''Jubilate Agno'' (
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
: "Rejoice in the Lamb") is a religious poem by
Christopher Smart, and was written between 1759 and 1763, during Smart's
confinement for insanity in
St. Luke's Hospital,
Bethnal Green
Bethnal Green is an area in the East End of London northeast of Charing Cross. The area emerged from the small settlement which developed around the Green, much of which survives today as Bethnal Green Gardens, beside Cambridge Heath Road. By ...
,
London
London is the capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary dow ...
. The poem was first published in 1939, under the title ''Rejoice in the Lamb: A Song from Bedlam'', edited by
W. F. Stead
William Force Stead (29 August 1884 – 8 March 1967) was an American diplomat and poet. He became an Anglican clergyman, and chaplain of Worcester College, Oxford, from 1927 to 1930. He is best known for his editorial work on Christopher Sm ...
from Smart's manuscript, which Stead had discovered in a private library.
Background
A "Commission of Lunacy" was taken out against Christopher Smart, and he was admitted in
St. Luke's Hospital on May 6, 1757, as a "Curable Patient" by his wife Anna's stepfather John Newbery. It is possible that Smart was confined by Newbery over old debts and a poor relationship between the two. Regardless, there is evidence that an incident took place in St. James's Park in which he "routed all the company" (''Jubilate Agno'' B89) and this incident may have provoked his being locked away.
During this time, Smart was left alone, except for his cat Jeoffry and the occasional gawker. It is very possible that he felt "homeless" during this time and surely felt that he was in a "limbo… between public and private space". He had nothing else but to turn inwards and devote himself to God and his poetry. No specifics are known about Christopher Smart's day-to-day activities, and he was released from the asylum on January 30, 1763, but his poem was not to be published until 1939.
The manuscript
''Jubilate Agno'' is divided into four fragments labeled "A", "B", "C", and "D". The whole work consists of over 1,200 lines: all the lines in some sections begin with the word ''Let''; those in other sections begin with ''For''. Those in the series beginning with the word "Let", associated names of human beings, mainly biblical, with various natural objects; and those beginning with the word "For" are a series of aphoristic verses.
Editing the work in 1950, W. H. Bond stated that, "The poem was intended as a responsive reading; and that is why the ''Let'' and ''For'' sections
f the manuscriptare physically distinct while corresponding verse for verse. Smart's plan was to arrange the ''Let'' and ''For'' passages opposite one another antiphonally, following a practice of biblical Hebrew poetry, and that the present MS. represents less than half of Smart's original plan for the poem."
Although the original manuscript divided the "Let" and "For" verses onto opposing sides of the manuscript, Karina Williamson says that "Dr W. H. Bond then discovered that some of the LET and FOR folios were numbered and dated concurrently, and that these chronologically parallel texts were further connected by verbal links."
[''Prose Works'' I p. xxii] Reinforcing this view of a parallel between the two sides is the fact that Smart's influence Robert Lowth, and his ''Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews'', spends a large portion of his work exploring the "parallelism" found in "Hebrew verse". In Williamson's 1980 edition, she made an editorial decision and combined the "Let" and the "For" and then justified this combining the two sides to follow each other based on Bond's thinking.
Using Williamson's combining of the two halves as a model, Guest argues that the "For" verses explore religion with a "personal tone" and the "Let" are "unambiguous" and deal with public matters. Jeanne Walker goes further than Guest and reinforces Bond's argument that the "Let " and "For" sections are reminiscent of the Hebrew tradition when she states that the purpose of the poems, as with the Hebrew poems, is to "iterate both present and future simultaneously, that is, they redeem time."
In ''Jubilate Agno'', Smart describes his writing as creating "impressions". To accomplish this task, he incorporated puns and onomatopoeia in order to emphasize the theological significance of his poetic language. ''Jubilate Agno'' reflects an abandonment of traditional poetic structures in order to explore complex religious thought.
His "Let" verses join creation together as he seemingly writes his own version of Biblical poetry. Smart, in ''Jubilate Agno'', plays on words and the meaning behind words in order to participate with the divine that exists within language. This is most exemplified when the poet says, "For I pray the Lord Jesus to translate my MAGNIFICAT into verse and represent it" (B43), where the image of the
Magnificat
The Magnificat (Latin for " y soulmagnifies he Lord) is a canticle, also known as the Song of Mary, the Canticle of Mary and, in the Byzantine tradition, the Ode of the Theotokos (). It is traditionally incorporated into the liturgical servic ...
connects Smart to
Mary
Mary may refer to:
People
* Mary (name), a feminine given name (includes a list of people with the name)
Religious contexts
* New Testament people named Mary, overview article linking to many of those below
* Mary, mother of Jesus, also calle ...
and her praise of God before giving birth to Jesus, the future saviour.
[Curry p. 24]
Ark
"Fragment A" of ''Jubilate Agno'' begins by combining the
Patriarchs
The highest-ranking bishops in Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, the Catholic Church (above major archbishop and primate), the Hussite Church, Church of the East, and some Independent Catholic Churches are termed patriarchs (and in certa ...
with animals.
[Curry p. 21] The beginning lines of the poem state the function of this action when they read, "Let Noah and his company approach the throne of Grace, and do homage to the Ark of their Salvation" (A4). These two groups are combined in order to combine the images of "
Noah's Ark
Noah's Ark ( he, תיבת נח; Biblical Hebrew: ''Tevat Noaḥ'')The word "ark" in modern English comes from Old English ''aerca'', meaning a chest or box. (See Cresswell 2010, p.22) The Hebrew word for the vessel, ''teva'', occurs twice in ...
" and the "Ark of Salvation" in a manner that is similar to a "
baptismal service".
For many of the pairs there is a logical or symbolic consistency.
Figures, such as
Abraham
Abraham, ; ar, , , name=, group= (originally Abram) is the common Hebrew patriarch of the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In Judaism, he is the founding father of the special relationship between the Je ...
,
Balaam
Balaam (; , Standard ''Bīlʿam'' Tiberian ''Bīlʿām'') is a diviner in the Torah ( Pentateuch) whose story begins in Chapter 22 of the Book of Numbers (). Ancient references to Balaam consider him a non-Israelite, a prophet, and the son o ...
, and
Daniel are paired with animals mentioned directly in relationship with each other in their Biblical accounts, while others, like Isaac, are slightly more obscure and paired with animals that were involved in an important aspect of their life.
Biblical priests follow the Patriarchs, and their animal companions are the unclean animals from
Deuteronomy.
The pairing slowly breaks down when later figures, such as political leaders, enter into the poem.
[Curry p. 22] Along with this transformation of pairing come insects, legendary creatures, and finally seven birds at the end of the fragment.
The next section, "Fragment B" returns to the various animal pairs and, in a mixture of Old and New Testament figures, begins to rely on local animals or animals that pun off aspects of the figure's life.
One such example is a pun on Salmon and
Salome as a pair for
John the Baptist
John the Baptist or , , or , ;Wetterau, Bruce. ''World history''. New York: Henry Holt and Company. 1994. syc, ܝܘܿܚܲܢܵܢ ܡܲܥܡܕ݂ܵܢܵܐ, Yoḥanān Maʿmḏānā; he, יוחנן המטביל, Yohanān HaMatbil; la, Ioannes Bapti ...
.
This fish image is further expanded to play off the idea that the
Apostles were originally "fishermen" along with being "fishers of men".
These pairs continue until the poem turns to creatures from Pliny at B245.
The pairing stops at B295 when the "For" verses become the only type remaining in the fragment. However, the pairing is resumed in "Fragment C" when Biblical names from the
Book of Ezra
The Book of Ezra is a book of the Hebrew Bible; which formerly included the Book of Nehemiah in a single book, commonly distinguished in scholarship as Ezra–Nehemiah. The two became separated with the first printed rabbinic bibles of the ear ...
and the
Book of Nehemiah are combined with various plants and herbs. The last section, "Fragment D", relies on personal friends and those known by Smart to be paired with various stones, gems, minerals and a few herbs.
Science
The poem contains many references to the scientific works of
John Locke and
Isaac Newton
Sir Isaac Newton (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726/27) was an English mathematician, physicist, astronomer, alchemist, theologian, and author (described in his time as a " natural philosopher"), widely recognised as one of the grea ...
.
[Guest p. 132] However, some have claimed that Smart was uninvolved with science and did not care about scientific principles since, for example, he relies on mythical creatures such as the "
Leucrocuta" that come from pagan pseudo-scientific works like those of
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/2479), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic ' ...
. Moreover, ''Jubilate Agno'' criticizes contemporary scientific theories, saying "Newton is ignorant for if a man consult not the WORD how should he understand the WORK?"(B220), and establishes Smart's own original
natural philosophy
Natural philosophy or philosophy of nature (from Latin ''philosophia naturalis'') is the philosophical study of physics, that is, nature and the physical universe. It was dominant before the development of modern science.
From the ancient wo ...
, in which he emphasizes God's presence in the universe.
Smart seems to be fascinated by contemporary science, but he also aims to incorporate it into a theology, and in so doing to create what has been called a "new science". This "new science"
that Smart seems to express in his poetry rewrites
Newton's laws of motion
Newton's laws of motion are three basic laws of classical mechanics that describe the relationship between the motion of an object and the forces acting on it. These laws can be paraphrased as follows:
# A body remains at rest, or in moti ...
to include the divine (B159–B168):
:For the grosser the particles the nearer to the sink, and the nearer to purity, the quicker the gravitation.
:For MATTER is the dust of the Earth, every atom of which is the life.
:For MOTION is the quality of life direct, and that which hath not motion, is resistance.
:For Resistance is not of GOD, but he-hath built his works upon it.
:For the Centripetal and Centrifugal forces are GOD SUSTAINING and DIRECTING.
:For Elasticity is the temper of matter to recover its place with vehemence.
:For Attraction is the earning of parts, which have a similitude in the life.
:For the Life of God is in the Loadstone, and there is a magnet, which pointeth due EAST.
:For the Glory of God is always in the East, but cannot be seen for the cloud of the crucifixion.
:For due East is the way to Paradise, which man knoweth not by reason of his fall.
The problem with Newtonian physics according to Smart, Harriet Guest argues, is that "it is not based on the principles of revelation: it builds up general notions or theories from analyses of particular instances, rather than attempting to understand each instance through perceiving its relation to the whole revealed to faith." It is possible that Smart was influenced by
John Hutchinson, ''Moses Principia'' being his major work on the subject, and it is Hutchinson that inspired Smart to adjust or alter Newtonian science in this way, as it was (in his view) lacking a proper relationship with the divine. However, the poem's "new science" seems also to come to an abrupt stop at the end, "as though
mart
Mart may refer to:
* Mart, or marketplace, a location where people regularly gather for the purchase and sale of provisions, livestock, and other goods
* Mart (broadcaster), a local broadcasting station in Amsterdam
* Mart (given name)
* Mart ( ...
loses interest in it for a while."
Jeoffry
The poem is chiefly remembered today – especially among
cat
The cat (''Felis catus'') is a domestic species of small carnivorous mammal. It is the only domesticated species in the family Felidae and is commonly referred to as the domestic cat or house cat to distinguish it from the wild members of ...
lovers – for the 74-line section wherein Smart extols the many virtues and habits of his cat, Jeoffry. To this Neil Curry remarks, "They are lines that most people first meet outside the context of the poem as a whole, as they are probably the most anthologized 'extract' in our literature." Furthermore, Jeoffry himself is the "most famous cat in the whole history of English literature."
Smart is fond of his cat and praises his cat's relationship with God when he says (B695–B768):
:"For I will consider my Cat Jeoffry.
:For he is the servant of the Living God duly and daily serving him.
:For at the first glance of the glory of God in the East he worships in his Way.
:For this is done by wreathing his body seven times round with elegant quickness.
:For then he leaps up to catch the musk, which is the blessing of God upon his prayer
:...
:For when his day's work is done his business more properly begins.
:For he keeps the Lord's watch in the night against the adversary.
:For he counteracts the Devil, who is death, by brisking about the life
:For in his morning orisons he loves the sun and the sun loves him
:For he is of the Tribe of Tiger
:For the Cherub Cat is a term of the Angel Tiger
:For he has the subtlety and hissing of a serpent, which in goodness he suppresses.
:...
:For he is the cleanest in the use of his forepaws of any quadruped.
:For the dexterity of his defence is an instance of the love of God to him exceedingly.
:For he is the quickest to his mark of any creature.
:For he is tenacious of his point.
:For he is a mixture of gravity and waggery.
:For he knows that God is his Saviour.
:For there is nothing sweeter than his peace when at rest.
:For there is nothing brisker than his life when in motion
:...
:For God has blessed him in the variety of his movements.
:For, tho he cannot fly, he is an excellent clamberer.
:For his motions upon the face of the earth are more than any other quadrupede.
:For he can tread to all the measures upon the musick
:For he can swim for life.
:For he can creep."
His section of Jeoffry is just part of his larger desire to give a "voice" to nature, and Smart believes that nature, like his cat, is always praising God but needs a poet in order to bring out that voice. The themes of animals and language are thus merged in ''Jubilate Agno'', and Jeoffry is transformed into a manifestation of the ''
Ars Poetica'' tradition.
Critical interpretation
Many critics have focused on the unique language of ''Jubilate Agno''. Smart's constant emphasis on the force of poetry in the poem takes on the qualities of the ''Ars Poetica'' tradition. As such, Smart is attempting to develop a poetic language that will connect him to the "one true, eternal poem" of God. This poetic language connects Smart to
Orpheus
Orpheus (; Ancient Greek: Ὀρφεύς, classical pronunciation: ; french: Orphée) is a Thracian bard, legendary musician and prophet in ancient Greek religion. He was also a renowned poet and, according to the legend, travelled with J ...
and
David
David (; , "beloved one") (traditional spelling), , ''Dāwūd''; grc-koi, Δαυΐδ, Dauíd; la, Davidus, David; gez , ዳዊት, ''Dawit''; xcl, Դաւիթ, ''Dawitʿ''; cu, Давíдъ, ''Davidŭ''; possibly meaning "beloved one". w ...
, but also relates him to
Adam's "onomathetic" tradition, or the idea that names hold significant weight in the universe and that Adam was able to join in with creation by naming objects.
However, many critics have focused on the possible sexual images present in ''Jubilate Agno''. The image of "horns" in ''Jubilate Agno'' is commonly viewed as a sexual image. Easton puts particular emphasis on the image of horns as a phallic image and contends that there are masculine and feminine horns throughout Smart's poem. Hawes picks up this theme and goes on to say that the poem shows "that
mart
Mart may refer to:
* Mart, or marketplace, a location where people regularly gather for the purchase and sale of provisions, livestock, and other goods
* Mart (broadcaster), a local broadcasting station in Amsterdam
* Mart (given name)
* Mart ( ...
had been ‘feminized’ as a cuckold." In response to this possible cuckolding, ''Jubilate Agno'' predicts a misogynistic future while simultaneously undermining this effort with his constant associations to female creation.
''Jubilate Agno'' in music
The text of ''Jubilate Agno'' is the source for ''
Rejoice in the Lamb
''Rejoice in the Lamb'' ( Op. 30) is a cantata for four soloists, SATB choir and organ composed by Benjamin Britten in 1943 and uses text from the poem '' Jubilate Agno'' by Christopher Smart (1722–1771). The poem, written while Smart was in ...
'', a festival
cantata composed by
Benjamin Britten
Edward Benjamin Britten, Baron Britten (22 November 1913 – 4 December 1976, aged 63) was an English composer, conductor, and pianist. He was a central figure of 20th-century British music, with a range of works including opera, other ...
in 1943 for four soloists, a
soprano,
alto,
tenor
A tenor is a type of classical male singing voice whose vocal range lies between the countertenor and baritone voice types. It is the highest male chest voice type. The tenor's vocal range extends up to C5. The low extreme for tenors is wide ...
and
bass choir, and organ. The cantata was commissioned by the Reverend Canon
Walter Hussey for the celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the consecration of
St Matthew's Church, Northampton
St Matthew's Church, Northampton is a Church of England parish church in Northampton, within the Diocese of Peterborough.
The church is a Grade II* listed building. It was erected (1891–4) in memory of brewer and MP, Pickering Phipps, bes ...
.
Performances
On 27 December 2007, the London arts radio station
Resonance FM
Resonance 104.4 FM is a London based non-profit community radio station specialising in the arts run by the London Musicians' Collective (LMC). The station is staffed by four permanent staff members, including programme controller Ed Baxter and ...
broadcast the whole of ''Jubilate Agno''.
It was performed by
Frank Key and Germander Speedwell.
Notes
References
* Costa, Dennis. "Language in Smart's Jubilate Agno". ''Essays in Criticism: A Quarterly Journal of Literary Criticism'' 52, 4 (Oct. 2002): 295–313.
* Curry, Neil. ''Christopher Smart''. Devon: Northcote House Publishers, 2005. 128 pp.
* Guest, Harriet. ''A Form of Sound Words: The Religious Poetry of Christopher Smart''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989. 312 pp.
* Easton, Fraser. "Christopher Smart's Cross-Dressing: Mimicry, Depropriation, and Jubilate Agno". ''Genre: Forms of Discourse and Culture'' 31, 3–4 (Fall–Winter 1998): 193–243.
* Ennis, Daniel J. "Christopher Smart's Cat Revisited: Jubilate Agno and the Ars Poetica Tradition". ''
South Atlantic Review'' 65.1 (2000): 1–23.
* Hawes, Clement. "Smart's Bawdy Politic: Masculinity and the Second Age of Horn in Jubilate Agno." ''Criticism: A Quarterly for Literature and the Arts'' 37, 3 (Summer 1995): 413–42.
* Liu, Alan. "Christopher Smart's 'Uncommunicated Letters': Translation and the Ethics of Literary History". ''Boundary 2: An International Journal of Literature and Culture'' 14, 1–2 (Fall–Winter 1985–1986): 115–46.
* Mounsey, Chris. ''Christopher Smart: Clown of God''. Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 2001. 342 pp.
* Sherbo, Arthur. ''Christopher Smart: Scholar of the University''. Michigan State University Press, 1967. 303 pp.
* Smart, Christopher. ''The Poetical Works of Christopher Smart, I: Jubilate Agno''. Ed. Karina Williamson. Oxford: Clarendon, 1980. 143 pp.
* Tillotson, G. and Fussel, P., ''Eighteenth Century English Literature'', 1969, Harcourt Brace & World.
External links
Autograph manuscript of Jubilate Agnoat
Houghton Library
Houghton Library, on the south side of Harvard Yard adjacent to Widener Library, is Harvard University's primary repository for rare books and manuscripts. It is part of the Harvard College Library, the library system of Harvard's Faculty of ...
Complete textText of "For I will consider my Cat Jeoffry." from ''Jubilate Agno''*
{{Christopher Smart
1939 poems
British poems
Christian poetry
Poems published posthumously
Poetry by Christopher Smart