Johann Albrecht Bengel (24 June 1687 – 2 November 1752), also known as ''Bengelius'', was a
Lutheran
Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism, identifying primarily with the theology of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German monk and Protestant Reformers, reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Cathol ...
pietist
Pietism (), also known as Pietistic Lutheranism, is a movement within Lutheranism that combines its emphasis on biblical doctrine with an emphasis on individual piety and living a holy Christianity, Christian life, including a social concern for ...
clergyman
Clergy are formal leaders within established religions. Their roles and functions vary in different religious traditions, but usually involve presiding over specific rituals and teaching their religion's doctrines and practices. Some of the ter ...
and
Greek-language scholar known for his edition of the
Greek New Testament Greek New Testament refers to the New Testament in Koine Greek.
It may also refer to the following texts:
* ''Novum Instrumentum omne''
* ''Textus Receptus'', the basis of the King James Bible
* '' Novum Testamentum Graece'', a critical edition of ...
and his commentaries on it.
Life and career
Bengel was born at
Winnenden
Winnenden ( Swabian: ''Wẽnnede'') is a small town in the Rems-Murr district of the Stuttgart Region in Baden-Württemberg in southwest Germany. It lies in a wine-growing area approx. northeast of Stuttgart and has a population of fewer than 2 ...
in
Württemberg
Württemberg ( ; ) is a historical German territory roughly corresponding to the cultural and linguistic region of Swabia. The main town of the region is Stuttgart.
Together with Baden and Hohenzollern, two other historical territories, Württ ...
.
Due to the death of his father in 1693, he was educated by a family friend, David Wendel Spindler, who became a master in the
gymnasium at
Stuttgart. In 1703 Bengel left Stuttgart and entered the
University of Tübingen
The University of Tübingen, officially the Eberhard Karl University of Tübingen (german: Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen; la, Universitas Eberhardina Carolina), is a public research university located in the city of Tübingen, Baden-W ...
as a student at the ''
Tübinger Stift
The Tübinger Stift () is a hall of residence and teaching; it is owned and supported by the Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Württemberg, and located in the university city of Tübingen, in South West Germany. The Stift was founded as an Augus ...
'', where, in his spare time, he devoted himself especially to the works of
Aristotle
Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ph ...
and
Spinoza
Baruch (de) Spinoza (born Bento de Espinosa; later as an author and a correspondent ''Benedictus de Spinoza'', anglicized to ''Benedict de Spinoza''; 24 November 1632 – 21 February 1677) was a Dutch philosopher of Portuguese-Jewish origin, ...
, and, in theology, to those of
Philipp Spener
Philipp Jakob Spener (23 January 1635 – 5 February 1705), was a German Lutheran theologian who essentially founded what would become to be known as Pietism. He was later dubbed the "Father of Pietism". A prolific writer, his two main works, '' ...
,
Johann Arndt
Johann Arndt (or Arnd; 27 December 155511 May 1621) was a German Lutheran theologian who wrote several influential books of devotional Christianity. Although reflective of the period of Lutheran Orthodoxy, he is seen as a forerunner of Pietism, a ...
and
August Francke. His knowledge of the
metaphysics
Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental nature of reality, the first principles of being, identity and change, space and time, causality, necessity, and possibility. It includes questions about the nature of conscio ...
of Spinoza was such that he was selected by one of the professors to prepare materials for a treatise, ''De Spinosismo'', which was afterwards published.
After acquiring his degree, Bengel devoted himself to
theology
Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...
. Even at this time he had religious doubts; it is interesting in view of his later work that one cause of his perplexities was the difficulty of ascertaining the true reading of certain passages in the
Greek New Testament Greek New Testament refers to the New Testament in Koine Greek.
It may also refer to the following texts:
* ''Novum Instrumentum omne''
* ''Textus Receptus'', the basis of the King James Bible
* '' Novum Testamentum Graece'', a critical edition of ...
. Bengel entered the ministry in 1707 and was appointed to the parochial charge of
Metzingen
Metzingen () is a Swabian city with about 22,000 inhabitants, in Reutlingen county, Baden-Württemberg, Germany, south of Stuttgart. Geography
The following towns and municipalities are on the borders of Metzingen, they are named starting i ...
-unter-Urach. In the following year he was recalled to Tübingen to undertake the office of ''Repetent'' (theological tutor).
He remained at Tübingen until 1713, when he was appointed head of a seminary recently established at
Denkendorf as a preparatory school of theology. Before entering into his new duties he travelled through the greater part of
Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
, studying the systems of education which were in use, and visiting the seminaries of the
Jesuits
, image = Ihs-logo.svg
, image_size = 175px
, caption = ChristogramOfficial seal of the Jesuits
, abbreviation = SJ
, nickname = Jesuits
, formation =
, founders = ...
as well as those of the Lutheran and
Reformed churches. Among other places he went to
Heidelberg
Heidelberg (; Palatine German language, Palatine German: ''Heidlberg'') is a city in the States of Germany, German state of Baden-Württemberg, situated on the river Neckar in south-west Germany. As of the 2016 census, its population was 159,914 ...
and
Halle, and had his attention directed at
Heidelberg
Heidelberg (; Palatine German language, Palatine German: ''Heidlberg'') is a city in the States of Germany, German state of Baden-Württemberg, situated on the river Neckar in south-west Germany. As of the 2016 census, its population was 159,914 ...
to the canons of scripture criticism published by
Gerhard von Maastricht Gerhard is a name of Germanic origin and may refer to:
Given name
* Gerhard (bishop of Passau) (fl. 932–946), German prelate
* Gerhard III, Count of Holstein-Rendsburg (1292–1340), German prince, regent of Denmark
* Gerhard Barkhorn (1919–19 ...
, and at Halle to
Campeius Vitringa
Campegius Vitringa Sr., or Kempe VitringaEijnatten (2003), p.84 (May 16, 1659 at Leeuwarden – March 31, 1722 at Franeker) was a Dutch Protestant theologian and Hebraist. His youngest of four children was Campeius Vitringa (1693-1723).
Vitring ...
's ''Anacrisis ad Apocalypsin''. The influence exerted by these upon his theological studies is manifest in some of his works.
For 28 years, from 1713 to 1741, he was master (german: Klosterpraeceptor) of the ''Klosterschule'' at Denkendorf, a seminary for candidates for the ministry established in a former monastery of the
Canons of the Holy Sepulchre
The Canons Regular of the Holy Sepulchre were a Catholic religious order of canons regular of the Rule of Saint Augustine, said to have been founded in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, then the capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, ...
. To these years, the period of his greatest intellectual activity, belong many of his chief works.
In 1741 he was appointed prelate (i.e. general superintendent) at
Herbrechtingen, where he remained until 1749, when he was raised to the dignity of consistorial counsellor and prelate of
Alpirsbach
Alpirsbach () is a town in the district of Freudenstadt in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is situated in the Black Forest on the Kinzig river, south of Freudenstadt.
Because of the local brewery “Alpirsbacher Klosterbräu“, the monastery ...
, with a residence in
Stuttgart. He devoted himself to the discharge of his duties as a member of the
consistory
Consistory is the anglicized form of the consistorium, a council of the closest advisors of the Roman emperors. It can also refer to:
*A papal consistory, a formal meeting of the Sacred College of Cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church
* Consistor ...
. A question of considerable difficulty was at that time occupying the attention of the church courts: the manner in which those who separated themselves from the church were to be dealt with, and the amount of toleration which should be accorded to meetings held in private houses for the purpose of religious edification. The civil power (the Duke of Württemberg was a
Roman Catholic
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
* Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
* Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a let ...
) was disposed to have recourse to measures of repression, while the members of the consistory, recognizing the good effects of such meetings, were inclined to concede considerable liberty. Bengel exerted himself on the side of the members of the consistory. In 1751 the
University of Tübingen
The University of Tübingen, officially the Eberhard Karl University of Tübingen (german: Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen; la, Universitas Eberhardina Carolina), is a public research university located in the city of Tübingen, Baden-W ...
conferred upon him the degree of
Doctor of Divinity. He died in
Stuttgart, aged 65.
Bengel carried on an 18-year-long controversy with
Nicolaus Ludwig, Count von Zinzendorf, leader of the
Moravian Brethren
, image = AgnusDeiWindow.jpg
, imagewidth = 250px
, caption = Church emblem featuring the Agnus Dei.Stained glass at the Rights Chapel of Trinity Moravian Church, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, United States
, main_classification = Proto-Prot ...
from
Herrnhut in
Saxony
Saxony (german: Sachsen ; Upper Saxon: ''Saggsn''; hsb, Sakska), officially the Free State of Saxony (german: Freistaat Sachsen, links=no ; Upper Saxon: ''Freischdaad Saggsn''; hsb, Swobodny stat Sakska, links=no), is a landlocked state of ...
. This led to a break between the Moravian Brethren and the dour Pietism typical of Württemberg, represented by Bengel. With his determined certainty giving him systematic insight into the divine Plan of Salvation, Bengel dogmatically opposed the dynamic, ecumenical, missionary efforts of Zinzendorf, who was indifferent to all dogmatism and intolerance. As Bengel did not hesitate to manipulate historical calendars in his
chiliastic attempts to predict the end of the world, Zinzendorf rejected this as superstitious “interpretation of signs.”
His reputation as a Biblical scholar and critic rests chiefly on his edition of the Greek New Testament (1734) and his
exegetical
Exegesis ( ; from the Greek , from , "to lead out") is a critical explanation or interpretation of a text. The term is traditionally applied to the interpretation of Biblical works. In modern usage, exegesis can involve critical interpretation ...
annotations on the same, which have passed through many editions in Latin, German, and English and are still highly valued by expositors of the New Testament.
Greek New Testament
![Johann Albrecht Bengel (timbre RFA)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/DBP_1987_1324_Johann_Albrecht_Bengel.jpg)
Bengel's edition of the Greek New Testament was published at Tübingen in 1734, and at Stuttgart in the same year, but without the critical apparatus. As early as 1725, in an addition to his edition of ''Chrysostoms De Sacerdotio'', he had given an account in his ''Prodromus Novi Testamenti Graeci recte cauteque adornandi'' of the principles on which his intended edition was to be based. In preparation for his work, Bengel was able to avail himself of the collations of upwards of twenty manuscripts, none of them, however, of great importance, twelve of which had been collated by himself. In constituting the text, he imposed upon himself the singular restriction of not inserting any variant reading which had not already been printed in some preceding edition of the Greek text. From this rule, however, he deviated in the case of the
Apocalypse, where, owing to the corrupt state of the text, he felt himself at liberty to introduce certain readings on manuscript authority. In the lower margin of the page he inserted a selection of various readings, the relative importance of which he denoted by the first five letters of the Greek alphabet in the following manner: α was employed to denote the reading which in his judgment was the true one, although he did not venture to place it in the text; β, a reading better than that in the text; γ, one equal to the textual reading; and δ, readings inferior to those in the text.
Robert Estienne
The name Robert is an ancient Germanic given name, from Proto-Germanic "fame" and "bright" (''Hrōþiberhtaz''). Compare Old Dutch ''Robrecht'' and Old High German ''Hrodebert'' (a compound of '' Hruod'' ( non, Hróðr) "fame, glory, honou ...
's division into verses was retained in the inner margin, but the text was divided into paragraphs.
The text was followed by a critical apparatus, the first part of which consisted of an introduction to the criticism of the
New Testament
The New Testament grc, Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, transl. ; la, Novum Testamentum. (NT) is the second division of the Christian biblical canon. It discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Chri ...
, in the thirty-fourth section of which he laid down and explained his celebrated canon, ''
Proclivi scriptioni praestat ardua'' (The difficult reading is to be preferred to that which is easy), the soundness of which, as a general principle, has been recognized by succeeding critics. The second part of the critical apparatus was devoted to a consideration of the various readings, and here Bengel adopted the plan of stating the evidence both against and in favor of a particular reading, thus placing before the reader the materials for forming a judgment. Bengel was the first definitely to propound the theory of families or
recension Recension is the practice of editing or revising a text based on critical analysis. When referring to manuscripts, this may be a revision by another author. The term is derived from Latin ''recensio'' ("review, analysis").
In textual criticism (as ...
s of manuscripts.
His investigations had led him to see that a certain affinity or resemblance existed amongst many of the authorities for the Greek text manuscripts, versions, and ecclesiastical writers: for example, if a peculiar reading was found in one of these, it was generally also found in the other members of the same class; and this general relationship seemed to point ultimately to a common origin for all the authorities which presented such peculiarities. Although disposed at first to divide the various documents into three classes, he finally adopted a classification into two: the
Africa
Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...
n or older family of documents, and the Asiatic, or more recent class, to which he attached only a subordinate value. The theory was afterwards adopted by
J.S. Semler and
J.J. Griesbach, and worked up into an elaborate system by the latter critic.
Bengel's labors on the text of the Greek Testament were received with great disfavour in many quarters. Like
Brian Walton and
John Mill before him, he had to encounter the opposition of those who believed that the certainty of the word of God was endangered by the importance attached to the various readings.
JJ Wetstein, on the other hand, accused him of excessive caution in not making freer use of his critical materials. In answer to these strictures, Bengel published a ''Defence of the Greek Text of His New Testament'', which he prefixed to his ''Harmony of the Four Gospels'', published in 1736, and which contained an answer to the complaints, especially of Wetstein, which had been made against him.
The text of Bengel long enjoyed a high reputation among scholars, and has been frequently reprinted. An enlarged edition of the critical apparatus was published by Philip David Burk in 1763.
''Gnomon Novi Testamenti''
The other great work of Bengel, and that on which his reputation as an exegete is mainly based, is his ''Gnomon Novi Testamenti'', or ''Exegetical Annotations on the New Testament'', published in 1742. It was the fruit of twenty years labor, and exhibits with a brevity of expression, which, it has been said, condenses more matter into a line than can be extracted from pages of other writers, the results of his study. He modestly entitled his work a ''
Gnomon'' or index, his object being rather to guide the reader to ascertain the meaning for himself, than to save him from the trouble of personal investigation. The principles of interpretation on which he proceeded were, to import nothing into Scripture, but to draw out of it everything that it really contained, in conformity with grammatico-historical rules not to be hampered by dogmatical considerations; and not to be influenced by the symbolical books. Bengel's hope that the ''Gnomon'' would help to rekindle a fresh interest in the study of the New Testament was fully realized. It has passed through many editions, has been translated into
German
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany (of or related to)
** Germania (historical use)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law
**Ge ...
and into
English
English usually refers to:
* English language
* English people
English may also refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England
** English national ide ...
(by Charlton T. Lewis and
Marvin Vincent
Marvin Richardson Vincent (Poughkeepsie, New York, 11 September 1834 – Forest Hills, New York, 18 August 1922) was a Presbyterian minister, best known for his ''Word Studies in the New Testament''. From 1888, he was professor of New Testament exe ...
in 1860), and is still valued by expositors of the New Testament.
Methodist
Methodism, also called the Methodist movement, is a group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity whose origins, doctrine and practice derive from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and John's ...
founder
John Wesley made great use of it in compiling his ''Explanatory Notes upon the New Testament'' (1755), despite an initial inclination towards "consulting none but the inspired writers".
Besides the two works already described, Bengel was the editor or author of many others, classical, patristic, ecclesiastical and expository. The more important are: ''Ordo Temporum'', a treatise on the chronology of Scripture, in which he enters upon speculations regarding the end of the world, and an ''Exposition of the
Apocalypse'' which enjoyed for a time great popularity in Germany, and was translated into several languages. His fame was such that almost 200 years later,
Hermann Hesse
Hermann Karl Hesse (; 2 July 1877 – 9 August 1962) was a German-Swiss poet, novelist, and painter. His best-known works include ''Demian'', '' Steppenwolf'', '' Siddhartha'', and ''The Glass Bead Game'', each of which explores an individual's ...
has the hero of
The Glass Bead Game
''The Glass Bead Game'' (german: link=no, Das Glasperlenspiel, ) is the last full-length novel by the German author Hermann Hesse. It was begun in 1931 in Switzerland, where it was published in 1943 after being rejected for publication in German ...
discuss Bengel's writings.
Chiliastic views
Bengel’s meticulous study of the Bible led him to believe that dates and time periods were related, all the way through from Genesis to Revelation, bringing him to the conclusion that June 18, 1836 would witness the start of the Millennium, to include the fall of the Antichrist, which he believed to be the Roman Catholic Church, the conversion of the Jews, the reign of Christ for 1000 years as promised in Revelation 20, and the final judgement.
Bengel’s calculations regarding a date for the return of Christ and the end-times influenced not only his contemporary,
John Wesley, but also
Johann Heinrich Jung-Stilling, whose inclusion of Bengel’s date into his famous novel, Das Heimweh (Homesickness or Nostalgia) inspired many German Pietists at the time to emigrate towards the east, where they sought safety until Christ’s return. The great German theologian, inventor and astronomer,
Philipp Matthäus Hahn
Philipp Matthäus Hahn (25 November 1739 in Scharnhausen (today part of Ostfildern), Duchy of Württemberg – 2 May 1790 in Echterdingen (today part of Leinfelden-Echterdingen)) was a German pastor, astronomer and inventor.
In about 1763 he ...
,
739 - 1790constructed an astronomical clock inspired by Bengel’s eschatological calculations, and his granddaughter, Pauline Beate, was to marry Christoph Hoffmann, the founder of the Adventist group, the
German Templers
The German Templer Society emerged in Germany during the mid-nineteenth century, with its roots in the Pietist movement of the Lutheran Church, and in its history a legacy of preceding centuries during which various Christian groups undertook t ...
.
Bengel’s date for the
Second Coming
The Second Coming (sometimes called the Second Advent or the Parousia) is a Christian (as well as Islamic and Baha'i) belief that Jesus will return again after his ascension to heaven about two thousand years ago. The idea is based on messian ...
and the final judgement were largely unknown by the English speaking Adventists during the early 19th century, partly due to the fact that he wrote in Latin, which was translated into German, and partly overshadowed by the popular writings of
William Miller and his projected date of 1844.
Notes
References
*Oskar Wächter, ''J. A. Bengels Lebensabriss''
*
John C. F. Burk, ed., ''A memoir of the life and writings of John Albert Bengel'' (german: J. A. Bengels Leben und Wirken), translated into English by Rev. R. F. Walker (London, 1837 and 1842)
*
Herzog
''Herzog'' (female ''Herzogin'') is a German hereditary title held by one who rules a territorial duchy, exercises feudal authority over an estate called a duchy, or possesses a right by law or tradition to be referred to by the ducal title. ...
-Hauck, ''
Realencyklopädie''
*
E. Nestle, ''Bengel als Gelehrter'' (1893)
*
* Werner Raupp: "Bengel, Johann Albrecht", in: ''Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon'' (BBKL), vol. 22, Nordhausen: Bautz 2003 (), kol. 84–110 (with detailed bibliography).
* Werner Raupp: "Bengel, Johann Albrecht (1687–1752)", in: Heiner F. Klemme, Manfred Kuehn (Hrsg.), The Dictionary of Eighteenth-Century German Philosophers, vol. 1. London/New York 2010, p. 92–95.
External links
Gnomon Novi Testamenti Vol. 1.(English translation, covering Matthew and Mark.)
Gnomon Novi Testamenti Vol. 2.(English translation, covering Luke, John, and Acts.)
Gnomon Novi Testamenti Vol. 3.(English translation, covering Romans, I Corinthians, and II Corinthians.)
Gnomon Novi Testamenti Vol. 4.(English translation, covering Galatians through Hebrews.)
Gnomon Novi Testamenti Vol. 5.(English translation, covering the Catholic Epistles and Revelation.)
Novum Testamentum Graecum, 1734 (Greek text with Latin introduction)
Exposition of the Apocalypse(English translation)
A Memoir of the Life and Writings of John Albert Bengel(English translation)
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bengel, Johann Albrecht
1687 births
1752 deaths
18th-century apocalypticists
18th-century German Protestant theologians
18th-century German male writers
Biblical criticism
Doctors of Divinity
Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Württemberg
German biblical scholars
German Lutheran theologians
German male non-fiction writers
People from the Duchy of Württemberg
People from Winnenden
Textual scholarship
University of Tübingen alumni
Lutheran biblical scholars