Indus–Mesopotamia relations

Indus–Mesopotamia relations are thought to have developed during the second half of 3rd millennium BCE, until they came to a halt with the extinction of the Indus valley civilization after around 1900 BCE. Mesopotamia had already been an intermediary in the trade of lapis lazuli between the Indian subcontinent and Egypt since at least about 3200 BCE, in the context of Egypt-Mesopotamia relations.

Neolithic expansion (9000–6500 BCE)

A first period of indirect contacts seems to have occurred as a consequence of the Neolithic Revolution and the diffusion of agriculture after 9000 BCE. The prehistoric agriculture of South Asia is thought to have combined local resources, such as humped cattle, with agricultural resources from the Near East as a first step in the 8th–7th millennium BCE, to which were later added resources from Africa and East Asia from the 3rd millennium BCE. Mehrgarh is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in South Asia. At Mehrgarh, around 7000 BCE, the full set of Near Eastern incipient agricultural products can be found: wheat, barley, as well as goats, sheep and cattle. The rectangular houses of Mehrgarh as well as the female figurines are essentially identical with those of the Near East.

The Near-Eastern origin of South Asian agriculture is generally accepted, and it has been the "virtual archaeological dogma for decades". Gregory Possehl however argues for a more nuanced model, in which the early domestication of plant and animal species may have occurred in a wide area from the Mediterranean to the Indus, in which new technology and ideas circulated fast and were widely shared. Today, the main objection to this model lies in the fact that wild wheat has never been found in South Asia, suggesting that either wheat was first domesticated in the Near-East from well-known domestic wild species and then brought to South Asia, or that wild wheat existed in the past in South Asia but somehow became extinct without leaving a trace.

Jean-François Jarrige argues for an independent origin of Mehrgarh. Jarrige notes "the assumption that farming economy was introduced full-fledged from Near-East to South Asia,"Jean-Francois Jarrig
''Mehrgarh Neolithic''
, Paper presented in the International Seminar on the "First Farmers in Global Perspective," Lucknow, India, 18–20 January 2006 and the similarities between Neolithic sites from eastern Mesopotamia and the western Indus valley, which are evidence of a "cultural continuum" between those sites. But given the originality of Mehrgarh, Jarrige concludes that Mehrgarh has an earlier local background, and is not a "'backwater' of the Neolithic culture of the Near East."

Land and maritime relations

Sea levels have been rising about 100 meters over the last 15,000 years until modern times, with the effect that coast lines have been receding vastly. This is especially the case of the coast lines of the Indus and Mesopotamia, which were originally only separated by a distance of about 1000 kilometers, compared to 2000 kilometers today. For the ancestors of the Sumerians, the distance between the coasts of the Mesopotamian area and the Indus area would have been much shorter than it is today. In particular the Persian Gulf, which is only about 30 meters deep today, would have been at least partially dry, and would have formed an extension of the Mesopotamian basin.

The westernmost Harappan city was located on the Makran coast at Sutkagan Dor, near the tip of the Arabian peninsula, and is considered as an ancient maritime trading station, probably between modern day Pakistan and the Persian Gulf.

Sea-going vessels were known in the Indus region, as shown by seals showing ships with land-finding birds (''disha-kaka''), dating to 2500-1750 BCE. When a boat was lost at sea, with land beyond the horizon, birds released by the mariners would securely fly back to land, and therefore show the boats the way to safety. Various stamp seals are known from the Indus and the Persian Gulf area, with depictions of large ships pertaining to different shipbuilding traditions. Sargon of Akkad (c. 2334–2284 BCE) claimed in one of his inscriptions that "ships from Meluhha, Magan and Dilmun made fast at the docks of Akkad".

Commercial and cultural exchanges

Many archaeological finds suggest that maritime trade along the shores of Africa and Asia started several millennia ago. Indus pottery and seals have been found along the sea routes between the Indus and Mesopotamia, as in Ras al-Jinz, at the tip of Arabia.

Indus imports into Mesopotamia

Clove heads, thought to originate from the Moluccas in Maritime Southeast Asia were found in a 2nd millennium BCE site in Terqa. Evidence for imports from the Indus to Ur can be found from around 2350 BCE. Various objects made with shell species that are characteristic of the Indus coast, particularly ''Trubinella Pyrum'' and ''Fasciolaria Trapezium'', have been found in the archaeological sites of Mesopotamia dating from around 2500-2000 BCE. Carnelian beads from the Indus were found in Ur tombs dating to 2600–2450. In particular, carnelian beads with an etched design in white were probably imported from the Indus Valley, and made according to a technique of acid-etching developed by the Harappans.British Museum notice: "Gold and carnelians beads. The two beads etched with patterns in white were probably imported from the Indus Valley. They were made by a technique developed by the Harappan civilization" Photograph of the necklace in question Lapis Lazuli was imported in great quantity by Egypt, and already used in many tombs of the Naqada II period (circa 3200 BCE). Lapis Lazuli probably originated in northern Afghanistan, as no other sources are known from that time, and had to be transported across the Iranian plateau to Mesopotamia, and then Egypt.

Several Indus seals with Harappan script have also been found in Mesopotamia, particularly in Ur, Babylon and Kish. The water buffalos that appear on Akkadian cylinder seals from the time of Naram-Sin (circa 2250 BCE) may have been imported to Mesopotamia from the Indus as a result of trade.

Akkadian Empire records mention timber, carnelian and ivory as being imported from Meluhha by Meluhhan ships, Meluhha being generally considered as the Mesopotamian name for the Indus Valley.

After the collapse of the Akkadian Empire, Gudea, the ruler of Lagash, is recorded as having imported "translucent carnelian" from Meluhha. Various inscriptions also mention the presence of Meluhha traders and interpreters in Mesopotamia. About twenty seals have been found from the Akkadian and Ur III sites, that have connections with Harappa and often use Harappan symbols or writing.

File:Susa seal with Indus signs.jpg, A modern impression of an Indus cylinder seal discovered in Susa, in strata dated to 2600-1700 BCE. Elongated buffalo with line of standard Indus script signs. Tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 2425. Indus script numbering convention per Asko Parpola.
File:Indus Valley unicorn seal and etched carnelian beads found in Kish, Mesopotamia.jpg, Indus Valley "Unicorn" seal and etched carnelian beads excavated in Kish by Ernest J. H. Mackay, Mesopotamia, early Sumerian period stratification, circa 3000 BCE."Still the largest number of Indus or Indus-type finds is from Mesopotamia. Among the seals there are four indisputably Indus specimens: two from Kish (MacKay, 1925; Langdon, 1931) and one each from Lagash (Genouillac, 1930, p. 27) and Nippur (Gibson, 1977). The Nippur seal found in a 14th century ac Kassite context is in all probability a relic of an earlier period." in
File:Indus seal found in Telloh.jpg, Indus seal discovered in Telloh, Mesopotamia.
File:Indus seal found in Kish by Langdon 1931.jpg, Indus seal found in Kish by S. Langdon. Pre-Sargonid (pre-2250 BCE) stratification.
File:Indus round seal with impression Elongated buffalo with Harappan scrpit imported to Susa in 2600-1700 BCE LOUVRE Sb5614.jpg, Indus round seal with impression. Elongated buffalo with Harappan script imported to Susa in 2600-1700 BCE. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 5614
File:Indus carnelian beads with white design imported to Susa in 2600-1700 BCE LOUVRE Sb 13099.jpg, Indian carnelian beads with white design, etched in white with an alkali through a heat process, imported to Susa in 2600-1700 BCE. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 17751. These beads are identical with beads found in the Indus Civilization site of Dholavira.
File:Indus bracelet made of Fasciolaria Trapezium or Xandus Pyrum imported front and back with inscribed chevron to Susa in 2600-1700 BCE LOUVRE Sb14473.jpg, Indus bracelet, front and back, made of Fasciolaria Trapezium or Xandus Pyrum imported to Susa in 2600-1700 BCE. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 14473. This type of bracelet was manufactured in Mohenjo-daro and Balakot. The back is engraved with an oblong chevron design which is typical of shell bangles of the Indus Civilization.
File:Indus Civilisation Carnelian bead with white design, ca. 2900–2350 BC Found in Nippur, Mesopotamian (detail).jpg, Indus Civilisation Carnelian bead with white design, ca. 2900–2350 BCE. Found in Nippur, Mesopotamian.
File:Etched carnelian beads at Ur.jpg, Etched carnelian beads excavated in the Royal Cemetery of Ur, tomb PG 1133, 2600-2500 BCE.
File:Indus Valley Civilization weight excavated in Susa. Louvre Museum Sb 17774.jpg, Indus Valley Civilization weight in veined jasper, excavated in Susa in a 12th-century BCE princely tomb. Louvre Museum Sb 17774.
Harappan weights Delhi Museum.jpg, Similar Harappan weights found in the Indus Valley. New Delhi Museum.
File:Indus carnelian bead UC30334 Egypt Middle Kingdom London, Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology.jpg, A rare etched carnelian bead found in Egypt, thought to have been imported from the Indus Valley civilization through Mesopotamia. Late Middle Kingdom. London, Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, ref. UC30334.

Mesopotamian imports into the Indus

Possible iconographical influences

Various authors have described possible iconographical influences from Mesopotamia to the Indus Valley. Gregory Possehl notes "Mesopotamian themes in Indus iconography", particularly designs related to the Gilgamesh epic, suggesting that "some aspects of Mesopotamian religion and ideology would have been accepted at face value is a reasonable notion". Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi also describes the presence of Gilgamesh on Indus seals. In the archaeological sites of the Indus valley civilization, twenty-four stone haematite weights of the Mesopotamian barrel-shaped type were found at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa.

There are also many instances of influence the other way round, in which Indus Valley seals and designs have been found in Mesopotamia.

=Indus Valley stamp seals

=
Some Indus seals seem to show possible Mesopotamian influence, as in the "Gilgamesh" motif of a man fighting two lions (2500-1500 BCE).

Several Indus Valley seals show a fighting scene between a tiger-like beast and a man with horns, hooves and a tail, who has been compared to the Mesopotamian bull-man Enkidu, also a partner of Gilgamesh, and suggests a transmission of Mesopotamian mythology.

=Cylinder seals

=
A few rare cylinder seals have been found in Indus valley sites, which suggest Mesopotamian influence: they were probably made locally, but they use Mesopotamian motifs. One such cylinder seal, the Kalibangan seal, shows a battle between men in the presence of centaurs. Other seals show processions of animals.

Others have suggested that the cylinder seals show the Indus valley's influence on Mesopotamia. These may have been due to overland trade between the two cultures.

File:Mesopotamian cylinder seal with antilopes, excavated in Kish, Mesopotamia.jpg, Sumerian cylinder seal with two long-horned antelopes with a tree or bush in front, excavated in Kish, Mesopotamia.
File:Indus Valley civilization cylinder seal.jpg, A rare Indus Valley civilization cylinder seal composed of two animals with a tree or bush in front. Such cylinder seals are indicative of contacts with Mesopotamia.
File:Horned deities on an Indus Valley seal with detail.jpg, Horned deity with one-horned attendants on an Indus Valley seal. Horned deities are a standard Mesopotamian theme. 2000-1900 BCE. Islamabad Museum.

File:Enthroned King of Ur.jpg, Enthroned Sumerian king of Ur, with attendants. Standard of Ur, c. 2600 BCE.
File:Prisoners on the victory stele of an Akkadian king circa 2300 BCE Louvre Museum Sb 3.jpg, Sumerian prisoners on a victory stele of Akkadian king Sargon, circa 2300 BCE. Louvre Museum.
Image:Ur-Ningirsu ruler of Lagash portrait circa 2110 BCE.jpg, Portrait of Sumerian ruler Ur-Ningirsu, son of Gudea, c.2100 BCE. Louvre Museum.
File:Sumerian_princess_of_the_time_of_Gudea_circa_2150_BCE.jpg, Sumerian princess of the time of Gudea circa 2150 BCE.

Scripts and languages

Similarities between Proto-Elamite (circa 3000 BCE) and especially Linear Elamite (2300-2000 BCE) scripts with the Indus script have been noted, although it has not been possible to decipher any of them."The so-called Proto-Elamite script from sites such as Susa in the lowlands of eastern Mesopotamia, dating from around 3000 BCE, is undeciphered and technically similar to the Harappan script." Proto-Elamite only starts to be readable from around 2300 BCE, when Elamite adopted the cuneiform system. These Elamite scripts are said to be "technically similar" to the Indus script. On comparing the Linear Elamite to the Indus script, a number of similar symbols have also been found.

The Meluhhan language was not readily understandable at the Akkadian court, since interpretators of the Meluhhan language are known to have resided in Mesopotamia, particularly through an Akkadian seal with the inscription ''"Shu-ilishu, interpreter of the Meluhhan language"''.

File:Bilingual Linear Elamite Akkadian inscription of king Kutik-Inshushinak Table of the Lion Louvre Museum Sb 17 (Linear Elamite detail).jpg, Linear Elamite inscription the "Table of the Lion", time of king Kutik-Inshushinak, Louvre Museum Sb 17.
File:Table au Lion transcription.jpg, Transcription of the "Table of the Lion" Linear Elamite text.
File:Elephant. Mold of Seal, Indus valley civilization.JPG, A seal with an inscription in the Indus script.

Chronology

Sargon of Akkad (circa 2300 or 2250 BCE), was the first Mesopotamian ruler to make an explicit reference to the region of Meluhha, which is generally understood as being the Baluchistan or the Indus area. Sargon mentions the presence of Meluhha, Magan, and Dilmun ships at Akkad.

These dates correspond roughly to the Mature Harappan phase, dated from around 2600 to 2000 BCE. The dates for the main occupation of Mohenjo-Daro

HOME


Content is Copyleft
Website design, code, and AI is Copyrighted (c) 2014-2017 by Stephen Payne


Consider donating to Wikimedia



As an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases