong of Joseon (15 May 1397 – 8 April 1450), personal name Yi Do (Korean: 이도; Hanja: 李祹), widely known as Sejong the Great (Korean: 세종대왕; Hanja: 世宗大王), was the fourth ruler of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. Initial ...
was Korea's greatest period of scientific advancement. Under Sejong's new policy, Cheonmin (low-status) people such as Jang Yeong-sil were allowed to work for the government. At a young age, Jang displayed talent as an inventor and engineer, creating machines to facilitate agricultural work. These included supervising the building of aqueducts and canals.
Some of his inventions were an automated (self-striking) water clock (the Jagyeokru) which worked by activating motions of wooden figures to indicate time visually (invented in 1434 by Jang), a subsequent more complicated water-clock with additional astronomical devices, and an improved model of the previous metal movable printing type created in the Goryeo, Goryeo Dynasty. The new model was of even higher quality and was twice as fast. Other inventions were the sight glass, and the Rain gauge, udometer.
The highpoint of Korean astronomy was during the Joseon period, where men such as Jang created devices such as celestial globes which indicated the positions of the sun, moon, and the stars. Later celestial globes (Gyupyo, 규표) were attuned to the seasonal variations.
The apex of astronomical and calendarial advances under Sejong the Great, King Sejong was the Chiljeongsan, which compiled computations of the courses of the seven heavenly objects (five visible planets, the sun, and moon),
developed in 1442. This work made it possible for scientists to calculate and accurately predict all the major heavenly phenomena, such as solar eclipses and other stellar movements. Honcheonsigye is an astronomical clock created by Song I-yeong in 1669. The clock has an armillary sphere with a diameter of 40 cm. The sphere is activated by a working clock mechanism, showing the position of celestial objects at any given time.
Gangnido, a Korean-made map of the world was created in 1402 by Kim Sa-hyeong (김사형, 金士衡), Yi Mu (early Joseon), Yi Mu (이무, 李茂) and Yi Hoe (이회, 李撓). The map was created in the second year of the reign of Taejong of Joseon. The map was made by combining Chinese, Korean and Japanese maps.
16th–19th century
The scientific and technological advance in the late Joseon period was less progressed than the early Joseon period.
16th-century court physician, Heo Jun wrote a number of medical texts, his most significant achievement being Dongui Bogam, which is often noted as the defining text of Traditional Korean medicine. The work spread to China and Japan, where it is still regarded as one of the classics of Traditional Asian medicine, Oriental medicine today.
The first soft Bulletproof vest, ballistic vest, Myunjebaegab, myeonjebaegab, was invented in Joseon Korea
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic ...
in the 1860s shortly after the French expedition to Korea, French campaign against Korea. Heungseon Daewongun
Heungseon Daewongun (흥선대원군, 興宣大院君, 21 December 1820 – 22 February 1898; ), also known as the Daewongun (대원군, 大院君), Guktaegong (국태공, 國太公, "The Great Archduke") or formally Internal King Heungseon Heon ...
ordered development of bulletproof armor because of increasing threats from Western armies. Kim Gi-du and Gang Yun found that cotton could protect against bullets if thick enough, and devised bullet-proof vests made of 30 layers of cotton. The vests were used in battle during the United States expedition to Korea (1871), when the US Navy attacked Ganghwa Island in 1871. The US Army captured one of the vests and took it to the US, where it was stored at the Smithsonian Institution, Smithsonian Museum until 2007. The vest has since been sent back to Korea and is currently on display to the public.
Economy
Commerce
During the Goryeo period, Korea had a healthy trade relationship with the Japanese, Chinese, and Manchurians. An example of prosperous, international trade port is South Pyongan Province. Koreans offered Brocade, brocades, jewelries, ginseng, silk, and porcelain, renowned famous worldwide. But, during the Joseon period, Confucianism was adopted as the national philosophy, and, in process of eliminating certain Buddhism, Buddhist beliefs, Korean pottery and porcelain#Goryeo, Goryeo Cheongja porcelains were replaced by white Joseon white porcelain, Baekja, which lost favour of the Chinese. Also, commerce became more restricted during this time in order to promote agriculture. Because silver was used as currency in China, it played an important role in Korea-China trade.
House of Yi
The following is a simplified relation of Joseon royalty (Korean Imperial Family) during the late period of the dynasty:
* Gojong of Korea, Emperor Gojong (1852–1919) – 26th head of the Korean Imperial Household, adoptive heir to Crown Prince Hyomyeong
** Sunjong of Korea, Emperor Sunjong (1874–1926) – 27th head of the Korean Imperial Household
** Yi Kang, Prince Imperial Ui (1877–1955) – 5th son of Gojong
*** Prince Yi Geon (1909–1991) – eldest son of Yi Kang; renounced the Imperial title and heritage by becoming a Japanese citizen in 1947
*** Prince Yi U (1912–1945) – 2nd son of Yi Kang; adopted as the heir to Yi Jun-yong, grandson of Heungseon Daewongun
Heungseon Daewongun (흥선대원군, 興宣大院君, 21 December 1820 – 22 February 1898; ), also known as the Daewongun (대원군, 大院君), Guktaegong (국태공, 國太公, "The Great Archduke") or formally Internal King Heungseon Heon ...
**** Yi Cheong (1936–)
**** Yi Jong (1940–1966)
*** Yi Hae-won (1919–2020) – 2nd daughter of Yi Kang; married in 1936 to Yi Seung-gyu from the Yongin Yi clan
*** Yi Gap (1938–2014) – 9th son of Yi Kang
**** Yi Won (1962–) – eldest son of Yi Gap; adopted by Yi Ku as the 30th head of the Korean Imperial Household
***** 1st son (1998–)
***** 2nd son (1999–)
*** Yi Seok (1941–) – 10th son of Yi Kang; self-claimed head of the Korean Imperial Household
**** Yi Hong (1976–), first daughter of Yi Seok
***** 1st daughter (2001–)
**** Yi Jin (1979–), 2nd daughter of Yi Seok
**** Yi Jeong-hun (1980–), son of Yi Seok
** Yi Un, Imperial Crown Prince (1897–1970) – 28th head of the Korean Imperial Household; married in 1920 to Yi Bangja, Princess Masako of Nashimoto (Yi Bang-ja), an imperial member of the Empire of Japan.
*** Prince Yi Jin (1921–1922)
*** Prince Yi Ku (1931–2005) — 29th head of the Korean Imperial Household; son of Yi Un
** Princess Deokhye (1912–1989) — married in 1931 to Sō Takeyuki, Count Sō Takeyuki
*** Countess Sō Masae (1932–?), disappeared since 1956
See also
* History of Korea
* Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty
The ''Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty'' (also known as the ''Annals of the Joseon Dynasty'' or the ''True Record of the Joseon Dynasty''; ko, 조선왕조실록 and ) are the annual records of Joseon, the last royal house to rule K ...
* List of Joseon monarchs
* House of Yi#House of Yi family tree, Kings family tree
* Politics of the Joseon dynasty, Joseon Dynasty politics
* Korean Empire
The Korean Empire () was a Korean monarchical state proclaimed in October 1897 by Emperor Gojong of the Joseon dynasty. The empire stood until Japan's annexation of Korea in August 1910.
During the Korean Empire, Emperor Gojong oversaw the Gwan ...
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
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Further reading
* ''A Cultural History of Modern Korea'', Wannae Joe, ed. with intro. by Hongkyu A. Choe, Elizabeth NY, and Seoul Korea: Hollym, 2000.
* ''An Introduction to Korean Culture'', ed. Koo & Nahm, Elizabeth NJ, and Seoul Korea: Hollym, 1998. 2nd edition.
* ''Noon Eu Ro Bo Neun Han Gook Yuk Sa #7'' by Jang Pyung Soon. Copyright 1998 Joong Ang Gyo Yook Yun Goo Won, Ltd, pp. 46–7.
Alston, Dane. 2008. "Emperor and Emissary: The Hongwu Emperor, Kwŏn Kŭn, and the Poetry of Late Fourteenth Century Diplomacy". Korean Studies 32. University of Hawai'i Press: 104–47.
Kye, Seung B.. 2010. "Huddling Under the Imperial Umbrella: A Korean Approach to Ming China in the Early 1500s". The Journal of Korean Studies 15 (1). University of Washington Center for Korea Studies: 41–66.
Robinson, David M.. 2004. "Disturbing Images: Rebellion, Usurpation, and Rulership in Early Sixteenth-century East Asia—Korean Writings on Emperor Wuzong". The Journal of Korean Studies 9 (1). University of Washington Center for Korea Studies: 97–127.
Robinson, Kenneth R.. 1992. "From Raiders to Traders: Border Security and Border Control in Early Chosŏn, 1392—1450". Korean Studies 16. University of Hawai'i Press: 94–115.
* Ji-Young Lee. 2020. "The Founding of the Korean Chosŏn Dynasty, 1392." in ''doi:10.1017/9781108807401 , East Asia in the World Twelve Events That Shaped the Modern International Order''. Cambridge University Press.
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External links
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Cultural Values of the Choson Dynasty
– from Instrok.org, created by the East Rock Institute.
"Click into the Hermit Kingdom" (Written by Yang Sung-jin and published by Dongbang Media in Seoul, South Korea) – 100 articles in English on the Joseon Dynasty
Korean royal family website
– currently available only in Korean.
– Ohmynews.com's uncovered document about murder of Queen Minbi
The Chosun Ilbo, 27 January 2006.
{{authority control
Korean royalty
House of Yi
Joseon dynasty,
Former countries in Korean history
States and territories established in 1392
1392 establishments in Asia
States and territories disestablished in 1897
1897 disestablishments in Asia