John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh ( ; 12 November 1842 – 30 June 1919), was an English

physicist A physicist is a scientist who specializes in the field of physics, which encompasses the interactions of matter and energy at all length and time scales in the physical universe. Physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate cau ...

who received the

Nobel Prize in Physics The Nobel Prize in Physics () is an annual award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who have made the most outstanding contributions to mankind in the field of physics. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the ...

in 1904 "for his investigations of the densities of the most important gases and for his discovery of

argon Argon is a chemical element; it has symbol Ar and atomic number 18. It is in group 18 of the periodic table and is a noble gas. Argon is the third most abundant gas in Earth's atmosphere, at 0.934% (9340 ppmv). It is more than twice as abu ...

in connection with these studies". He served as president of the

Royal Society The Royal Society, formally The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, is a learned society and the United Kingdom's national academy of sciences. The society fulfils a number of roles: promoting science and its benefits, re ...

from 1905 to 1908 and as chancellor of the

University of Cambridge The University of Cambridge is a Public university, public collegiate university, collegiate research university in Cambridge, England. Founded in 1209, the University of Cambridge is the List of oldest universities in continuous operation, wo ...

from 1908 to 1919. Rayleigh provided the first theoretical treatment of the elastic scattering of light by particles much smaller than the light's wavelength, a phenomenon now known as "

Rayleigh scattering Rayleigh scattering ( ) is the scattering or deflection of light, or other electromagnetic radiation, by particles with a size much smaller than the wavelength of the radiation. For light frequencies well below the resonance frequency of the scat ...

", which notably explains why the sky is blue. He studied and described transverse

surface wave In physics, a surface wave is a mechanical wave that propagates along the Interface (chemistry), interface between differing media. A common example is gravity waves along the surface of liquids, such as ocean waves. Gravity waves can also occu ...

s in solids, now known as "

Rayleigh wave Rayleigh waves are a type of surface acoustic wave that travel along the surface of solids. They can be produced in materials in many ways, such as by a localized impact or by Piezoelectricity, piezo-electric Interdigital transducer, transduction, ...

s". He contributed extensively to

fluid dynamics In physics, physical chemistry and engineering, fluid dynamics is a subdiscipline of fluid mechanics that describes the flow of fluids – liquids and gases. It has several subdisciplines, including (the study of air and other gases in motion ...

, with concepts such as the Rayleigh number (a

dimensionless number Dimensionless quantities, or quantities of dimension one, are quantities implicitly defined in a manner that prevents their aggregation into unit of measurement, units of measurement. ISBN 978-92-822-2272-0. Typically expressed as ratios that a ...

associated with

natural convection Convection is single or multiphase fluid flow that occurs spontaneously through the combined effects of material property heterogeneity and body forces on a fluid, most commonly density and gravity (see buoyancy). When the cause of the conve ...

Rayleigh flow In fluid dynamics, Rayleigh flow (after English physicist Lord Rayleigh) refers to frictionless, non- adiabatic fluid flow through a constant-area duct where the effect of heat transfer is considered. Compressibility effects often come into co ...

, the Rayleigh–Taylor instability, and Rayleigh's criterion for the stability of

Taylor–Couette flow In fluid dynamics, the Taylor–Couette flow consists of a viscous fluid confined in the gap between two rotating cylinders. For low angular velocities, measured by the Reynolds number ''Re'', the flow is steady and purely azimuthal. This laminar ...

. He also formulated the circulation theory of

aerodynamic lift When a fluid flows around an object, the fluid exerts a force on the object. Lift is the component of this force that is perpendicular to the oncoming flow direction. It contrasts with the drag force, which is the component of the force paral ...

. In

optics Optics is the branch of physics that studies the behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of optical instruments, instruments that use or Photodetector, detect it. Optics usually describes t ...

, Rayleigh proposed a well-known criterion for

angular resolution Angular resolution describes the ability of any image-forming device such as an Optical telescope, optical or radio telescope, a microscope, a camera, or an Human eye, eye, to distinguish small details of an object, thereby making it a major det ...

. His derivation of the

Rayleigh–Jeans law In physics, the Rayleigh–Jeans law is an approximation to the spectral radiance of electromagnetic radiation as a function of wavelength from a black body at a given temperature through classical arguments. For wavelength ''λ'', it is B_\l ...

for classical black-body radiation later played an important role in the birth of

quantum mechanics Quantum mechanics is the fundamental physical Scientific theory, theory that describes the behavior of matter and of light; its unusual characteristics typically occur at and below the scale of atoms. Reprinted, Addison-Wesley, 1989, It is ...

(see

ultraviolet catastrophe The ultraviolet catastrophe, also called the Rayleigh–Jeans catastrophe, was the prediction of late 19th century and early 20th century classical physics that an ideal black body at thermal equilibrium would emit an unbounded quantity of en ...

). Rayleigh's textbook ''The Theory of Sound'' (1877) is still used today by acousticians and engineers. He introduced the Rayleigh test for circular non-uniformity, which the Rayleigh plot visualises.

Early life and education

Strutt was born on 12 November 1842 at Langford Grove, Maypole Road in

Maldon Maldon (, locally ) is a town and civil parish on the Blackwater Estuary in Essex, England. It is the seat of the Maldon District and starting point of the Chelmer and Blackwater Navigation. It is known for Maldon Sea Salt which is prod ...

Essex Essex ( ) is a Ceremonial counties of England, ceremonial county in the East of England, and one of the home counties. It is bordered by Cambridgeshire and Suffolk to the north, the North Sea to the east, Kent across the Thames Estuary to the ...

. In his early years he suffered from frailty and poor health. He attended

Eton College Eton College ( ) is a Public school (United Kingdom), public school providing boarding school, boarding education for boys aged 13–18, in the small town of Eton, Berkshire, Eton, in Berkshire, in the United Kingdom. It has educated Prime Mini ...

and

Harrow School Harrow School () is a Public school (United Kingdom), public school (English boarding school for boys) in Harrow on the Hill, Greater London, England. The school was founded in 1572 by John Lyon (school founder), John Lyon, a local landowner an ...

(each for only a short period), before going on to the

in 1861 where he studied mathematics at Trinity College. He obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree (

Senior Wrangler The Senior Wrangler is the top mathematics undergraduate at the University of Cambridge in England, a position which has been described as "the greatest intellectual achievement attainable in Britain". Specifically, it is the person who achiev ...

and 1st

Smith's Prize Smith's Prize was the name of each of two prizes awarded annually to two research students in mathematics and theoretical physics at the University of Cambridge from 1769. Following the reorganization in 1998, they are now awarded under the names ...

) in 1865, and a

Master of Arts A Master of Arts ( or ''Artium Magister''; abbreviated MA or AM) is the holder of a master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The degree is usually contrasted with that of Master of Science. Those admitted to the degree have ...

in 1868. He was subsequently elected to a fellowship of Trinity. He held the post until his marriage to Evelyn Balfour, daughter of

James Maitland Balfour James Maitland Balfour (5 January 1820 – 23 February 1856) was a Scotland, Scottish land-owner and businessman. He made a fortune in the 19th-century railway boom, and inherited a significant portion of his father's great wealth. He was a Cons ...

, in 1871. He had three sons with her.One son,

Robert Strutt, 4th Baron Rayleigh Robert John Strutt, 4th Baron Rayleigh (28 August 1875 – 13 December 1947) was a British peer and physicist. He discovered "active nitrogen" and was the first to distinguish the glow of the night sky. Early life and education Strutt was b ...

, was also an eminent physicist and fellow of the Royal Society. In 1873, on the death of his father, John Strutt, 2nd Baron Rayleigh, he inherited the Barony of Rayleigh. Rayleigh was elected fellow of the

on 12 June 1873.

Career

Rayleigh was the second Cavendish Professor of Physics at the

(following the death of

James Clerk Maxwell James Clerk Maxwell (13 June 1831 – 5 November 1879) was a Scottish physicist and mathematician who was responsible for the classical theory of electromagnetic radiation, which was the first theory to describe electricity, magnetism an ...

) from 1879 to 1884. He first described

dynamic soaring Dynamic soaring is a flying technique used to gain energy by repeatedly crossing the boundary between air masses of different velocity. Such zones of wind gradient are generally found close to obstacles and close to the surface, so the technique is ...

seabirds Seabirds (also known as marine birds) are birds that are adapted to life within the marine environment. While seabirds vary greatly in lifestyle, behaviour and physiology, they often exhibit striking convergent evolution, as the same envi ...

in 1883, in the British journal ''

Nature Nature is an inherent character or constitution, particularly of the Ecosphere (planetary), ecosphere or the universe as a whole. In this general sense nature refers to the Scientific law, laws, elements and phenomenon, phenomena of the physic ...

''. From 1887 to 1905, he was Professor of

Natural Philosophy Natural philosophy or philosophy of nature (from Latin ''philosophia naturalis'') is the philosophical study of physics, that is, nature and the physical universe, while ignoring any supernatural influence. It was dominant before the develop ...

at the

Royal Institution The Royal Institution of Great Britain (often the Royal Institution, Ri or RI) is an organisation for scientific education and research, based in the City of Westminster. It was founded in 1799 by the leading British scientists of the age, inc ...

. On this post he carefully and precisely measured

atomic mass Atomic mass ( or ) is the mass of a single atom. The atomic mass mostly comes from the combined mass of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus, with minor contributions from the electrons and nuclear binding energy. The atomic mass of atoms, ...

of oxygen and hydrogen, and by 1892 he moved on to

nitrogen Nitrogen is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol N and atomic number 7. Nitrogen is a Nonmetal (chemistry), nonmetal and the lightest member of pnictogen, group 15 of the periodic table, often called the Pnictogen, pnictogens. ...

. By isolating nitrogen in different ways he discovered a small but significant difference, which indicated a heavier inert gas present in the air besides nitrogen. William Ramsay joined this research topic, and in August they discovered

. Around 1900 Rayleigh developed the ''duplex'' (combination of two) theory of human sound localisation using two binaural cues, interaural phase difference (IPD) and

interaural level difference Sound localization is a listener's ability to identify the location or origin of a detected sound in direction and distance. The sound localization mechanisms of the mammalian auditory system have been extensively studied. The auditory system u ...

(ILD) (based on analysis of a spherical head with no external pinnae). The theory posits that we use two primary cues for sound lateralisation, using the difference in the phases of

sinusoid A sine wave, sinusoidal wave, or sinusoid (symbol: ∿) is a periodic wave whose waveform (shape) is the trigonometric sine function. In mechanics, as a linear motion over time, this is '' simple harmonic motion''; as rotation, it correspond ...

al components of the sound and the difference in amplitude (level) between the two ears. Lord Rayleigh Vanity Fair 21 December 1899

He received the degree of ''Doctor mathematicae (

honoris causa An honorary degree is an academic degree for which a university (or other degree-awarding institution) has waived all of the usual requirements. It is also known by the Latin phrases ''honoris causa'' ("for the sake of the honour") or ''ad hono ...

)'' from the Royal Frederick University on 6 September 1902, when they celebrated the centennial of the birth of

mathematician A mathematician is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of mathematics in their work, typically to solve mathematical problems. Mathematicians are concerned with numbers, data, quantity, mathematical structure, structure, space, Mathematica ...

Niels Henrik Abel Niels Henrik Abel ( , ; 5 August 1802 – 6 April 1829) was a Norwegian mathematician who made pioneering contributions in a variety of fields. His most famous single result is the first complete proof demonstrating the impossibility of solvin ...

. In 1904 he was awarded the

Nobel Prize for Physics The Nobel Prize in Physics () is an annual award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who have made the most outstanding contributions to mankind in the field of physics. It is one of the five Nobel Prize, Nobel Prizes establi ...

"for his investigations of the densities of the most important gases and for his discovery of

in connection with these studies". During the

First World War World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...

, he was president of the government's

Advisory Committee for Aeronautics The Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (ACA) was a UK agency founded on 30 April 1909, to undertake, promote, and institutionalize aeronautical research. In 1919 it was renamed the Aeronautical Research Committee, later becoming the Aeronautical ...

, which was located at the National Physical Laboratory, and chaired by Richard Glazebrook. In 1919, Rayleigh served as president of the

Society for Psychical Research The Society for Psychical Research (SPR) is a nonprofit organisation in the United Kingdom. Its stated purpose is to understand events and abilities commonly described as psychic or paranormal. It describes itself as the "first society to condu ...

. As an advocate that simplicity and theory be part of the scientific method, Rayleigh argued for the principle of similitude. Rayleigh served as president of the Royal Society from 1905 to 1908. From time to time he participated in the

House of Lords The House of Lords is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the lower house, the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster in London, England. One of the oldest ext ...

; however, he spoke up only if politics attempted to become involved in science.

Personal life and death

Rayleigh married Evelyn Georgiana Mary (née Balfour). He died on 30 June 1919, at his home in Witham, Essex. He was succeeded, as the 4th Lord Rayleigh, by his son

Robert John Strutt Robert John Strutt, 4th Baron Rayleigh (28 August 1875 – 13 December 1947) was a British peerage, peer and physicist. He discovered "active nitrogen" and was the first to distinguish the glow of the night sky. Early life and education Stru ...

, another well-known physicist. Lord Rayleigh was buried in the graveyard of All Saints' Church in Terling in Essex.

Religious views

Rayleigh was an

Anglican Anglicanism, also known as Episcopalianism in some countries, is a Western Christianity, Western Christian tradition which developed from the practices, liturgy, and identity of the Church of England following the English Reformation, in the ...

. Though he did not write about the relationship of science and religion, he retained a personal interest in spiritual matters. When his scientific papers were to be published in a collection by the

Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press was the university press of the University of Cambridge. Granted a letters patent by King Henry VIII in 1534, it was the oldest university press in the world. Cambridge University Press merged with Cambridge Assessme ...

, Strutt wanted to include a quotation from the

Bible The Bible is a collection of religious texts that are central to Christianity and Judaism, and esteemed in other Abrahamic religions such as Islam. The Bible is an anthology (a compilation of texts of a variety of forms) originally writt ...

, but he was discouraged from doing so, as he later reported: Still, he had his wish and the quotation was printed in the five-volume collection of scientific papers. In a letter to a family member, he wrote about his rejection of

materialism Materialism is a form of monism, philosophical monism according to which matter is the fundamental Substance theory, substance in nature, and all things, including mind, mental states and consciousness, are results of material interactions. Acco ...

and spoke of

Jesus Christ Jesus (AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ, Jesus of Nazareth, and many Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament, other names and titles, was a 1st-century Jewish preacher and religious leader. He is the Jesus in Chris ...

as a moral teacher: He held an interest in

parapsychology Parapsychology is the study of alleged psychic phenomena (extrasensory perception, telepathy, teleportation, precognition, clairvoyance, psychokinesis (also called telekinesis), and psychometry (paranormal), psychometry) and other paranormal cla ...

and was an early member of the

(SPR). He was not convinced of

spiritualism Spiritualism may refer to: * Spiritual church movement, a group of Spiritualist churches and denominations historically based in the African-American community * Spiritualism (beliefs), a metaphysical belief that the world is made up of at leas ...

but remained open to the possibility of

supernatural Supernatural phenomena or entities are those beyond the Scientific law, laws of nature. The term is derived from Medieval Latin , from Latin 'above, beyond, outside of' + 'nature'. Although the corollary term "nature" has had multiple meanin ...

phenomena. Rayleigh was the president of the SPR in 1919. He gave a presidential address in the year of his death but did not come to any definite conclusions.

Honours and awards

The lunar crater ''

Rayleigh Rayleigh may refer to: Science *Rayleigh scattering *Rayleigh–Jeans law *Rayleigh waves *Rayleigh (unit), a unit of photon flux named after the 4th Baron Rayleigh *Rayl, rayl or Rayleigh, two units of specific acoustic impedance and characte ...

'' as well as the Martian crater ''

'' were named in his honour. The asteroid

22740 Rayleigh 22740 Rayleigh (Minor planet provisional designation, provisional designation ) is a Zhongguo asteroid from the outermost region of the asteroid belt, approximately in diameter. It was discovered on 20 September 1998, by Belgian astronomer Eric ...

was named after him on 1 June 2007. A type of surface waves are known as

s, and the elastic scattering of electromagnetic waves is called

. The

rayl A rayl (symbol Rayl) is one of two units of specific acoustic impedance and characteristic acoustic impedance; one an MKS unit, and the other a CGS unit. These have the same dimensions as momentum per volume. The units are named after John Wil ...

, a unit of

specific acoustic impedance Acoustic impedance and specific acoustic impedance are measures of the opposition that a system presents to the acoustic flow resulting from an acoustic pressure applied to the system. The SI unit of acoustic impedance is the pascal-second per cu ...

, is also named for him. Rayleigh was also awarded with (in chronological order): *

(1865) *

Royal Medal The Royal Medal, also known as The Queen's Medal and The King's Medal (depending on the gender of the monarch at the time of the award), is a silver-gilt medal, of which three are awarded each year by the Royal Society. Two are given for "the mo ...

(1882) * Member of the

American Philosophical Society The American Philosophical Society (APS) is an American scholarly organization and learned society founded in 1743 in Philadelphia that promotes knowledge in the humanities and natural sciences through research, professional meetings, publicat ...

(1886) *

De Morgan Medal The De Morgan Medal is a prize for outstanding contribution to mathematics, awarded by the London Mathematical Society. The Society's most prestigious award, it is given in memory of Augustus De Morgan, who was the first President of the society ...

(1890) *

Matteucci Medal The Matteucci Medal is an Italian award for physicists, named after Carlo Matteucci from Forlì. It was established to award physicists for their fundamental contributions. Under an Italian Royal Decree dated July 10, 1870, the Italian Society ...

(1894) *

Faraday Lectureship Prize The Faraday Lectureship Prize, previously known simply as the Faraday Lectureship, is awarded once every two years (approximately) by the Royal Society of Chemistry for "exceptional contributions to physical or theoretical chemistry".. Named aft ...

(1895) *

Barnard Medal for Meritorious Service to Science The Barnard Medal for Meritorious Service to Science was established in 1889 by the will of Columbia University president Frederick A. P. Barnard, and has been awarded by Columbia University, based on recommendations by the National Academy of S ...

(1895) * Member of the

Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences () is one of the Swedish Royal Academies, royal academies of Sweden. Founded on 2 June 1739, it is an independent, non-governmental scientific organization that takes special responsibility for promoting nat ...

(1897) *

Copley Medal The Copley Medal is the most prestigious award of the Royal Society of the United Kingdom, conferred "for sustained, outstanding achievements in any field of science". The award alternates between the physical sciences or mathematics and the bio ...

(1899) *

(1904) * Albert Medal (1905) *

Elliott Cresson Medal The Elliott Cresson Medal, also known as the Elliott Cresson Gold Medal, was the highest award given by the Franklin Institute. The award was established by Elliott Cresson, life member of the Franklin Institute, with $1,000 granted in 1848. Th ...

(1913) * Rumford Medal (1914) Lord Rayleigh was among the original recipients of the

Order of Merit The Order of Merit () is an order of merit for the Commonwealth realms, recognising distinguished service in the armed forces, science, art, literature, or the promotion of culture. Established in 1902 by Edward VII, admission into the order r ...

(OM) in the 1902 Coronation Honours list published on 26 June 1902, and received the order from King

Edward VII Edward VII (Albert Edward; 9 November 1841 – 6 May 1910) was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India, from 22 January 1901 until Death and state funeral of Edward VII, his death in 1910. The second child ...

Buckingham Palace Buckingham Palace () is a royal official residence, residence in London, and the administrative headquarters of the monarch of the United Kingdom. Located in the City of Westminster, the palace is often at the centre of state occasions and r ...

on 8 August 1902. Sir William Ramsay, his co-worker in the investigation to discover argon described Rayleigh as "the greatest man alive" while speaking to Lady Ramsay during his last illness. H. M. Hyndman said of Rayleigh that "no man ever showed less consciousness of great genius". In honour of Lord Rayleigh, the Institute of Acoustics sponsors the Rayleigh Medal (established in 1970) and the

Institute of Physics The Institute of Physics (IOP) is a UK-based not-for-profit learned society and professional body that works to advance physics education, physics research, research and applied physics, application. It was founded in 1874 and has a worldwide ...

sponsors the John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh Medal and Prize (established in 2008). Many of the papers that he wrote on

lubrication Lubrication is the process or technique of using a lubricant to reduce friction and wear and tear in a contact between two surfaces. The study of lubrication is a discipline in the field of tribology. Lubrication mechanisms such as fluid-lubr ...

are now recognized as early classical contributions to the field of

tribology Tribology is the science and engineering of understanding friction, lubrication and wear phenomena for interacting surfaces in relative Motion (physics), motion. It is highly interdisciplinary, drawing on many academic fields, including physics, c ...

. For these contributions, he was named as one of the 23 "Men of Tribology" by Duncan Dowson. There is a memorial to him by Derwent Wood in St Andrew's Chapel at

Westminster Abbey Westminster Abbey, formally titled the Collegiate Church of Saint Peter at Westminster, is an Anglican church in the City of Westminster, London, England. Since 1066, it has been the location of the coronations of 40 English and British m ...

.''The Abbey Scientists'', Hall, A. R. p. 59: London; Roger & Robert Nicholson; 1966

Bibliography

*
The Theory of Sound vol. I
' (London : Macmillan, 1877, 1894) (alternative link
Bibliothèque Nationale de France
OR (Cambridge: University Press, reissued 2011, ) *
The Theory of Sound vol.II
' (London : Macmillan, 1878, 1896) (alternative link
Bibliothèque Nationale de France
OR (Cambridge: University Press, reissued 2011, ) *
Scientific papers (Vol. 1: 1869–1881)
' (Cambridge : University Press, 1899–1920, reissued by the publisher 2011, ) *
Scientific papers (Vol. 2: 1881–1887)
' (Cambridge : University Press, 1899–1920, reissued by the publisher 2011, ) *
Scientific papers (Vol. 3: 1887–1892)
' (Cambridge : University Press, 1899–1920, reissued by the publisher 2011, ) *
Scientific papers (Vol. 4: 1892–1901)
' (Cambridge : University Press, 1899–1920, reissued by the publisher 2011, ) *
Scientific papers (Vol. 5: 1902–1910)
' (Cambridge : University Press, 1899–1920, reissued by the publisher 2011, ) *
Scientific papers (Vol. 6: 1911–1919)
' (Cambridge : University Press, 1899–1920, reissued by the publisher 2011, )

References

External links

About John William Strutt
*

* * {{DEFAULTSORT:Rayleigh, John William Strutt, 3rd Baron 1842 births 1919 deaths 20th-century British physicists Acousticians Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge 3 British Nobel laureates Chancellors of the University of Cambridge De Morgan Medallists Discoverers of chemical elements English Anglicans British experimental physicists British optical physicists Fluid dynamicists Lord-lieutenants of Essex Members of the Order of Merit Nobel laureates in Physics Fellows of the Royal Society Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences Members of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences Members of the French Academy of Sciences British parapsychologists People educated at Eton College People educated at Harrow School People from Maldon, Essex Presidents of the Physical Society Presidents of the Royal Society Recipients of the Copley Medal Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class) Royal Medal winners Senior Wranglers

John John is a common English name and surname: * John (given name) * John (surname) John may also refer to: New Testament Works * Gospel of John, a title often shortened to John * First Epistle of John, often shortened to 1 John * Second E ...

Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Burials in Essex Linear algebraists Tribologists Recipients of the Matteucci Medal International members of the American Philosophical Society Cavendish Professors of Physics Members of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala Scientists of the National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)