A jester, court jester, fool or joker was a member of the household of a nobleman or a monarch employed to entertain guests during the medieval and Renaissance eras. Jesters were also itinerant performers who entertained common folk at fairs and town markets, and the discipline continues into the modern day, where jesters perform at historical-themed events. During the Middle Ages, jesters are often thought to have worn brightly colored clothes and eccentric hats in a

motley Motley is the traditional costume of the court jester, the motley fool, or the arlecchino character in ''commedia dell'arte''. The harlequin wears a patchwork of red, green and blue diamonds that is still a fashion motif. The word ''motley'' i ...

pattern. Their modern counterparts usually mimic this costume. Jesters entertained with a wide variety of skills: principal among them were song, music, and

storytelling Storytelling is the social and cultural activity of sharing stories, sometimes with improvisation, theatrics or embellishment. Every culture has its own stories or narratives, which are shared as a means of entertainment, education, cultural pre ...

, but many also employed

acrobatics Acrobatics () is the performance of human feats of balance, agility, and motor coordination. Acrobatic skills are used in performing arts, sporting events, and martial arts. Extensive use of acrobatic skills are most often performed in acro ...

, juggling, telling

joke A joke is a display of humour in which words are used within a specific and well-defined narrative structure to make people laugh and is usually not meant to be interpreted literally. It usually takes the form of a story, often with dialogue, ...

s (such as puns,

stereotype In social psychology, a stereotype is a generalized belief about a particular category of people. It is an expectation that people might have about every person of a particular group. The type of expectation can vary; it can be, for example ...

s, and imitation), and performing magic tricks. Much of the entertainment was performed in a comic style. Many jesters made contemporary jokes in word or song about people or events well known to their audiences.

Etymology

The modern use of the English word ''jester'' did not come into use until the mid-16th century, during Tudor times. This modern term derives from the older form ''gestour'', or ''jestour'', originally from Anglo-Norman (French) meaning 'storyteller' or ' minstrel'. Other earlier terms included ''fol'', ''disour'', ''buffoon'', and ''bourder''. These terms described entertainers who differed in their skills and performances but who all shared many similarities in their role as comedic performers for their audiences.

History

In ancient Rome, a similar tradition of professional jesters were called . Balatrones were paid for their jests, and the tables of the wealthy were generally open to them for the sake of the amusement they afforded. Other cultures such as the Aztecs and the Chinese employed cultural equivalents to the jester.

English royal court jesters

Many royal courts throughout English royal history employed entertainers and most had professional fools, sometimes called "licensed fools". Entertainment included music,

, and

physical comedy Physical comedy is a form of comedy Comedy is a genre of fiction that consists of discourses or works intended to be humorous or amusing by inducing laughter, especially in theatre, film, stand-up comedy, television, radio, books, or any ...

. Fool Societies, or groups of nomadic entertainers, were often hired to perform

and juggling. Jesters were also occasionally used as psychological warfare. Jesters would ride in front of their troops, provoke or mock the enemy, and even serve as messenger. They played an important part in raising their own army's spirits by singing songs and reciting stories. Henry VIII of England employed a jester named Will Sommers. His daughter Mary was entertained by Jane Foole. During the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I of England, William Shakespeare wrote his plays and performed with his theatre company the Lord Chamberlain's Men (later called the King's Men).

Clown A clown is a person who performs comedy and arts in a state of open-mindedness using physical comedy, typically while wearing distinct makeup or costuming and reversing folkway-norms. History The most ancient clowns have been found in ...

s and jesters were featured in Shakespeare's plays, and the company's expert on jesting was Robert Armin, author of the book ''Fooled upon Foole''. In Shakespeare's '' Twelfth Night'', Feste the jester is described as "wise enough to play the fool". In Scotland, Mary, Queen of Scots, had a jester called Nichola. Her son, King

James VI of Scotland James VI and I (James Charles Stuart; 19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625) was King of Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 until hi ...

, employed a jester called Archibald Armstrong. During his lifetime Armstrong was given great honors at court. He was eventually thrown out of the King's employment when he over-reached and insulted too many influential people. Even after his disgrace, books telling of his jests were sold in London streets. He held some influence at court still in the reign of Charles I and estates of land in Ireland. Anne of Denmark had a Scottish jester called

Tom Durie Tom Durie, Duri, Dury or Derry ( fl. 1600–1620) was a Scottish fool or entertainer to Anne of Denmark. Career Tom Durie appears on record at the Scottish court in May 1603, when he was bought clothes to accompany Anne of Denmark on her journey ...

. Charles I later employed a jester called Jeffrey Hudson who was very popular and loyal. Jeffrey Hudson had the title of "Royal Dwarf" because he was short of stature. One of his jests was to be presented hidden in a giant pie from which he would leap out. Hudson fought on the Royalist side in the English Civil War. A third jester associated with Charles I was called Muckle John.

Jester's privilege

Jester's privilege is the ability and right of a jester to talk and mock freely without being punished. As an acknowledgement of this right, the court jester had symbols denoting their status and protection under the law: the crown ( cap and bells) and scepter (

marotte A marotte is a prop stick or sceptre with a carved head on it. Jesters usually used a marotte. The word is borrowed from the French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French la ...

), mirroring the royal crown and scepter wielded by a monarch. Martin Luther used jest in many of his criticisms against the Catholic Church. In the introduction to his '' To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation'', he calls himself a court jester, and, later in the text, he explicitly invokes the jester's privilege when saying that monks should break their chastity vows.

Natural vs artificial fools

There are two major groups when it comes to defining fools: artificial fools and natural fools. Natural fools consisted of people who were deemed "mentally defective," or as having a "deficiency in his education, experience or innate capacity for understanding," and stood as someone for the rest of society to laugh at. This policy was not generally criticized during its time. Groups of people even saw this act as a positive one, as these "natural" comedians were not typically able to have a job or earn any sort of living on their own. The second group, artificial fools, is what most people in modern times imagine when they hear the word "jester": someone who comes up with witty and original jokes in order to entertain a royal court. The main difference between the two groups is that a natural fool's comedy is not done intentionally while an artificial fool's is.

Political significance

Scholar David Carlyon has cast doubt on the "daring political jester", calling historical tales "apocryphal", and concluding that "popular culture embraces a sentimental image of the clown; writers reproduce that sentimentality in the jester, and academics in the Trickster", but it "falters as analysis". Jesters could also give bad news to the King that no one else would dare deliver. In 1340, when the French fleet was destroyed at the Battle of Sluys by the English,

Phillippe VI Philip VI (french: Philippe; 1293 – 22 August 1350), called the Fortunate (french: le Fortuné, link=no) or the Catholic (french: le Catholique, link=no) and of Valois, was the first king of France from the House of Valois, reigning from 1328 ...

's jester told him the English sailors "don't even have the guts to jump into the water like our brave French".

End of tradition

After the Restoration, Charles II did not reinstate the tradition of the court jester, but he did greatly patronize the theatre and proto-

music hall Music hall is a type of British theatrical entertainment that was popular from the early Victorian era, beginning around 1850. It faded away after 1918 as the halls rebranded their entertainment as variety. Perceptions of a distinction in Bri ...

entertainments, especially favouring the work of Thomas Killigrew. Though Killigrew was not officially a jester,

Samuel Pepys Samuel Pepys (; 23 February 1633 – 26 May 1703) was an English diarist and naval administrator. He served as administrator of the Royal Navy and Member of Parliament and is most famous for the diary he kept for a decade. Pepys had no mariti ...

in his famous diary does call Killigrew "The King's fool and jester, with the power to mock and revile even the most prominent without penalty" (12 February 1668). The last British nobles to keep jesters were the Queen Mother's family, the Bowes-Lyons. In the 18th century, jesters had died out except in Russia, Spain, and Germany. In France and Italy, travelling groups of jesters performed plays featuring stylized characters in a form of theatre called the ''

commedia dell'arte (; ; ) was an early form of professional theatre, originating from Italian theatre, that was popular throughout Europe between the 16th and 18th centuries. It was formerly called Italian comedy in English and is also known as , , and . Charact ...

''. A version of this passed into British folk tradition in the form of a

puppet A puppet is an object, often resembling a human, animal or Legendary creature, mythical figure, that is animated or manipulated by a person called a puppeteer. The puppeteer uses movements of their hands, arms, or control devices such as rods ...

show, '' Punch and Judy''. In France the tradition of the court jester ended with the French Revolution. In the 21st century, the jester has been revived and can still be seen at medieval-style

fair A fair (archaic: faire or fayre) is a gathering of people for a variety of entertainment or commercial activities. Fairs are typically temporary with scheduled times lasting from an afternoon to several weeks. Types Variations of fairs incl ...

s and pageants. In 2015, the town of Conwy in North Wales appointed Russel Erwood (aka Erwyd le Fol) as the official resident jester of the town and its people, a post that had been vacant since 1295.

Other countries

Poland's most famous court jester was

Stańczyk Stańczyk (c. 1480–1560) () was a Polish court jester, the most famous in Polish history. He was employed by three Polish kings: Alexander, Sigismund the Old and Sigismund Augustus. Name, identity and historicity Scarcity of sources gave ...

, whose jokes were usually related to political matters, and who later became a historical symbol for Poles. In 2004 English Heritage appointed Nigel Roder ("Kester the Jester") as the State Jester for England, the first since Muckle John 355 years previously. However, following an objection by the National Guild of Jesters, English Heritage accepted they were not authorised to grant such a title. Roder was succeeded as "Heritage Jester" by Pete Cooper ("Peterkin the Fool"). In Germany, Till Eulenspiegel is a folkloric hero dating back to medieval times and ruling each year over Fasching or

Carnival Carnival is a Catholic Christian festive season that occurs before the liturgical season of Lent. The main events typically occur during February or early March, during the period historically known as Shrovetide (or Pre-Lent). Carnival typi ...

time, mocking politicians and public figures of power and authority with political satire like a modern-day court jester. He holds a mirror to make us aware of our times ( Zeitgeist), and his sceptre, his "bauble," or

, is the symbol of his power. In 17th century Spain, little people, often with deformities, were employed as buffoons to entertain the king and his family, especially the children. In Velázquez's painting Las Meninas two dwarfs are included:

Maria Bárbola Maria Bárbola, also known as ''Mari'', ''Mariabárbola'' and ''Mariabárbola Asquín'' (died after 1700), was a Spanish court official, foremost known from the famous painting ''Las Meninas''. She was from Austria and from 1651 onward employed a ...

, a female dwarf from Germany with hydrocephalus, and Nicolasito Portusato from Italy. Mari Bárbola can also be seen in a later portrait of princess Margarita Teresa in mourning by

Juan Bautista Martinez del Mazo ''Juan'' is a given name, the Spanish and Manx versions of ''John''. It is very common in Spain and in other Spanish-speaking communities around the world and in the Philippines, and also (pronounced differently) in the Isle of Man. In Spanish, t ...

. There are other paintings by Velázquez that include court dwarves such as

Prince Balthasar Charles With a Dwarf ''Prince Balthasar Charles With a Dwarf'' is a 1631 portrait by Diego Velázquez of Balthasar Charles, Prince of Asturias and a court dwarf. It is now in the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston Boston (), officially the City of Boston, is the ...

. During the Renaissance Papacy, the Papal court in Rome had a court jester, similar to the secular courts of the time. Pope Pius V dismissed the court Jester, and no later Pope employed one. In

Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...

from the 13th to 18th centuries, the '' taikomochi'', a kind of male geisha, attended the feudal lords ('' daimyōs''). They entertained mostly through dancing and storytelling, and were at times counted on for strategic advice. By the 16th century they fought alongside their lord in battle in addition to their other duties. Tonga was the first royal court to appoint a court jester in the 20th century; Taufa'ahau Tupou IV, the King of Tonga, appointed JD Bogdanoff to that role in 1999. Bogdanoff was later embroiled in a financial scandal.

As a symbol

The root of the word "fool" is from the Latin ''follis'', which means "bag of wind" or bellows or that which contains air or breath.

In Tarot

In Tarot, " The Fool" is a card of the Major Arcana. The tarot depiction of the Fool includes a man (or less often, a woman) holding a white rose in one hand and a small bundle of possessions in the other with a dog or cat at his heels. The fool is in the act of unknowingly walking off the edge of a cliff, precipice, or other high place. (Compare:

Joker (playing card) The Joker is a playing card found in most modern French-suited card decks, as an addition to the standard four suits (Clubs, Diamonds, Hearts, and Spades). From the second half of the 20th century, they have also been found in Spanish- and Itali ...

In literature

In literature, the jester is symbolic of common sense and of honesty, notably in '' King Lear'', where the court jester is a character used for insight and advice on the part of the monarch, taking advantage of his license to mock and speak freely to dispense frank observations and highlight the folly of his monarch. This presents a clashing irony as a greater man could dispense the same advice and find himself being detained in the dungeons or even executed. Only as the lowliest member of the court can the jester be the monarch's most useful adviser.

In Shakespeare

The Shakespearean fool is a recurring character type in the works of William Shakespeare. Shakespearean fools are usually clever peasants or commoners that use their wits to outdo people of higher social standing. In this sense, they are very similar to the real

fool Fool, The Fool, or Fools may refer to: *A jester, also called a ''fool'', a type of historical entertainer known for their witty jokes *An insult referring to someone of low intelligence or easy gullibility Arts, entertainment and media Fictio ...

s, and jesters of the time, but their characteristics are greatly heightened for theatrical effect. The "groundlings" (theatre-goers who were too poor to pay for seats and thus stood on the 'ground' in the front by the stage) that frequented the Globe Theatre were more likely to be drawn to these Shakespearean fools. However they were also favoured by the nobility. Most notably, Queen Elizabeth I was a great admirer of the popular actor who portrayed fools, Richard Tarlton. For Shakespeare himself, however, actor Robert Armin may have proved vital to the cultivation of the fool character in his many plays.

Modern usage

Buffoon

In a similar vein, a buffoon is someone who provides amusement through inappropriate appearance or behavior. Originally the term was used to describe a ridiculous but amusing person. The term is now frequently used in a derogatory sense to describe someone considered foolish, or someone displaying inappropriately vulgar, bumbling or ridiculous behavior which is a source of general amusement. The term originates from the old Italian "buffare", meaning to puff out one's cheeks that also applies to bouffon. Having swelled their cheeks they would slap them to expel the air and produce a noise which amused the spectators.

Carnival and medieval reenactment

Today, the jester is portrayed in different formats of medieval reenactment, Renaissance fairs, and entertainment, including

film A film also called a movie, motion picture, moving picture, picture, photoplay or (slang) flick is a work of visual art that simulates experiences and otherwise communicates ideas, stories, perceptions, feelings, beauty, or atmosphere ...

, stage performance, and

carnival Carnival is a Catholic Christian festive season that occurs before the liturgical season of Lent. The main events typically occur during February or early March, during the period historically known as Shrovetide (or Pre-Lent). Carnival typi ...

s. During the Burgundian and the

Rhenish The Rhineland (german: Rheinland; french: Rhénanie; nl, Rijnland; ksh, Rhingland; Latinised name: ''Rhenania'') is a loosely defined area of Western Germany along the Rhine, chiefly its middle section. Term Historically, the Rhinelands ...

, cabaret performances in local dialect are held. In Brabant this person is called a "tonpraoter" or "sauwelaar", and is actually in or on a barrel. In Limburg they are named "buuttereedner" or "buutteredner" and in Zeeland they are called an "ouwoer". They all perform a cabaret speech in dialect, during which many current issues are reviewed. Often there are local situations and celebrities from local and regional politics who are mocked, ridiculed and insulted. The "Tonpraoter" or "Buuttereedner" may be considered successors of the jesters.

Notable jesters

Historical

Tom le Fol Tom or TOM may refer to: * Tom (given name), a diminutive of Thomas or Tomás or an independent Aramaic given name (and a list of people with the name) Characters * Tom Anderson, a character in ''Beavis and Butt-Head'' * Tom Beck, a character ...

(c. 13th century), the 1st resident jester of Conwy, North Wales, and personal jester to

Edward I Edward I (17/18 June 1239 – 7 July 1307), also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England and Lord of Ireland from 1272 to 1307. Concurrently, he ruled the duchies of Aquitaine and Gascony as a vassal o ...

* Triboulet (1479–1536), court jester of Kings Louis XII and Francis I of France *

(c. 1480–1560), Polish jester * João de Sá Panasco ( fl. 1524–1567), African court jester of King

John III of Portugal John III ( pt, João III ; 7 June 1502 – 11 June 1557), nicknamed The Pious (Portuguese: ''o Piedoso''), was the King of Portugal and the Algarves from 1521 until his death in 1557. He was the son of King Manuel I and Maria of Aragon, the thi ...

, eventually elevated to gentleman courtier of the Royal Household and Knight of St. James * Jane Foole (c. 1543 - 1558), Court Jester of

Catherine Parr Catherine Parr (sometimes alternatively spelled Katherine, Katheryn, Kateryn, or Katharine; 1512 – 5 September 1548) was Queen of England and Ireland as the last of the six wives of King Henry VIII from their marriage on 12 July 1543 until ...

and

Mary I of England Mary I (18 February 1516 – 17 November 1558), also known as Mary Tudor, and as "Bloody Mary" by her Protestant opponents, was Queen of England and Ireland from July 1553 and Queen of Spain from January 1556 until her death in 1558. Sh ...

* Will Sommers (died 1560), court jester of King Henry VIII of England *

Chicot Chicot (c. 1540–1591), real name Jean-Antoine d'Anglerais, was the jester of King Henry III of France and later Henry IV. He was sharp-tongued and very cunning, and spoke with the king without formalities. Biography Chicot was born in Gascony i ...

(c. 1540–1591), court jester of King

Henry III of France Henry III (french: Henri III, né Alexandre Édouard; pl, Henryk Walezy; lt, Henrikas Valua; 19 September 1551 – 2 August 1589) was King of France from 1574 until his assassination in 1589, as well as King of Poland and Grand Duke of ...

Mathurine de Vallois Mathurine de Vallois, also known as Mathurine la Folle ('Mathurine the Fool') ( fl. 1589 – fl. 1627), was a French jester. She was the jester of the court of French kings Henry III, Henry IV and Louis XIII, successively. Mathurine is noted in t ...

(fl. 1589 - fl. 1627), court jester of

and Henry IV of France * Archibald Armstrong (died 1672), jester of King James I of England * Jeffrey Hudson (1619–c. 1682), "court dwarf" of Henrietta Maria of France * Jamie Fleeman (1713–1778), the Laird of Udny's Fool * Perkeo of Heidelberg, 18th century, jester of Prince Charles III Philip, Elector Palatine * Sebastian de Morra, (died 1649)

court dwarf Some of the first dwarfs to have their histories recorded were employed as court dwarfs. They were owned and traded amongst people of the court, and delivered as gifts to fellow kings and queens. Visual effect Court dwarfs were made to stand rig ...

and jester to King Philip IV of Spain * Don Diego de Acedo,

and jester to Philip IV of Spain * Roulandus le Fartere, a medieval flatulist who lived in twelfth-century England

Modern-day jesters

Jesse Bogdonoff Jesse Bogdonoff (born April 1, 1955) is a former Bank of America financial advisor to the government of Tonga and court jester of Taufa'ahau Tupou IV, the king of Tonga. He was embroiled in a financial scandal. Scandal Bogdonoff made headlines i ...

(b. 1955), court jester and financial advisor to King Taufa'ahau Tupou IV of Tonga * Russel Erwood (b. 1981), known as Erwyd le Fol, is the 2nd official resident jester of Conwy in North Wales replacing the jester of 1295

Gallery

John Dawson Watson - Friends in Council.jpg, John Dawson Watson - Friends in Council File:Hinric Hasenberger, the Court Jester (David Klöcker Ehrenstrahl) - Nationalmuseum - 18637.tif, Hinric Hasenberger, the Court Jester by David Klöcker Ehrenstrahl, 1652 File:Family of Henry VIII c 1545.jpg, "Family of Henry VIII with Will Sommers on the far right and probably Jane Foole on the far left File:WillSommers engraving 300dpi.jpg, 17th-century engraving of Will Sommers,

Henry VIII Henry VIII (28 June 149128 January 1547) was King of England from 22 April 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry is best known for his six marriages, and for his efforts to have his first marriage (to Catherine of Aragon) annulled. His disa ...

's jester File:Anthonis van Dyck 013.jpg, ''Queen Henrietta Maria with Sir Jeffrey Hudson'' by Van Dyck File:"The Court Jester" (4540421737).jpg, A court jester, carrying a

, selected for the

Pageant of Empire The Pageant of Empire was name given to various historical pageants celebrating the British Empire which were held in Britain during the early twentieth century. For example there was a small Pageant of Empire at the town of Builth Wells in 1909. I ...

in 1909 File:Jean Fouquet- Portrait of the Ferrara Court Jester Gonella.JPG, Portrait of the Ferrara Court Jester Gonella by Jean Fouquet 1445 File:Laughing Fool.jpg, Laughing jester, unknown Early Netherlandish artist (possibly Jacob Cornelisz van Oostsanen), circa 1500 File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Hofnar van de Soesoehoenan die meedanst in de 'Garebeg Moeloed' optocht Java TMnr 10003339.jpg, Susuhunan jester participating in the "Garebeg Moeloed" procession (circa 1920s), Java, Indonesia File:Jan Matejko, Stańczyk.jpg, ''

'', by

Jan Matejko Jan Alojzy Matejko (; also known as Jan Mateyko; 24 June 1838 – 1 November 1893) was a Poles, Polish painting, painter, a leading 19th-century exponent of history painting, known for depicting nodal events from Polish history. His works includ ...

.
The Polish jester is the only person at a 1514 royal ball troubled by the news that the Russians have captured Smolensk. File:VSAN Wgt 2015 476 Markdorf.jpg, Jester in

Weingarten Weingarten may refer to: Places * Weingarten, Württemberg, Germany ** Weingarten Abbey * Weingarten (Baden), Germany * Weingarten, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany * Weingarten, Thuringia, Germany * Weingarten, Switzerland * Weingarten, Missouri ...

, Germany, in 2015 File:Masquerade by Golovin - Jester with hunch (1917, Bakhrushin museum).jpg, Masquerade by Golovin - Jester with hunch (1917, Bakhrushin museum) File:Jester Balakirev.jpg, Portrait of the Jester Balakirev (1699-1763) File:The court jester of tabbyland.jpg, The Court Jester of Tabbyland File:Jester - Lancelot.JPG, Шут. Фрагмент миниатюры "Gaharié recevant le chapel" из "Романа о Ланселоте" (Français 112 (1), fol. 45), ок. 1470 File:Olina Ventsel (Jester-doll).jpg, Jester-doll made by Olina Ventsel (1938-2007) File:QueenOfTheJesters 284--with a crash upon the head of de Villefort.jpg, Illustration p. 284 from "Queen of the Jesters" aption: Brought it down with a Crash upon the Head of Henri de Villefort.Illustrator unknown; text by Max Pemberton. File:Venne Woman and a jester.jpg, Venne Woman and a jester File:Jester-Costume.jpg, Man dressed as a jester, with a fool's cap, motley and white tights. File:Letters from England, statue of a jester.jpg, Statue of a jester depicted in the book Letters from England by Karel Čapek File:Davidson The Court Jester.jpg, Oil on panel, signed with monogram, bears inscribed label for the Dundee Fine Art Exhibition, 1877, attached opt the reverse, 23.7x15.5 cm. File:El bufón, la mujer y el gato a la ventana (Jacob Jordaens).jpg, Private collection, oil on canvas. Jacob Jordaens (1641-1645). File:Jester Resting on a Chair by William Merritt Chase.jpg, Jester Resting on a chair by William Merritt Chase, 1875, the work is one of several trial poses William Merritt Chase painted as preparation for his Keying Up- The Court Jester File:"The Court Jester" (4540421737).jpg, P. B. Abery (1877?-1948) & Wallace Jones File:The Court Jester by John Watson Nicol.jpg, The Court Jester by John Watson Nicol, 1895, oil on canvas, 41 x 57 cm. (16.1 x 22.4 in.) File:Rahere Jester to Henry 1st.jpg, Rahere, Bouffon de Henry I et de la Reine Matilda, début 1100. File:Chase William Merrit jester.jpg, Chase William Merrit File:William Merritt Chase Keying up.jpg, ''"Keying Up" – The Court Jester'' by William Merritt Chase 1875. ( Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts.) File:Jester of Philip the Good.png, Caricature of a court jester of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in the 16th century Recueil d'Arras, a collection of portraits copied by Jacques de Boucq File:Burges as jester.jpg, William Burges, English architect File:Gonne-Jester.jpg, Self Portrait in a Jester's Costume File:Goya The jester Barbarossa velazquez.jpg, The Jester Barbarossa by Francisco Goya File:Royal Jester Stańczyk.jpg, Royal Jester Stańczyk File:Jester Knight Christoph by Hans Wertinger (1515, Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid).jpg, Jester Knight Christoph by Hans Wertinger (1515, Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid) File:Akram Mutlak Ménage À Trois Öl auf Leinwand 150x120 2015.jpg, Akram Mutlak Ménage À Trois Öl auf Leinwand File:Bouffon J2.jpg, Bouffon File:Court jester stockholm.jpg, A jester with

ass Ass most commonly refers to: * Buttocks (in informal American English) * Donkey or ass, ''Equus africanus asinus'' **any other member of the subgenus ''Asinus'' Ass or ASS may also refer to: Art and entertainment * ''Ass'' (album), 1973 albu ...

's ears

Footnotes

References

* Billington, Sandra ''A Social History of the Fool'', The Harvester Press, 1984. * Doran, Johnbr>''A History of Court Fools''
1858 * Hyers, M. Conrad, ''The Spirituality of Comedy: comic heroism in a tragic world'' 1996 Transaction Publishers * Otto, Beatrice K., "''Fools Are Everywhere: The Court Jester Around the World''," Chicago University Press, 2001 * Southworth, John, ''Fools and Jesters at the English Court'', Sutton Publishing, 1998. * Swain, Barbara. “Fools and Folly During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance” Columbia University Press, 1932. * Welsford, Enid: ''The Fool : His Social and Literary History'' (out of print) (1935 + subsequent reprints): * Janik, Vicki K. (ed.) (1998).
Fools and Jesters in Literature, Art, and History: A Bio-bibliographical Sourcebook
'. Greenwood Publishing Group, USA. .

External links

What 14th-16th century jesters wore and carried, as seen in illustrations and museum collections.
Costume (Jester Hat), ca. 1890-1920, in the Staten Island Historical Society Online Collection Database
{{Authority control Entertainment occupations Medieval performers Jungian archetypes