Jane Jacobs (''née'' Butzner; 4 May 1916 – 25 April 2006) was an
American-Canadian journalist, author, theorist, and activist who influenced
urban studies, sociology, and economics. Her book ''
The Death and Life of Great American Cities'' (1961) argued that "
urban renewal" and "
slum clearance" did not respect the needs of city-dwellers.
Jacobs organized
grassroots efforts to protect neighborhoods from urban renewal and slum clearance – in particular plans by
Robert Moses to overhaul her own
Greenwich Village
Greenwich Village ( , , ) is a neighborhood on the west side of Lower Manhattan in New York City, bounded by 14th Street to the north, Broadway to the east, Houston Street to the south, and the Hudson River to the west. Greenwich Village ...
neighborhood. She was instrumental in the eventual cancellation of the
Lower Manhattan Expressway, which would have passed directly through an area of Manhattan that later became known as
SoHo, as well as part of
Little Italy
Little Italy is a general name for an ethnic enclave populated primarily by Italians or people of Italian ancestry, usually in an urban neighborhood. The concept of "Little Italy" holds many different aspects of the Italian culture. There are ...
and
Chinatown. She was arrested in 1968 for inciting a crowd at a public hearing on that project. After moving to Toronto in 1968, she joined the opposition to the
Spadina Expressway and the associated
network of expressways in Toronto that were planned and under construction.
As a woman and a writer who criticized experts in the male-dominated field of
urban planning
Urban planning, also known as town planning, city planning, regional planning, or rural planning, is a technical and political process that is focused on the development and design of land use and the built environment, including air, water, ...
, Jacobs endured scorn from established figures. Routinely, she was described first as a housewife, as she did not have a
college degree or any formal training in urban planning; as a result, her lack of credentials was seized upon as grounds for criticism. However, the influence of her concepts eventually was acknowledged by highly respected professionals such as
Richard Florida
Richard L. Florida is an American urban studies theorist focusing on social and economic theory. He is a professor at the Rotman School of Management at the University of Toronto and a Distinguished Fellow at NYU's School of Professional Studies. ...
and
Robert Lucas.
Early years
Jacobs was born Jane Isabel Butzner in
Scranton, Pennsylvania
Scranton is a city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, United States, and the county seat of Lackawanna County. With a population of 76,328 as of the 2020 U.S. census, Scranton is the largest city in Northeastern Pennsylvania, the Wyoming V ...
, the daughter of Bess Robison Butzner, a former teacher and nurse and John Decker Butzner, a physician. They were a Protestant family in a heavily Roman Catholic town. Her brother,
John Decker Butzner, Jr., served as a judge on the
United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit
The United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit (in case citations, 4th Cir.) is a federal court located in Richmond, Virginia, with appellate jurisdiction over the district courts in the following districts:
* District of Maryland ...
. After graduation from
Scranton High School, she worked for a year as the unpaid assistant to the
women's page
The women's page (sometimes called home page or women's section) of a newspaper was a section devoted to covering news assumed to be of interest to women. Women's pages started out in the 19th century as society pages and eventually morphed into ...
editor at the ''
Scranton Tribune''.
New York City
In 1935, during the
Great Depression, she moved to New York City with her sister Betty. Jane Butzner took an immediate liking to Manhattan's
Greenwich Village
Greenwich Village ( , , ) is a neighborhood on the west side of Lower Manhattan in New York City, bounded by 14th Street to the north, Broadway to the east, Houston Street to the south, and the Hudson River to the west. Greenwich Village ...
, which deviated some from the city's
grid structure. The sisters soon moved there from Brooklyn.
During her early years in Manhattan, Jacobs held a variety of jobs working as a
stenographer and
freelance writer, writing about working districts in the city. These experiences, she later said, "gave me more of a notion of what was going on in the city and what business was like, what work was like." Her first job was for a trade magazine, as a secretary, then an editor. She sold articles to the ''Sunday Herald Tribune'', ''Cue'' magazine, and ''
Vogue''.
She studied at
Columbia University
Columbia University (also known as Columbia, and officially as Columbia University in the City of New York) is a private research university in New York City. Established in 1754 as King's College on the grounds of Trinity Church in Manhatt ...
's
School of General Studies
The School of General Studies, Columbia University (GS) is a liberal arts college and one of the undergraduate colleges of Columbia University, situated on the university's main campus in Morningside Heights, New York City. GS is known primarily ...
for two years, taking courses in geology,
zoology
Zoology ()The pronunciation of zoology as is usually regarded as nonstandard, though it is not uncommon. is the branch of biology that studies the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and ...
, law,
political science, and economics. About the freedom to pursue study across her wide-ranging interests, she said:
For the first time I liked school and for the first time I made good marks. This was almost my undoing because after I had garnered, statistically, a certain number of credits I became the property of Barnard College at Columbia, and once I was the property of Barnard I had to take, it seemed, what Barnard wanted me to take, not what I wanted to learn. Fortunately my high-school marks had been so bad that Barnard decided I could not belong to it and I was therefore allowed to continue getting an education.
Career
After attending Columbia University's School of General Studies for two years, Butzner found a job at ''Iron Age'' magazine. Her 1943 article on economic decline in Scranton was well publicized and led the
Murray Corporation of America Murray Corporation of America run from 1600 Clay Street, Detroit Michigan was, from 1925 until 1939, a major supplier of complete automobile bodies to the Ford Motor Company. Non-automotive stamped steel products were added during the great depre ...
to locate a warplane factory there. Encouraged by this success, Butzner petitioned the
War Production Board to support more operations in Scranton. Experiencing job discrimination at ''Iron Age'', she also advocated for
equal pay for women
Equal pay for equal work is the concept of labour rights that individuals in the same workplace be given equal pay. It is most commonly used in the context of sexual discrimination, in relation to the gender pay gap. Equal pay relates to the ful ...
and for the right of workers to unionize.
''Amerika''
She became a feature writer for the
Office of War Information
The United States Office of War Information (OWI) was a United States government agency created during World War II. The OWI operated from June 1942 until September 1945. Through radio broadcasts, newspapers, posters, photographs, films and other ...
and then a reporter for ''
Amerika'', a publication of the
U.S. State Department in the Russian language. While working there she met Robert Hyde Jacobs Jr., a Columbia-educated architect who was designing warplanes for
Grumman
The Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation, later Grumman Aerospace Corporation, was a 20th century American producer of military and civilian aircraft. Founded on December 6, 1929, by Leroy Grumman and his business partners, it merged in 1994 ...
. They married in 1944. Together they had a daughter, Burgin, and two sons, James and Ned. They bought a three-story building at 555
Hudson Street. Jane continued to write for ''Amerika'' after the war, while Robert left Grumman and resumed work as an architect.
The Jacobses rejected the rapidly growing
suburbs as "parasitic", choosing to remain in Greenwich Village. They renovated their house, in the middle of a mixed residential and commercial area, and created a garden in the backyard.
Working for the State Department during the
McCarthy era, Jacobs received a questionnaire about her political beliefs and loyalties. Jacobs was anti-communist and had left the
Federal Workers Union because of its apparent communist sympathies. Nevertheless, she was pro-union and purportedly appreciated the writing of
Saul Alinsky
Saul David Alinsky (January 30, 1909 – June 12, 1972) was an American community activist and political theorist. His work through the Chicago-based Industrial Areas Foundation helping poor communities organize to press demands upon landlords ...
; therefore she was under suspicion. On 25 March 1952, Jacobs delivered her response to Conrad E. Snow, chairman of the Loyalty Security Board at the
United States Department of State
The United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an United States federal executive departments, executive department of the Federal government of the United States, U.S. federal government responsible for the country's fore ...
. In her foreword to her answer, she said:
The other threat to the security of our tradition, I believe, lies at home. It is the current fear of radical ideas and of people who propound them. I do not agree with the extremists of either the left or the right, but I think they should be allowed to speak and to publish, both because they themselves have, and ought to have, rights, and once their rights are gone, the rights of the rest of us are hardly safe...
''Architectural Forum''
Jacobs left ''Amerika'' in 1952 when it announced its relocation to Washington, D.C.
She then found a well-paying job at ''
Architectural Forum
''Architectural Forum'' was an American magazine that covered the homebuilding industry and architecture. Started in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1892 as ''The Brickbuilder'', it absorbed the magazine ''Architect's World'' in October 1938. Ownership ...
'', published by
Henry Luce of
Time Inc.
Time Inc. was an American worldwide mass media corporation founded on November 28, 1922, by Henry Luce and Briton Hadden and based in New York City. It owned and published over 100 magazine brands, including its namesake ''Time'', ''Sports Illu ...
She was hired as an associate editor. After early success in that position, Jacobs began to take assignments on urban planning and "
urban blight". In 1954, she was assigned to cover a development in Philadelphia designed by
Edmund Bacon. Although her editors expected a positive story, Jacobs criticized Bacon's project, reacting against its lack of concern for the poor African Americans who were directly affected. When Bacon showed Jacobs examples of undeveloped and developed blocks, she determined that "development" seemed to end community life on the street. When Jacobs returned to the offices of ''Architectural Forum'', she began to question the 1950s consensus on urban planning.
In 1955, Jacobs met William Kirk, an Episcopal minister who worked in
East Harlem. Kirk came to the ''Architectural Forum'' offices to describe the impact that "revitalization" had on East Harlem, and he introduced Jacobs to the neighborhood.
In 1956, while standing in for
Douglas Haskell
Douglas Putnam Haskell (1899 – August 11, 1979) was an American writer, architecture critic and magazine editor. Today he is widely known for his coinage of the term Googie architecture in a 1952 article in ''House and Home'' magazine.
Biography ...
of ''Architectural Forum'', Jacobs delivered a lecture at Harvard University.
She addressed leading architects, urban planners, and intellectuals (including
Lewis Mumford), speaking on the topic of East Harlem. She urged this audience to "respect – in the deepest sense – strips of chaos that have a weird wisdom of their own not yet encompassed in our concept of urban order." Contrary to her expectations, the talk was received with enthusiasm, but it also marked her as a threat to established urban planners, real estate owners, and developers. ''Architectural Forum'' printed the speech that year, along with photographs of East Harlem.
Rockefeller Foundation and ''Death and Life of Great American Cities''
After reading her Harvard speech,
William H. Whyte invited Jacobs to write an article for ''
Fortune magazine''. The resulting piece, "Downtown Is for People", appeared in a 1958 issue of ''Fortune'', and marked her first public criticism of
Robert Moses. Her criticism of the
Lincoln Center was not popular with supporters of urban renewal at ''Architectural Forum'' and ''Fortune''.
C.D. Jackson, the publisher of ''Fortune'', was outraged and over the telephone, demanded of Whyte: "Who is this crazy dame?"
![DeathAndLife](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/DeathAndLife.JPG)
The ''Fortune'' article brought Jacobs to the attention of Chadbourne Gilpatric, then associate director of the Humanities Division at the
Rockefeller Foundation.
The foundation had moved aggressively into urban topics, with a recent award to the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) is a private land-grant research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Established in 1861, MIT has played a key role in the development of modern technology and science, and is one of the ...
for studies of urban aesthetics that would culminate in the publication of
Kevin A. Lynch's ''Image of the City''.
In May 1958, Gilpatric invited Jacobs to begin serving as a reviewer for grant proposals.
Later that year, the
Rockefeller Foundation awarded a grant to Jacobs to produce a critical study of city planning and urban life in the U.S. (From the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s, the foundation's Humanities Division sponsored an "Urban Design Studies" research program, of which Jacobs was the best known grantee.)
Gilpatric encouraged Jacobs to "explor
the field of
urban design to look for ideas and actions which may improve thinking on how the design of cities might better serve urban life, including cultural and humane value."
Affiliating with
The New School
The New School is a private research university in New York City. It was founded in 1919 as The New School for Social Research with an original mission dedicated to academic freedom and intellectual inquiry and a home for progressive thinkers. ...
(then called The New School for Social Research), she spent three years conducting research and writing drafts. In 1961, Random House published the result: ''
The Death and Life of Great American Cities''.
''The Death and Life of Great American Cities'' remains one of the most influential books in the history of American city planning. She coined the terms "
social capital", "mixed primary uses", and "eyes on the street", which were adopted professionally in urban design, sociology, and many other fields. Jacobs painted a devastating picture of the profession of city planning, labeling it a
pseudoscience. This angered the male-dominated urban planning profession. Jacobs was criticized with
ad hominem attacks, being called a "militant dame" and a "housewife": an amateur who had no right to interfere with an established discipline. One planner dismissed Jacobs's book as "bitter coffee-house rambling". Robert Moses, sent a copy, called it "intemperate and also libelous... Sell this junk to someone else."
Later, her book was criticized from the left for leaving out race and openly endorsing
gentrification
Gentrification is the process of changing the character of a neighborhood through the influx of more affluent residents and businesses. It is a common and controversial topic in urban politics and planning. Gentrification often increases the ec ...
, which Jacobs referred to as "unslumming".
In 1962, she resigned her position at ''Architectural Forum'' to become a full-time author and concentrate on raising her children. In other political activities she became an
opponent of the Vietnam War,
marched on the Pentagon in October 1967, and criticized the construction of the
World Trade Center as a disaster for Manhattan's waterfront.
Struggle for Greenwich Village
During the 1950s and 1960s, her home neighborhood of
Greenwich Village
Greenwich Village ( , , ) is a neighborhood on the west side of Lower Manhattan in New York City, bounded by 14th Street to the north, Broadway to the east, Houston Street to the south, and the Hudson River to the west. Greenwich Village ...
was being transformed by city and state efforts to build housing (see, for example, Jacobs's 1961 fight to build the
West Village Houses in lieu of large apartment houses), private developers, the expansion of
New York University
New York University (NYU) is a private research university in New York City. Chartered in 1831 by the New York State Legislature, NYU was founded by a group of New Yorkers led by then- Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin.
In 1832, th ...
, and by the
urban renewal plans of
Robert Moses. Moses' plan, funded as "slum clearance" by Title I of the
Housing Act of 1949
The American Housing Act of 1949 () was a landmark, sweeping expansion of the federal role in mortgage insurance and issuance and the construction of public housing. It was part of President Harry Truman's program of domestic legislation, the Fai ...
, also called for several blocks to be razed and replaced with upscale high-rises. The plan forced 132 families out of their homes and displaced 1,000 small businessesthe result was
Washington Square Village.
![Washington Square Park 02](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Washington_Square_Park_02.jpg)
As part of his efforts to revitalize the area, Moses had proposed the extension of Fifth Avenue through Washington Square Park in 1935. In the face of community opposition, Moses had shelved the project, but revived the idea in the 1950s. Moses argued that the Fifth Avenue extension would improve the flow of traffic through the neighborhood and provide access to the planned
Lower Manhattan Expressway (LOMEX), which would connect the
Manhattan Bridge and
Williamsburg Bridge
The Williamsburg Bridge is a suspension bridge in New York City across the East River connecting the Lower East Side of Manhattan at Delancey Street with the Williamsburg neighborhood of Brooklyn at Broadway near the Brooklyn-Queens Expressw ...
with the
Holland Tunnel
The Holland Tunnel is a vehicular tunnel under the Hudson River that connects the New York City neighborhood of Hudson Square in Lower Manhattan to the east with Jersey City in New Jersey to the west. The tunnel is operated by the Port Author ...
.
In response, local activist Shirley Hayes created the "Committee to Save Washington Square Park", a coalition of dozens of local neighborhood groups that opposed the roadway extension.
Raymond S. Rubinow eventually took over the organization, changing its name to the "Joint Emergency Committee to Close Washington Square to Traffic". Jacobs had joined the committee under Hayes, but she took a more prominent role under Rubinow, reaching out to media outlets such as ''
The Village Voice
''The Village Voice'' is an American news and culture paper, known for being the country's first alternative newspaper, alternative newsweekly. Founded in 1955 by Dan Wolf (publisher), Dan Wolf, Ed Fancher, John Wilcock, and Norman Mailer, th ...
'', which provided more sympathetic coverage than ''
The New York Times
''The New York Times'' (''the Times'', ''NYT'', or the Gray Lady) is a daily newspaper based in New York City with a worldwide readership reported in 2020 to comprise a declining 840,000 paid print subscribers, and a growing 6 million paid d ...
''. The committee gained the support of
Margaret Mead,
Eleanor Roosevelt
Anna Eleanor Roosevelt () (October 11, 1884November 7, 1962) was an American political figure, diplomat, and activist. She was the first lady of the United States from 1933 to 1945, during her husband President Franklin D. Roosevelt's four ...
,
Lewis Mumford,
Charles Abrams, and
William H. Whyte, as well as
Carmine De Sapio
Carmine Gerard DeSapio (December 10, 1908 – July 27, 2004) was an American politician from New York City. He was the last head of the Tammany Hall political machine to dominate municipal politics.
Early life and career
DeSapio was born in ...
, a Greenwich Village resident and influential Democratic leader. De Sapio's involvement proved decisive. On 25 June 1958, the city closed Washington Square Park to traffic, and the joint committee held a ribbon tying (not cutting) ceremony.
Plans for LOMEX expressway continued despite growing community opposition in areas such as Little Italy. In the 1960s, Jacobs chaired the
Joint Committee to Stop the Lower Manhattan Expressway. ''The New York Times'' was sympathetic to Moses, while ''The Village Voice'' covered community rallies and advocated against the expressway. Jacobs continued to fight the expressway when plans resurfaced in 1962, 1965, and 1968, and she became a local hero for her opposition to the project. She was arrested by a plainclothes police officer on April 10, 1968, at a public hearing during which the crowd had charged the stage and destroyed the stenographer's notes. She was accused of inciting a riot, criminal mischief, and obstructing public administration. After months of trials conducted in New York City (to which Jacobs commuted from Toronto), her charge was reduced to disorderly conduct.
''
New York: A Documentary Film'' devoted an hour of the eight-part, seventeen-and-a-half-hour series to the battle between Moses and Jacobs.
Robert Caro
Robert Allan Caro (born October 30, 1935) is an American journalist and author known for his biographies of United States political figures Robert Moses and Lyndon B. Johnson.
After working for many years as a reporter, Caro wrote '' The Power ...
's biography of Moses, ''
The Power Broker'', gives only passing mention to this event, however, despite Jacobs's strong influence on Caro. In 2017, Caro told an interviewer about the difficulty in cutting more than 300,000 words from his initial manuscript: "The section that I wrote on Jane Jacobs disappeared. To this day, when someone says: 'There's hardly a mention of Jane Jacobs,' I think, 'But I wrote a lot about her.' Every time I'm asked about that, I have this sick feeling."
Life in Toronto
![Jane Jacobs home Toronto](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Jane_Jacobs_home_Toronto.jpg)
Soon after her arrest in 1968, Jacobs moved to
Toronto
Toronto ( ; or ) is the capital city of the Canadian province of Ontario. With a recorded population of 2,794,356 in 2021, it is the most populous city in Canada and the fourth most populous city in North America. The city is the anch ...
, eventually settling at 69 Albany Avenue in
The Annex
The Annex is a neighbourhood in Downtown Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The traditional boundaries of the neighbourhood are north to Dupont Street, south to Bloor Street, west to Bathurst Street and east to Avenue Road. The City of Toronto recognizes ...
from 1971 until her death in 2006. She decided to leave the U.S. in part because she opposed the
Vietnam War
The Vietnam War (also known by other names) was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam a ...
, she worried about the fate of her two
draft
Draft, The Draft, or Draught may refer to:
Watercraft dimensions
* Draft (hull), the distance from waterline to keel of a vessel
* Draft (sail), degree of curvature in a sail
* Air draft, distance from waterline to the highest point on a vesse ...
-age sons, and she did not want to continue fighting the New York City government. She and her husband chose Toronto because it was pleasant and offered employment opportunities, and they moved to an area of Toronto that included so many Americans avoiding the draft that it was called the "American ghetto".
She quickly became a leading figure in her new city and helped stop the proposed
Spadina Expressway. A frequent theme of her work was to ask whether cities were being built for people or for cars. She was arrested twice during demonstrations. She also had considerable influence on the regeneration of the
St. Lawrence
Saint Lawrence or Laurence ( la, Laurentius, lit. " laurelled"; 31 December AD 225 – 10 August 258) was one of the seven deacons of the city of Rome under Pope Sixtus II who were martyred in the persecution of the Christians that the Roma ...
neighborhood, a
housing project regarded as a major success. She became a Canadian citizen in 1974 and later, she told writer
James Howard Kunstler
James Howard Kunstler (born October 19, 1948) is an American author, social critic, public speaker, and blogger. He is best known for his books ''The Geography of Nowhere'' (1994), a history of American suburbia and urban development, ''The Long ...
that dual citizenship was not possible at the time, implying that her U.S. citizenship was lost.
In 1980, she offered a more urban perspective on
Quebec
Quebec ( ; )According to the Canadian government, ''Québec'' (with the acute accent) is the official name in Canadian French and ''Quebec'' (without the accent) is the province's official name in Canadian English is one of the thirtee ...
's sovereignty in her book, ''The Question of Separatism: Quebec and the Struggle over Separation''. Jacobs was an advocate of a
Province of Toronto
The Province of Toronto is an urban secession proposal to split the city of Toronto and some or all of the Greater Toronto Area (GTA) from the province of Ontario into a new Canadian province. Secession of Toronto, the surrounding region, or ...
to separate the city proper from
Ontario
Ontario ( ; ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada.Ontario is located in the geographic eastern half of Canada, but it has historically and politically been considered to be part of Central Canada. Located in Central C ...
. Jacobs said, "Cities, to thrive in the twenty-first century, must separate themselves politically from their surrounding areas."
She was selected to be an officer of the
Order of Canada
The Order of Canada (french: Ordre du Canada; abbreviated as OC) is a Canadian state order and the second-highest honour for merit in the system of orders, decorations, and medals of Canada, after the Order of Merit.
To coincide with the cen ...
in 1996 for her seminal writings and thought-provoking commentaries on
urban development. The community and urban sociology section of the
American Sociological Association awarded her its Outstanding Lifetime Contribution award in 2002. In 1997, the city government of Toronto sponsored a conference entitled, "Jane Jacobs: Ideas That Matter", which led to a book by the same name. At the end of the conference, the Jane Jacobs Prize was created. It includes an annual stipend of $5,000 for three years to be given to "celebrate Toronto's original, unsung heroes – by seeking out citizens who are engaged in activities that contribute to the city's vitality".
![Jane Jacobs and SBB](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Jane_Jacobs_and_SBB.jpg)
Jacobs never shied away from expressing her political support for specific candidates. She opposed the 1997 amalgamation of the cities of
Metro Toronto
The Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto was an upper-tier level of municipal government in Ontario, Canada, from 1953 to 1998. It was made up of the old city of Toronto and numerous townships, towns and villages that surrounded Toronto, whic ...
, fearing that individual neighborhoods would have less power with the new structure. She backed an ecologist,
Tooker Gomberg, who lost
Toronto's 2000 mayoralty race, and she was an adviser to
David Miller's successful
mayoral campaign in 2003, at a time when he was seen as a
longshot. During the mayoral campaign, Jacobs helped lobby against the construction of a bridge to join the city waterfront to
Toronto City Centre Airport (TCCA). Following the election, the Toronto city council's earlier decision to approve the bridge was reversed and bridge construction project was stopped. TCCA did upgrade the ferry service and the airport was still in operation as of 2019. In lieu of the bridge, a pedestrian tunnel broke ground in March 2012. The tunnel opened on 30 July 2015.
Jacobs also was active in a campaign against a plan of
Royal St. George's College (an established school very close to the Jacobs residence in Toronto's Annex district) to reconfigure its facilities. Jacobs suggested not only that the redesign be stopped but that the school be forced from the neighborhood entirely. Although Toronto council initially rejected the school's plans, the decision later was reversed – and the project was given the go-ahead by the
Ontario Municipal Board (OMB) when opponents failed to produce credible witnesses and tried to withdraw from the case during the hearing.
She also had an influence on
Vancouver
Vancouver ( ) is a major city in western Canada, located in the Lower Mainland region of British Columbia. As the List of cities in British Columbia, most populous city in the province, the 2021 Canadian census recorded 662,248 people in the ...
's urban planning. Jacobs has been called "the mother of
Vancouverism",
referring to that city's use of her "density done well" philosophy.
Jacobs died in
Toronto Western Hospital aged 89, on 25 April 2006, apparently of a stroke. She was survived by a brother, James Butzner (d. 2009); a daughter, Burgin Jacobs, her sons, James and Ned of Vancouver, and by two grandchildren and two great-grandchildren. Upon her death her family's statement noted: "What's important is not that she died but that she lived, and that her life's work has greatly influenced the way we think. Please remember her by reading her books and implementing her ideas".
Legacy
Jacobs is credited, along with
Lewis Mumford, with inspiring the
New Urbanist
New Urbanism is an urban design movement which promotes environmentally friendly habits by creating walkable neighbourhoods containing a wide range of housing and job types. It arose in the United States in the early 1980s, and has gradually inf ...
movement. She has been characterized as a major influence on
decentralist and
radical centrist thought. She discussed her legacy in an interview with ''
Reason magazine
''Reason'' is an American libertarian monthly magazine published by the Reason Foundation. The magazine has a circulation of around 50,000 and was named one of the 50 best magazines in 2003 and 2004 by the ''Chicago Tribune''.
History
''Reaso ...
''.
While Jacobs saw her greatest legacy to be her contributions to economic theory, it is in the realm of urban planning that she has had her most extensive effect. Her observations about the ways in which cities function revolutionized the urban planning profession and discredited many accepted planning models that had dominated mid-century planning.
The influential Harvard Economist
Edward Glaeser
Edward Ludwig Glaeser (born May 1, 1967) is an American economist and Fred and Eleanor Glimp Professor of Economics at Harvard University. He is also Director for the Cities Research Programme at the International Growth Centre.
He was educated ...
, known for his work on urban studies, acknowledged
[ Glaeser, Edward L. (2007]
Great Cities Need Great Builders
'' The New York Sun'', 19 January 2007 that Jane Jacobs (1960s) had been prescient in attacking Moses for "replacing well-functioning neighborhoods with
Le Corbusier-inspired towers". Glaeser agreed that these housing projects proved to be Moses' greatest failures, "Moses spent millions and evicted tens of thousands to create buildings that became centers of crime, poverty, and despair."
She also was famous for introducing concepts such as the "Ballet of the Sidewalk" and "Eyes on the Street", a reference to what would later be known as
natural surveillance. The concept had a huge influence on planners and architects such as Oscar Newman, who prepared the idea through a series of studies that would culminate in his
defensible space theory. The work of Jacobs and Newman would go on to affect American housing policy through the
HOPE VI HOPE VI is a program of the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development. It is intended to revitalize the worst public housing projects in the United States into mixed-income developments. Its philosophy is largely based on New Urban ...
Program, an effort by the
United States Department of Housing and Urban Development
The United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) is one of the executive departments of the U.S. federal government. It administers federal housing and urban development laws. It is headed by the Secretary of Housing and Ur ...
to demolish the high-rise public housing projects so reviled by Jacobs and to replace them with low-rise,
mixed-income housing.
Throughout her life, Jacobs fought to alter the way in which city development was approached. By arguing that cities were living beings and ecosystems, she advocated ideas such as "mixed use" development and bottom-up planning. Furthermore, her harsh criticisms of "slum clearing" and "high-rise housing" projects were instrumental in discrediting these once universally supported planning practices.
Jacobs is remembered as being an advocate for the mindful development of cities,
and for leaving "a legacy of empowerment for citizens to trust their common sense and become advocates for their place".
Despite the fact that Jacobs mainly focused on New York City, her arguments have been identified as universal.
For instance, her opposition against the demolition of urban neighborhoods for projects of urban renewal had "special resonance" in
Melbourne
Melbourne ( ; Boonwurrung/Woiwurrung: ''Narrm'' or ''Naarm'') is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in both Australia and Oceania. Its name generally refers to a met ...
, Australia.
In Melbourne in the 1960s, resident associations fought against large-scale high-rise housing projects of the
Housing Commission of Victoria
The Housing Commission of Victoria (often shortened to Housing Commission, especially colloquially) was a Victorian State Government body responsible for public housing in Victoria, Australia. It was established in 1938, and was abolished in 198 ...
, which they argued had little regard for the impact on local communities.
Jacobs fought an uphill battle against dominant trends of planning. Despite the United States remaining very much a suburban nation,
the work of Jacobs has contributed to city living being rehabilitated and revitalized. Because of her ideas, today, many distressed urban neighborhoods are more likely to be
gentrified than cleared for redevelopment.
Samuel R. Delany's book ''
Times Square Red, Times Square Blue'' relies heavily on ''
The Death and Life of Great American Cities'' in its analysis of the nature of social relations within the realm of urban studies.
Jane Jacobs Days
After the death of Jacobs in April 2006, New York City Mayor
Michael Bloomberg announced a Jane Jacobs Day, held on June 28, 2006. The City of Toronto proclaimed her birthday the following year, May 4, 2007, as Jane Jacobs Day.
Jane's Walks
![Janes Walk Fort York](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Janes_Walk_Fort_York.jpg)
In connection with Jane Jacobs Day in Toronto, two dozen free neighborhood walks in the city were offered that weekend (5 May 2007) as an active memorial to Jacobs, and they were dubbed
Jane's Walks. Later, a Jane's Walk event was held in New York on September 29–30, 2007. In 2008, the event spread to eight cities and towns throughout Canada, and by 2016, Jane's Walks were taking place in 212 cities in 36 countries, on six continents. The interpretive walks typically apply ideas Jacobs identified or espoused to local areas, which are explored on foot and sometimes by bicycle. The walks normally take place in early May, on or close to her May 4 birth anniversary. Walks are organized and led by local volunteers, coordinated by a headquarters office in Toronto. There are more than 200 walks offered in Toronto, alone, in 2016, taking place on May 6, 7, and 8.
Exhibitions
In 2016, to mark the hundredth birth anniversary of Jane Jacobs, a Toronto gallery staged "Jane at Home", an exhibition running from April 29-May 8. Curated by Jane's son, Jim Jacobs, it offered glimpses of her home life, where she also worked. Her Toronto living room was represented, based on the one at her Albany Avenue house in
The Annex
The Annex is a neighbourhood in Downtown Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The traditional boundaries of the neighbourhood are north to Dupont Street, south to Bloor Street, west to Bathurst Street and east to Avenue Road. The City of Toronto recognizes ...
, where she often spoke with noted thinkers and political leaders including
Marshall McLuhan,
Paul Martin, and the
Queen of the Netherlands. On display were her typewriter, original manuscripts, rediscovered photographs demonstrating her distinctive styles, and personal mementos. The exhibit included furniture from previous homes in New York (her dining room is set up) and from Scranton, Pennsylvania.
In 2007, the
Municipal Art Society of New York partnered with the
Rockefeller Foundation to host an exhibit focusing on "Jane Jacobs and the Future of New York," which opened at the society in September that year. The exhibit aimed to educate the public on her writings and activism and used tools to encourage new generations to become active in issues involving their own neighborhoods. An accompanying exhibit publication included essays and articles by such architecture critics, artists, activists, and journalists as
Malcolm Gladwell
Malcolm Timothy Gladwell (born 3 September 1963) is an English-born Canadian journalist, author, and public speaker. He has been a staff writer for ''The New Yorker'' since 1996. He has published seven books: '' The Tipping Point: How Little ...
,
Reverend Billy,
Robert Neuwirth
Robert Neuwirth is an American journalist, author, and investigative reporter. He wrote '' Shadow Cities: A Billion Squatters, A New Urban World'', a book describing his experiences living in squatter communities in Nairobi, Rio de Janeiro, Ist ...
,
Tom Wolfe,
Thomas de Monchaux, and
William McDonough. Many of these contributors participated in a series of panel discussions on "Jane Jacobs and the Future of New York".
Jane Jacobs Medal
As a tribute to Jacobs, the
Rockefeller Foundation, which had awarded grants to Jacobs in the 1950s and 1960s, announced on February 9, 2007, the creation of the Jane Jacobs Medal, "to recognize individuals who have made a significant contribution to thinking about
urban design, specifically in New York City". Recipients include:
* Barry Benepe, co-founder of the New York City
Green Market program and a founding member of
Transportation Alternatives, was awarded with the inaugural Jane Jacobs Medal for Lifetime Leadership and a $100,000 cash prize in September 2007. The inaugural Jane Jacobs Medal for New Ideas and Activism was awarded to Omar Freilla, the founder of
Green Worker Cooperatives in the
South Bronx; Mr. Freilla donated his $100,000 to his organization.
*
Peggy Shepard, executive director of
West Harlem Environmental Action, received the 2008 Jane Jacobs Medal for Lifetime Leadership and
Alexie Torres-Fleming, founder of Youth Ministries for Peace and Justice, received the award for New Ideas and Activism. Both women received their medals and $100,000 awards at a dinner ceremony in September 2008 in New York City.
* Damaris Reyes, executive director of Good Old Lower East Side (GOLES), received the 2009 Jane Jacobs Medal for New Ideas and Activism. Richard Kahan, as founder and CEO of the Urban Assembly, which created and manages 22 secondary public schools located in many of the lowest income neighborhoods in New York City, received the 2009 Jane Jacobs Medal for Lifetime Leadership. Both received $100,000, in addition to the medal.
* The 2010 recipients were Joshua David and Robert Hammond, whose work in establishing the
High Line Park atop an unused elevated railroad line, led the foundation to award the 2010 Jane Jacobs Medal for New Ideas and Activism, along with $60,000 to each man. The 2010 Jane Jacobs Medal for Lifetime Leadership was given to
Elizabeth Barlow Rogers, for her longtime work as writer, park administrator, and co-founder of
Central Park Conservancy
The Central Park Conservancy is a private, nonprofit park conservancy that manages Central Park under a contract with the City of New York and NYC Parks. The conservancy employs most maintenance and operations staff in the park. It effectively ...
. She received $80,000 as well.
The
Canadian Urban Institute offers an award to honor her, the Jane Jacobs Lifetime Achievement Award, to recognize a person "who has had significant impact on the health of their region consistent with Jane Jacob's belief that successful cities foster a place-based, community-centered approach." The 2011 winner was
Eberhard Zeidler, while his daughter,
Margie Zeidler, won the 2015 award. In 2012,
Anne Golden took the prize "for her long-standing leadership in public policy, her academic work and her varied leadership experience in business, not-for-profit and government sectors."
William (Bill) Teron accepted the 2013 award "for his influential career in public policy and passionate advocacy for quality design and commitment to development in the Ottawa area." In 2014,
Jack Diamond was recognized for his "contribution to improving the built form and advocacy for cities and the future of the
Greater Toronto Area."
In April 2014, ''
Spacing
Spacing may refer to:
* ''Spacing'' (magazine), a Canadian magazine
* Spacing effect in psychology; the opposite of cramming
* The usage of spaces in typography
** Letter-spacing, the amount of space between a group of letters
** Line spacing or ...
'' was appointed the stewards of the Jane Jacobs Prize. ''Spacing'', winners of the prize in 2010, has continued to provide the award with a new life and new ways of promoting (and finding) the winners.
Other honors
* Jane Jacobs Way, West Village, New York City (Hudson Street and Eleventh Street, New York, New York)
* Jane Jacobs Park, 11
Wellesley Street West, Toronto (construction began in 2016)
* Jane Jacobs sculptural chairs,
Victoria Memorial Square (St. John's Square), Toronto
* Jane Jacobs
Toronto Legacy Plaque, 69 Albany Avenue, Toronto
* Jacobs' Ladder, rose bushes dedicated by Grassroots Albany (neighbors) in 1997, Toronto
* Jane Jacobs Street,
Mount Pleasant, South Carolina
* Jane Jacobs Street (Village of Cheshire)
Black Mountain, North Carolina
Black Mountain is a town in Buncombe County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 7,848 at the 2010 census. It is part of the Asheville Metropolitan Statistical Area. The town is named for the old train stop at the Black Mountain Dep ...
* a
Google Doodle
A Google Doodle is a special, temporary alteration of the logo on Google's homepages intended to commemorate holidays, events, achievements, and notable historical figures. The first Google Doodle honored the 1998 edition of the long-running an ...
marked the 100th anniversary of Jacobs's birth, on May 4, 2016, and was featured on Google's homepage in 15 countries on four continents
* a conference room at the offices of the New Economics Foundation in London is named in honor of Jacobs
Jacobs received the second
Vincent Scully Prize
The Vincent Scully Prize was established in 1999 to recognize exemplary practice, scholarship or criticism in architecture, historic preservation and urban design. Created by the National Building Museum in Washington, D.C., the award first honored ...
from the
National Building Museum in 2000.
Jacobs is the subject of the 2017 documentary film ''Citizen Jane: Battle for the City'', which depicts her victories over Robert Moses and her philosophy of urban design.
In popular culture
* A fictionalized version of her is played by Alison Smith in a season 1 episode of the Amazon series ''
The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel
''The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel'' is an American period comedy-drama television series, created by Amy Sherman-Palladino, that premiered on March 17, 2017, on Amazon Prime Video. Set in the late 1950s and early 1960s, it stars Rachel Brosnahan as ...
''.
* The community organizer played by
Cherry Jones
Cherry Jones (born November 21, 1956) is an American actress known for her roles on screen and stage. She has received various accolades for her performances in television and theatre including three Primetime Emmy Awards, two Tony Awards, th ...
in ''
Motherless Brooklyn'' has drawn comparisons to Jane Jacobs. The director,
Edward Norton
Edward Harrison Norton (born August 18, 1969) is an American actor and filmmaker. He has received numerous awards and nominations, including a Golden Globe Award and three Academy Award nominations.
Born in Boston, Massachusetts and raised ...
, has clarified that the composite character was partially based on Jacobs, but more so on Hortense Gabel who was active a decade earlier.
Criticism
The planners and developers she fought against to preserve the West Village were among those who initially criticized her ideas.
Robert Moses has generally been identified as her arch-rival during this period. Since then, Jacobs's ideas have been analysed many times, often in regard to the outcomes that their influences have produced.
[ Glaeser, Edward L. (2010]
Taller Buildings, Cheaper Homes
''The New York Times
''The New York Times'' (''the Times'', ''NYT'', or the Gray Lady) is a daily newspaper based in New York City with a worldwide readership reported in 2020 to comprise a declining 840,000 paid print subscribers, and a growing 6 million paid d ...
'', 4 May 2010 6:02 am[Nicolai Ouroussoff, Ouroussoff, Nicolai (2006]
Outgrowing Jane Jacobs and Her New York
''The New York Times
''The New York Times'' (''the Times'', ''NYT'', or the Gray Lady) is a daily newspaper based in New York City with a worldwide readership reported in 2020 to comprise a declining 840,000 paid print subscribers, and a growing 6 million paid d ...
'', Published 30 April 2006
In places such as the West Village, the factors that she argued would maintain economic and cultural diversity have led instead to
gentrification
Gentrification is the process of changing the character of a neighborhood through the influx of more affluent residents and businesses. It is a common and controversial topic in urban politics and planning. Gentrification often increases the ec ...
and some of the most expensive real estate in the world. Her family's conversion of an old candy shop into a home is an example of the gentrifying trend that would continue under the influence of Jacobs's ideas.
Gentrification also was caused, however, by "the completely unexpected influx of affluent residents back into the inner city".
The extent to which her ideas facilitated this phenomenon was at the time unimaginable. For example, she advocated the preservation of older buildings specifically because their lack of economic value made them affordable for poor people. In this respect, she saw them as "guarantors of social diversity".
That many of these older structures have increased in economic value solely due to their age was implausible in 1961. Issues of gentrification have dominated criticism of Jane Jacobs's planning ideas.
Economist Tyler Cowen has criticized her ideas for not addressing problems of scale or infrastructure, and suggests that economists disagree with some of her approaches to development.
For example, although her ideas of planning were praised at times as "universal",
they are now thought inapplicable when a city grows from one million to ten million (as has happened many times in developing nations). Such arguments suggest that her ideas apply only to cities with similar issues to those of New York, where Jacobs developed many of them.
Works
Jane Jacobs spent her life studying cities. Her books include:
''The Death and Life of Great American Cities''
''The Death and Life of Great American Cities'' is her single-most influential book and, possibly, the most influential book on urban planning and cities. Published in 1961, this book was widely read by both planning professionals and the general public. The book is a strong critique of the urban renewal policies of the 1950s, which, she claimed, destroyed communities and created isolated, unnatural urban spaces. In the book, she celebrates the diversity and complexity of old mixed-use neighborhoods while lamenting the monotony and sterility of modern planning. Jacobs advocated the abolition of zoning laws and restoration of free markets in land, which would result in dense, mixed-use neighborhoods and she frequently cited New York City's
Greenwich Village
Greenwich Village ( , , ) is a neighborhood on the west side of Lower Manhattan in New York City, bounded by 14th Street to the north, Broadway to the east, Houston Street to the south, and the Hudson River to the west. Greenwich Village ...
as an example of a vibrant urban community.
Robert Caro
Robert Allan Caro (born October 30, 1935) is an American journalist and author known for his biographies of United States political figures Robert Moses and Lyndon B. Johnson.
After working for many years as a reporter, Caro wrote '' The Power ...
has cited it as the strongest influence on ''
The Power Broker'', his Pulitzer Prize, Pulitzer-winning biography of Robert Moses, although Caro does not mention Jacobs by name in the book despite Jacobs's battles with Moses over his proposed
Lower Manhattan Expressway. Caro reportedly cut a chapter about Jacobs due to his book's length.
Beyond the practical lessons in city design and planning that ''Death and Life'' offers, the theoretical underpinnings of the work challenge the modern development mindset. Jane Jacobs defends her positions with common sense and anecdotes.
''The Economy of Cities''
The thesis of this book is that cities are the primary drivers of economic development. Her main argument is that explosive economic growth derives from urban import replacement. Import replacement is the process of producing goods locally that formerly were imported, e.g., Tokyo bicycle factories replacing Tokyo bicycle importers in the 1800s. Jacobs claims that import replacement builds up local infrastructure, skills, and production. Jacobs also claims that the increased production is subsequently exported to other cities, giving those other cities a new opportunity to engage in import replacement, thus producing a positive cycle of growth.
In an interview with Bill Steigerwald in ''Reason Magazine'', Jacobs said that if she is remembered for being a great intellectual she will be remembered not for her work concerning city planning, but for the discovery of import replacement. Critics erroneously claim that her ideas parrot the idea of import substitution industrialization, import substitution advanced earlier by scholars such as Andre Gunder Frank. Import substitution was a national economic theory implying that if a nation substituted its imports with national production, the nation would become wealthier, whereas Jacob's idea is entirely about cities and could be called urban import substitution. However, even this would lead to confusion since in practice, import substitution in India and Latin America were government subsidized and mandated, whereas Jacobs's concept of import replacement is a free market process of discovery and division of labor within a city.
In the second part of the book, Jacobs argues that cities preceded agriculture. She argues that in cities trade in wild animals and grains allowed for the initial division of labor necessary for the discovery of husbandry and agriculture; these discoveries then moved out of the city due to land competition. It is commonly taught that agriculture preceded cities. This notion was promoted originally by archaeologist Vere Gordon Childe and in recent times, by Charles Keith Maisels The apparent opposition between the traditional history and Jacobs' rests in differing definition of 'city', 'civilization', or 'urban'. Traditional history and archeology define 'urban' or 'civilization' as Synoecismas a literate, socially stratified, monolithic political community, whereas, as one can see from ''The Economy of Cities'' or from ''Cities and the Wealth of Nations'', Jacobs defined the city purely along the lines of geographically dense trade giving way to entrepreneurial discovery and subsequent improvements in the division of labor. Without the requirements of literacy, permanent and monumental building, or the signs of specialized civil and armed forces, 'cities' can be accurately interpreted as existing thousands of years before when Childe and Maisels place them.
''The Question of Separatism: Quebec and the Struggle over Sovereignty''
''The Question of Separatism'' incorporated and expanded Jacobs's presentation of the 1979 Massey Lectures, entitled ''Canadian Cities and Sovereignty-Association''. It was published in 1980 and reprinted in 2011 with a previously-unpublished 2005 interview with Robin Philpot on the subject in which she evokes the relative overlooking of that book among her usual readership. This was the first time Jacobs was requested to discuss it in an interview. Columnist Richard Gwyn (Canadian writer), Richard Gwyn advanced that while not openly criticizing her, English-speaking Canadians readers thought she did not understand how Canadian politics worked and that she was not being helpful in a time of distress for national unity (the 1980 Quebec referendum, 1980 referendum was just defeated by a vote of 60%). ''The Question of Separatism'' was also not mentioned in the bibliography of her 2006 obituary in ''The Globe and Mail''.
Jacobs's book advances the view that Quebec sovereignty movement, Quebec's eventual independence is best for Montreal, Toronto, the rest of Canada, and the world; and that such independence can be achieved peacefully. As precedent, she cites Dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden, Norway's secession from Sweden and how it enriched both nations. The origins of the contemporary secessionist-movement in the Quiet Revolution are examined, along with Canada's historical reliance on natural resources and foreign-owned manufacturing for its own economic development. Jacobs asserts that such an approach is colonial and hence backward, citing by example, Canada buying its skis and furniture from Norway or Norwegian-owned factories in Canada, the latter procedure being a product of Canadian tariffs designed specifically to foster such factories. The relevant public views of René Lévesque, Claude Ryan, and then Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau, Pierre Trudeau are also critically analyzed, an example being their failure to recognize that two respective, independent Currency, currencies are essential to the success of an independent Quebec and a smaller resultant Canada, an issue that is central to her book. Jacobs stresses the need for Montreal to continue developing its leadership of Québécois (word), Québécois culture, but that ultimately, such a need can never be fulfilled by Montreal's increasing tendencies toward regional-city status, tendencies foretelling economic, political, and cultural subservience to English-speaking Toronto. Such an outcome, Jacobs believed, would in the long run doom Quebec's independence as much as it would hinder Canada's own future. She concludes with her observation that the popular equating of political secession with political and economic failure is the result of the Age of Enlightenment, Enlightenment, which perceived nature as a force for "standardization, uniformity, universality, and immutability." Since then, naturalists and their readers have gradually realized that nature is a force for diversity, and that, "diversity itself is of the essence of excellence." The right kind of secession, Jacobs states, can lead to the right kind of diversity, and Quebec and Canada are capable of both, and must achieve both, to survive.
''Cities and the Wealth of Nations''
''Cities and the Wealth of Nations'' attempts to do for economics what ''
The Death and Life of Great American Cities'' did for modern urban planning, although it has not received the same critical attention. Beginning with a concise treatment of classical economics, this book challenges one of the fundamental assumptions of the greatest economists. Classical (and Neo-classical) economists consider the nation-state to be the main player in macroeconomics. Jacobs argues that it is not the nation-state, rather it is the city that is the true player in this worldwide game. She restates the idea of import replacement from her earlier book ''The Economy of Cities'', while speculating on the further ramifications of considering the city first and the nation second, or not at all.
A spectrum of economic regions
Along with the previous books focused on economics, Jacobs proposes an array of types of regional economies (stylized facts) which can help to understand their different challenges, and potential for development. One can start at the bottom end of the spectrum with the 'backward' region, which are economies who have lost their competitive advantages and are losing population or becoming dependent on ''largesse'' transfers from wealthier areas. Next are the 'supply regions', which are usually known as natural resource extraction towns, and may be very wealthy during their heyday, but often suffer a decline into backwardness if the resource has run-out or has been substituted on outside markets. Similar to this is the 'transplant region', a fundamental aspect of Jacobs economic theory. Transplant economies are usually manufacturing plants who have been moved from the location where the product was invented. The reason for the transplant is to save land, labour, fiscal, and transportation costs. Transplant regions are usually found along main transportation routes, where there is a large labour pool of available labour. Backward regions, Supply regions, and Transplant regions make up the most vulnerable types of economies to outside shocks and competition from low-cost production zones.
The Jacobs spectrum of regions also includes types of cities which rely on classical principles of central-location. Jacobs discusses 'Entrepôt cities', which are economies based on the accumulation and warehousing of export goods, usually at a maritime port location. Next are 'Hub cities', or regional capitals, which are central locations for private markets and public services in a given geography.
Finally, Jacobs presents the qualities of growing metropolitan areas. Jacobs defines the metropolis as a city that grows beyond its political borders. She terms the core city as the 'Import-Replacing' city. She terms the suburban sprawl of the metropolis as the 'City-Region'. Economic literature sometimes uses the term ''Jacobs Agglomeration'' for these growing and innovative cities. CA Ramsay has proposed the term Forward Cities, as an echo to the opposing principle of 'Backward' economies.
According to Jacobs, economies are constantly evolving and may move in and out of any of these categories. However, for an export-based economy such as a supply region, or a transplant town, to develop into a Forward city, the economy must engage in what she terms new-work. This implies a diversification of the economy. Jacobs strongly encourages breakaway entrepreneurship and local investment capital to do this. The modus operandi may be in import-replacing, in world-first innovation, or the adoption of production which is new to the community.
Jacobs also insists on the benefits of having a city-currency, which acts as a positive feedback mechanism, to help drive local innovation and import-replacement. It also protects from outside demand shocks.
''Systems of Survival''
''Systems of Survival: A Dialogue on the Moral Foundations of Commerce and Politics'' moves outside of the city, studying the moral underpinnings of labour (economics), work. As with her other work, she used an observational approach. This book is written as a Platonic dialogue. It appears that she (as described by characters in her book) took newspaper clippings of moral judgments related to work, collected and sorted them to find that they fit two patterns of moral behavior that were mutually exclusive. She calls these two patterns "Moral Syndrome A", or commercial moral syndrome, and "Moral Syndrome B", or guardian moral syndrome. She claims that the commercial moral syndrome is applicable to business owners, scientists, farmers, and traders. Similarly, she claims that the guardian moral syndrome is applicable to government, charities, hunter-gatherers, and religious institutions. She also claims that these Moral Syndromes are fixed, and do not fluctuate over time.
It is important to stress that Jane Jacobs is providing a theory about the morality of work, and not all moral ideas. Moral ideas that are not included in her system are applicable to both syndromes.
Jane Jacobs goes on to describe what happens when these two moral syndromes are mixed, showing the work underpinnings of the American Mafia, Mafia and communism, and what happens when New York City Subway, New York subway police are paid bonuses here – reinterpreted slightly as a part of the larger analysis.
''The Nature of Economies''
''The Nature of Economies'', a dialog between friends concerning the premise: "human beings exist wholly within nature as part of the natural order in every respect" (p. ''ix''), argues that the same principles underlie both ecosystems and economic system, economies: "development and co-development through differentiation and their combinations; expansion through diverse, multiple uses of energy; and self-maintenance through self-refueling" (p. 82). Jacobs also comments on the nature of economic and biological diversity and its role in the development and growth of the two kinds of systems.
Jacobs's characters discuss the four methods by which "dynamically stable systems" may evade collapse: "bifurcations; positive feedback, positive-feedback loops; negative feedback, negative-feedback controls; and emergency adaptations" (p. 86). Their conversations also cover the "double nature of fitness for survival" (traits to avoid destroying one's own habitat as well as success in competition to feed and breed, p. 119), and unpredictability including the butterfly effect characterized in terms of multiplicity of variables as well as disproportional response to cause, and self-organization where "a system can be making itself up as it goes along" (p. 137).
The book is infused with many real-world economic and biological examples, which help keep the book "down to earth" and comprehensible, if dense. Concepts are furnished with both economic and biological examples, showing their coherence in both worlds.
One particularly interesting insight is the creation of "something from nothing" – an economy from nowhere. In the biological world, free energy is given through sunlight, but in the economic world human creativity and natural resources supply this free energy, or at least starter energy. Another interesting insight is the creation of economic diversity through the combination of different technologies, for example the typewriter and television as inputs and outputs of a computer system: this can lead to the creation of "new species of work".
''Dark Age Ahead''
Published in 2004 by Random House, ''Dark Age Ahead'' posits Jacobs's argument that "North American" civilization shows signs of a spiral decline comparable to the collapse of the Roman empire. Her discussion focuses on "five pillars of our culture that we depend on to stand firm", which can be summarized as the nuclear family and community; quality in education; free thought in science; representational government and responsible taxes; and corporate and professional accountability. As the title of this book suggests, Jacobs's outlook is far more pessimistic than that of her previous works. However, in the conclusion she admits: "At a given time it is hard to tell whether forces of cultural life or death are in the ascendancy. Is suburban sprawl, with its murders of communities and wastes of land, time, and energy, a sign of decay? Or is rising interest in means of overcoming sprawl a sign of vigor and adaptability in North American culture? Arguably, either could turn out to be true." While Jacobs idealized U.S. democracy, ''Dark Age Ahead'' echoes the skepticism and disappointment that led to her emigration to Canada in 1968. Later, she would indicate that North American cultures, among others, were grounded in a "plantation mentality" that was culturally and ecologically unsustainable.
Writings
* ''Constitutional chaff; rejected suggestions of the Constitutional Convention of 1787, with explanatory argument'' Compiled by Jane Butzner, (1941) Columbia University Press; Compiled by Jane Jacobs (Née Butzner), Reprinted 1970 by Kennikat Press, Port Washington, New York.
* ''
The Death and Life of Great American Cities'' (1961) New York: Random House.
* ''The Economy of Cities'' (1969)
* ''The Question of Separatism: Quebec and the Struggle over Sovereignty'' (1980 Random House and 2011 Baraka Books)
* ''Cities and the Wealth of Nations'' (1985)
* ''The Girl on the Hat'' (Children's Book Illustrated by Karen Reczuch), (June 1990) Oxford University Press.
* ''Systems of Survival: A Dialogue on the Moral Foundations of Commerce and Politics'' (1992)
* ''A Schoolteacher in Old Alaska – The Story of Hannah Breece'' (1995) Random House of Canada.
* ''The Nature of Economies'' (2000) New York: Random House, The Modern Library.
* ''Dark Age Ahead'' (2004)
* ''Vital Little Plans: The Short Works of Jane Jacobs'' (2016) New York: Random House.
See also
* David Crombie
* Fred Gardiner
* Highway revolts in the United States
* Innovation Economics
* Urban secession
* Urban vitality
References
Bibliography
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Further reading
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External links
*
Jane Jacobs's Order of Canada CitationJane Jacobs's Papersat John J. Burns Library, Boston College
Jane Jacobs Oral History, 1997 Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation
*
Jane Jacobs's Legacy, ''City Journal'' online, July 31, 2009
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jacobs, Jane
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Anti-road protest
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Members of the Order of Ontario
Moral philosophers
Officers of the Order of Canada
People from Greenwich Village
Writers from Scranton, Pennsylvania
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