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Indo-Scythians (also called Indo-Sakas) were a group of
nomad A nomad is a member of a community without fixed habitation who regularly moves to and from the same areas. Such groups include hunter-gatherers, pastoral nomads (owning livestock), tinkers and trader nomads. In the twentieth century, the po ...
ic
Iranian peoples The Iranian peoples or Iranic peoples are a diverse grouping of Indo-European peoples who are identified by their usage of the Iranian languages and other cultural similarities. The Proto-Iranians are believed to have emerged as a separate ...
of Scythian origin who migrated from
Central Asia Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes the fo ...
southward into modern day
Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 24 ...
and Northwestern India from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE. The first Saka king of
India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area, the List of countries and dependencies by population, second-most populous ...
was Maues/Moga (1st century BCE) who established Saka power in Gandhara, Pakistan and the Indus Valley. The Indo-Scythians extended their supremacy over north-western India, conquering the Indo-Greeks and other local kingdoms. The Indo-Scythians were apparently subjugated by the Kushan Empire, by either Kujula Kadphises or Kanishka. Yet the Saka continued to govern as
satrapies A satrap () was a governor of the provinces of the ancient Median and Achaemenid Empires and in several of their successors, such as in the Sasanian Empire and the Hellenistic empires. The satrap served as viceroy to the king, though with con ...
, forming the
Northern Satraps The Northern Satraps (Brahmi: , ''Kṣatrapa'', "Satraps" or , ''Mahakṣatrapa'', "Great Satraps"), or sometimes Satraps of Mathura, or Northern Sakas, are a dynasty of Indo-Scythian rulers who held sway over the area of Eastern Punjab and Math ...
and Western Satraps. The power of the Saka rulers started to decline in the 2nd century CE after the Indo-Scythians were defeated by the Satavahana emperor
Gautamiputra Satakarni Gautamiputra Satakarni (Brahmi: 𑀕𑁄𑀢𑀫𑀺𑀧𑀼𑀢 𑀲𑀸𑀢𑀓𑀡𑀺, ''Gotamiputa Sātakaṇi'', IAST: ) was a ruler of the Satavahana Empire in present-day Deccan region of India. He was mentioned as the important an ...
. Indo-Scythian rule in the northwestern Indian subcontinent ceased when the last
Western Satrap The Western Satraps, or Western Kshatrapas (Brahmi:, ''Mahakṣatrapa'', "Great Satraps") were Indo-Scythian (Saka) rulers of the western and central part of India ( Saurashtra and Malwa: modern Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh ...
Rudrasimha III Rudrasimha III (IAST: Rudrasiṃha) was the last ruler of the Western Satraps in India, in the 4th century AD. Rudrasimha III succeeded Rudrasena IV as the leader of the Indo-Scythians in India. Both were the sons of the Saka ruler Satyasimha, ma ...
was defeated by the
Gupta Gupta () is a common surname or last name of Indian origin. It is based on the Sanskrit word गोप्तृ ''goptṛ'', which means 'guardian' or 'protector'. According to historian R. C. Majumdar, the surname ''Gupta'' was adopted by sev ...
emperor Chandragupta II in 395 CE. The invasion of northern regions of the
Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a physiographical region in Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas. Geopolitically, it includes the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, In ...
by Scythian tribes from Central Asia, often referred to as the Indo-Scythian invasion, played a significant part in the history of the Indian subcontinent as well as nearby countries. In fact, the Indo-Scythian war is just one chapter in the events triggered by the nomadic flight of Central Asians from conflict with tribes such as the
Xiongnu The Xiongnu (, ) were a tribal confederation of nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Modu Chanyu, the supreme leader after 20 ...
in the 2nd century CE, which had lasting effects on Bactria, Kabul, and the Indian subcontinent as well as far-off Rome in the west, and more nearby to the west in
Parthia Parthia ( peo, 𐎱𐎼𐎰𐎺 ''Parθava''; xpr, 𐭐𐭓𐭕𐭅 ''Parθaw''; pal, 𐭯𐭫𐭮𐭥𐭡𐭥 ''Pahlaw'') is a historical region located in northeastern Greater Iran. It was conquered and subjugated by the empire of the Med ...
. Ancient Roman historians, including Arrian and Claudius Ptolemy, have mentioned that the ancient Sakas ("Sakai") were
nomadic people A nomad is a member of a community without fixed habitation who regularly moves to and from the same areas. Such groups include hunter-gatherers, pastoral nomads (owning livestock), tinkers and trader nomads. In the twentieth century, the po ...
. However, Italo Ronca, in his detailed study of Ptolemy's chapter vi, states: "The land of the Sakai belongs to nomads, they have no towns but dwell in forests and caves" as spurious.


Origins

The ancestors of the Indo-Scythians are thought to have been Sakas ( Scythian) tribes.
"One group of Indo-European speakers that makes an early appearance on the
Xinjiang Xinjiang, SASM/GNC: ''Xinjang''; zh, c=, p=Xīnjiāng; formerly romanized as Sinkiang (, ), officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR), is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China (PRC), located in the northwes ...
stage is the Saka (Ch. Sai). Saka is more a generic term than a name for a specific state or ethnic group; Saka tribes were part of a cultural continuum of early nomads across Siberia and the Central Eurasian steppe lands from Xinjiang to the Black Sea. Like the Scythians whom
Herodotus Herodotus ( ; grc, , }; BC) was an ancient Greek historian and geographer from the Greek city of Halicarnassus, part of the Persian Empire (now Bodrum, Turkey) and a later citizen of Thurii in modern Calabria (Italy). He is known fo ...
describes in book four of his ''History'' (''Saka'' is an Iranian word equivalent to the Greek ''Scythes'', and many scholars refer to them together as Saka-Scythian), Sakas were Iranian-speaking horse nomads who deployed chariots in battle, sacrificed horses, and buried their dead in barrows or mound tombs called '' kurgans''."
The Sakas of Western India spoke the Saka language, also known as Khotanese as it is first attested in the Tarim Basin.


Achaemenid period (6th-4th century BCE)

During the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley circa 515 BCE, the Achaemenid army was not uniquely Persian, and the Sakas probably participated in the invasion of northwestern India. The Achaemenid army was composed of many different ethnicities that were part of the vast Achaemenid Empire. The army included
Bactrians Bactria (; Bactrian: , ), or Bactriana, was an ancient region in Central Asia in Amu Darya's middle stream, stretching north of the Hindu Kush, west of the Pamirs and south of the Gissar range, covering the northern part of Afghanistan, southw ...
, Sakas (
Scythians The Scythians or Scyths, and sometimes also referred to as the Classical Scythians and the Pontic Scythians, were an ancient Eastern * : "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Cent ...
),
Parthia Parthia ( peo, 𐎱𐎼𐎰𐎺 ''Parθava''; xpr, 𐭐𐭓𐭕𐭅 ''Parθaw''; pal, 𐭯𐭫𐭮𐭥𐭡𐭥 ''Pahlaw'') is a historical region located in northeastern Greater Iran. It was conquered and subjugated by the empire of the Med ...
ns, Sogdians. Herodotus gives a full list of the ethnicities of the Achaemenid army, in which are included Sakas together with Ionians (Greeks), and even
Ethiopia Ethiopia, , om, Itiyoophiyaa, so, Itoobiya, ti, ኢትዮጵያ, Ítiyop'iya, aa, Itiyoppiya officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country in the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the ...
ns. These ethnicities are likely to have been included in the Achaemenid army which invaded India. Some scholars, including Michael Witzel and Christopher I. Beckwith suggested that the Shakyas, the clan of the historical
Gautama Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in L ...
, were originally
Scythians The Scythians or Scyths, and sometimes also referred to as the Classical Scythians and the Pontic Scythians, were an ancient Eastern * : "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Cent ...
from Central Asia, and that the Indian ethnonym ''Śākya'' has the same origin as “Scythian”, called Sakas in India. This would also explain the strong support of the Sakas for the Buddhist faith in India. The Persians, the Sakas and the Greeks, may have later participated in the campaigns of Chandragupta Maurya to gain the throne of
Magadha Magadha was a region and one of the sixteen sa, script=Latn, Mahajanapadas, label=none, lit=Great Kingdoms of the Second Urbanization (600–200 BCE) in what is now south Bihar (before expansion) at the eastern Ganges Plain. Magadha was rul ...
circa 320 BCE. The '' Mudrarakshasa'' states that after Alexander's death, an alliance of "'' Shaka-
Yavana The word Yona in Pali and the Prakrits, and the analogue Yavana in Sanskrit and Yavanar in Tamil, were words used in Ancient India to designate Greek speakers. "Yona" and "Yavana" are transliterations of the Greek word for "Ionians" ( gr ...
- Kamboja-
Parasika The Saka (Old Persian: ; Kharoṣṭhī: ; Ancient Egyptian: , ; , old , mod. , ), Shaka (Sanskrit ( Brāhmī): , , ; Sanskrit (Devanāgarī): , ), or Sacae ( Ancient Greek: ; Latin: ) were a group of nomadic Iranian peoples who hist ...
- Bahlika''" was used by Chandragupta Maurya in his campaign to take the throne in
Magadha Magadha was a region and one of the sixteen sa, script=Latn, Mahajanapadas, label=none, lit=Great Kingdoms of the Second Urbanization (600–200 BCE) in what is now south Bihar (before expansion) at the eastern Ganges Plain. Magadha was rul ...
and found the Mauryan Empire. ; : "The Mudrarakshasa further informs us that his Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a composite army ... Among these are mentioned the following : Sakas, Yavanas (probably Greeks), Kiratas, Kambojas, Parasikas and Bahlikas.": "After Alexander's death, when Chandragupta marched on Magada, it was with largely the Persian army that he won the throne of India. The testimony of the Mudrarakshasa is explicit on this point, and we have no reason to doubt its accuracy in matter of this kind." The ''Sakas'' were the
Scythians The Scythians or Scyths, and sometimes also referred to as the Classical Scythians and the Pontic Scythians, were an ancient Eastern * : "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Cent ...
, the ''Yavanas'' were the
Greeks The Greeks or Hellenes (; el, Έλληνες, ''Éllines'' ) are an ethnic group and nation indigenous to the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea regions, namely Greece, Cyprus, Albania, Italy, Turkey, Egypt, and, to a lesser extent, ot ...
, and the ''Parasikas'' were the Persians. : "Among those who helped Chandragupta in his struggle against the Nandas, were the Sakas (Scythians), Yavanas (Greeks), and Parasikas (Persians)"


Yuezhi expansion (2nd century BCE)

In the 2nd century BCE, a fresh
nomad A nomad is a member of a community without fixed habitation who regularly moves to and from the same areas. Such groups include hunter-gatherers, pastoral nomads (owning livestock), tinkers and trader nomads. In the twentieth century, the po ...
ic movement started among the Central Asian tribes, producing lasting effects on the history of Rome in Europe,
Parthia Parthia ( peo, 𐎱𐎼𐎰𐎺 ''Parθava''; xpr, 𐭐𐭓𐭕𐭅 ''Parθaw''; pal, 𐭯𐭫𐭮𐭥𐭡𐭥 ''Pahlaw'') is a historical region located in northeastern Greater Iran. It was conquered and subjugated by the empire of the Med ...
in Western Asia, and Bactria, Kabul, and India in the east in Southern Asia. Recorded in the annals of the
Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by th ...
and other Chinese records, this great tribal movement began after the Yuezhi tribe was defeated by the
Xiongnu The Xiongnu (, ) were a tribal confederation of nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Modu Chanyu, the supreme leader after 20 ...
, fleeing westwards after their defeat and creating a domino effect as they displaced other central Asian tribes in their path. According to these ancient sources
Modu Shanyu Modu, Maodun, Modun (, from Old Chinese (220 B.C.E.): *''mouᴴ-tuən'' or *''mək-tuən'', c. 234 – c. 174 BCE) was the son of Touman and the founder of the empire of the Xiongnu. He came to power by ordering his men to kill his father in 209 ...
of the
Xiongnu The Xiongnu (, ) were a tribal confederation of nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Modu Chanyu, the supreme leader after 20 ...
tribe of
Mongolia Mongolia; Mongolian script: , , ; lit. "Mongol Nation" or "State of Mongolia" () is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of , with a population of just 3.3 million ...
attacked the Yuezhi (possibly related to the Tocharians who lived in eastern Tarim Basin area) and evicted them from their homeland between the
Qilian Shan The Qilian Mountains (, also romanized as Tsilien; Mongghul: Chileb), together with the Altyn-Tagh (Altun Shan) also known as Nan Shan (, literally "Southern Mountains"), as it is to the south of Hexi Corridor, is a northern outlier of the Kunl ...
and Dunhuang around 175 BCE. Leaving behind a remnant of their number, most of the population moved westwards into the Ili River area. There, they displaced the Sakas, who migrated south into Ferghana and Sogdiana. According to the Chinese historical chronicles (who call the Sakas, "Sai" 塞): "
he Yuezhi He or HE may refer to: Language * He (pronoun), an English pronoun * He (kana), the romanization of the Japanese kana へ * He (letter), the fifth letter of many Semitic alphabets * He (Cyrillic), a letter of the Cyrillic script called ''He'' ...
attacked the king of the Sai, who moved a considerable distance to the south and the Yuezhi then occupied his lands." Sometime after 155 BCE, the Yuezhi were again defeated by an alliance of the Wusun and the
Xiongnu The Xiongnu (, ) were a tribal confederation of nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Modu Chanyu, the supreme leader after 20 ...
, and were forced to move south, again displacing the Scythians, who migrated south towards Bactria and present
Afghanistan Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,; prs, امارت اسلامی افغانستان is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Referred to as the Heart of Asia, it is borde ...
, and south-west closer towards
Parthia Parthia ( peo, 𐎱𐎼𐎰𐎺 ''Parθava''; xpr, 𐭐𐭓𐭕𐭅 ''Parθaw''; pal, 𐭯𐭫𐭮𐭥𐭡𐭥 ''Pahlaw'') is a historical region located in northeastern Greater Iran. It was conquered and subjugated by the empire of the Med ...
. The Sakas seem to have entered the territory of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom around 145 BCE, where they burnt to the ground the Greek city of Alexandria on the Oxus. The Yuezhi remained in Sogdiana on the northern bank of the Oxus, but they became suzerains of the Sakas in Bactrian territory, as described by the Chinese ambassador Zhang Qian who visited the region around 126 BCE. In Parthia, between 138–124 BCE, a tribe known to ancient Greek scholars as the
Sacaraucae The Saka (Old Persian: ; Kharoṣṭhī: ; Ancient Egyptian: , ; , old , mod. , ), Shaka (Sanskrit ( Brāhmī): , , ; Sanskrit (Devanāgarī): , ), or Sacae ( Ancient Greek: ; Latin: ) were a group of nomadic Iranian peoples who hist ...
(probably from the Old Persian ''Sakaravaka'' "nomadic Saka") and an allied people, the Massagetae, came into conflict with the
Parthian Empire The Parthian Empire (), also known as the Arsacid Empire (), was a major Iranian political and cultural power in ancient Iran from 247 BC to 224 AD. Its latter name comes from its founder, Arsaces I, who led the Parni tribe in conqu ...
. The Sacaraucae-Massagetae alliance won several battles and killed, in succession, the Parthian kings Phraates II and Artabanus I. The Parthian king Mithridates II finally retook control of parts of Central Asia, first by defeating the Yuezhi in Sogdia in 115 BCE, and then defeating the Scythians in Parthia and
Seistan Sistān ( fa, سیستان), known in ancient times as Sakastān ( fa, سَكاستان, "the land of the Saka"), is a historical and geographical region in present-day Eastern Iran ( Sistan and Baluchestan Province) and Southern Afghanistan (N ...
around 100 BCE. After their defeat, the Yuezhi tribes migrated relatively far to the east into Bactria, which they were to control for several centuries, and from which they later conquered northern India to found the Kushan Empire.


Settlement in Sakastan

The Sakas settled in Drangiana, an area of Southern
Afghanistan Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,; prs, امارت اسلامی افغانستان is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Referred to as the Heart of Asia, it is borde ...
, western
Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 24 ...
and south
Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
, which was then named after them, as
Sakastan Sistān ( fa, سیستان), known in ancient times as Sakastān ( fa, سَكاستان, "the land of the Saka"), is a historical and geographical region in present-day Eastern Iran ( Sistan and Baluchestan Province) and Southern Afghanistan ...
or Sistan. From there, they progressively expanded into present day Iran as well as northern India, where they established various kingdoms, and where they were known as "Saka". The mixed Scythian hordes that migrated to Drangiana and surrounding regions later spread further into north and south-west India via the lower Indus valley. Their migration spread into Sovira, Gujarat, Rajasthan and northern India, including kingdoms in the Indian mainland. The Arsacid emperor Mithridates II (c. 123–88/87 BCE) pursued an aggressive military policy in Central Asia and added many provinces to the
Parthian Empire The Parthian Empire (), also known as the Arsacid Empire (), was a major Iranian political and cultural power in ancient Iran from 247 BC to 224 AD. Its latter name comes from its founder, Arsaces I, who led the Parni tribe in conqu ...
. This included Western Bactria which Mithridates wrested from the Indo-Scythians. Following military pressure from the Yuezhi (precursors of the Kushana), a section of the Indo-Scythians moved from Bactria to
Lake Helmond Lake Hāmūn ( fa, دریاچه هامون, ''Daryācheh-ye Hāmūn''; ps, هامون ډنډ), or the Hamoun Oasis, is a seasonal lake and wetlands in the endorheic Sīstān Basin in the Sistan region on the Afghanistan–Iran border. In Iran ...
(or Hāmūn), and settled in or around Drangiana ( Sigal), a region which later came to be called "Sakistana of the
Skythian Sakai ", towards the end of 1st century BCE. The region is still known as
Seistan Sistān ( fa, سیستان), known in ancient times as Sakastān ( fa, سَكاستان, "the land of the Saka"), is a historical and geographical region in present-day Eastern Iran ( Sistan and Baluchestan Province) and Southern Afghanistan (N ...
. I The presence of the Sakas in Sakastan in the 1st century BCE is mentioned by Isidore of Charax in his "Parthian stations". He explained that they were bordered at that time by Greek cities to the east ( Alexandria of the Caucasus and Alexandria of the Arachosians), and the Parthian-controlled territory of
Arachosia Arachosia () is the Hellenized name of an ancient satrapy situated in the eastern parts of the Achaemenid empire. It was centred around the valley of the Arghandab River in modern-day southern Afghanistan, and extended as far east as the In ...
to the south: :"Beyond is Sacastana of the Scythian Sacae, which is also Paraetacena, 63 schoeni. There are the city of Barda and the city of Min and the city of
Palacenti Palacenti was an ancient town of Drangiana in southwest Afghanistan Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,; prs, امارت اسلامی افغانستان is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Centra ...
and the city of Sigal; in that place is the royal residence of the Sacae; and nearby is the city of Alexandria ( Alexandria Arachosia), and six villages." Parthian stations, 18.


Indo-Scythian kingdoms


Pamirs to Taxila

Ahmad Hassan Dani Ahmad Hassan Dani ( Urdu: احمد حسن دانی) FRAS, SI, HI (20 June 1920 – 26 January 2009) was a Pakistani archaeologist, historian, and linguist. He was among the foremost authorities on Central Asian and South Asian archaeo ...
and professor , from the petroglyphs left by Saka soldiers at principal river crossings at Chilas and the Sacred Rock of Hunza in Pakistan, have established the route across the Karakoram mountains used by
Maues Maues ( Greek: ; (epigraphic); Kharosthi: , , called , on the Taxila copper plate; also called , in the Mathura lion capital inscription,) was the first Indo-Scythian king, ruling from 98/85 to 60/57 BCE. He invaded India and establis ...
, the first Indo-Scythian king, to capture Taxila from Indo-Greek King Apollodotus II. The 1st century CE
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea The ''Periplus of the Erythraean Sea'' ( grc, Περίπλους τῆς Ἐρυθρᾶς Θαλάσσης, ', modern Greek '), also known by its Latin name as the , is a Greco-Roman periplus written in Koine Greek that describes navigation and ...
describes the Scythian territories there:
"Beyond this region ( Gedrosia), the continent making a wide curve from the east across the depths of the bays, there follows the coast district of Scythia, which lies above toward the north; the whole marshy; from which flows down the river Sinthus, the greatest of all the rivers that flow into the Erythraean Sea, bringing down an enormous volume of water (...) This river has seven mouths, very shallow and marshy, so that they are not navigable, except the one in the middle; at which by the shore, is the market-town,
Barbaricum Barbaricum (from the gr, Βαρβαρικόν, "foreign", "barbarian") is a geographical name used by historical and archaeological experts to refer to the vast area of barbarian-occupied territory that lay, in Roman times, beyond the frontiers ...
. Before it there lies a small island, and inland behind it is the metropolis of Scythia, Minnagara; it is subject to Parthian princes who are constantly driving each other out.."
The Indo-Scythians ultimately established a kingdom in the northwest, based near Taxila, with two great
Satraps A satrap () was a governor of the provinces of the ancient Median and Achaemenid Empires and in several of their successors, such as in the Sasanian Empire and the Hellenistic empires. The satrap served as viceroy to the king, though with consid ...
, one in Mathura in the east, and one in Surastrene (
Gujarat Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...
) in the southwest. In the southeast, the Indo-Scythians invaded the area of
Ujjain Ujjain (, Hindustani pronunciation: �d͡ːʒɛːn is a city in Ujjain district of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. It is the fifth-largest city in Madhya Pradesh by population and is the administrative centre of Ujjain district and Uj ...
, but were subsequently repelled in 57 BCE by the
Malwa Malwa is a historical region of west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin. Geologically, the Malwa Plateau generally refers to the volcanic upland north of the Vindhya Range. Politically and administratively, it is also sy ...
king Vikramaditya. To commemorate the event Vikramaditya established the Vikrama era, a specific Indian calendar starting in 57 BCE. More than a century later, in CE 78, the Sakas would again invade Ujjain and establish the Saka era, marking the beginning of the long-lived Saka Western Satraps kingdom.


Gandhara and Punjab

The presence of the Scythians in modern day Pakistan and north-western India during the 1st century BCE was contemporary with that of the Indo-Greek Kingdoms there, and it seems they initially recognized the power of the local Greek rulers.
Maues Maues ( Greek: ; (epigraphic); Kharosthi: , , called , on the Taxila copper plate; also called , in the Mathura lion capital inscription,) was the first Indo-Scythian king, ruling from 98/85 to 60/57 BCE. He invaded India and establis ...
first conquered Gandhara and Taxila in Pakistan around 80 BCE, but his kingdom disintegrated after his death. In the east, the Indian king
Vikrama Vikramaditya (IAST: ') was a legendary king who has been featured in hundreds of traditional stories including those in ''Baital Pachisi'' and ''Singhasan Battisi''. Many describe him as ruler with his capital at Ujjain (Pataliputra or Pratis ...
retook
Ujjain Ujjain (, Hindustani pronunciation: �d͡ːʒɛːn is a city in Ujjain district of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. It is the fifth-largest city in Madhya Pradesh by population and is the administrative centre of Ujjain district and Uj ...
from the Indo-Scythians, celebrating his victory by the creation of the Vikrama era (starting 58 BCE). Indo-Greek kings again ruled after Maues, and prospered, as indicated by the profusion of coins from Kings Apollodotus II and
Hippostratos Hippostratus ( grc, Ἱππόστρατος, Hippostratos) was an Indo-Greek king who ruled central and north-western Punjab and Pushkalavati. Bopearachchi dates Hippostratus to 65 to 55 BCE whereas R. C. Senior suggests 60 to 50 BCE. Rule In B ...
. Not until Azes I, in 55 BCE, did the Indo-Scythians take final control of northwestern India, with their victory over Hippostratos.


Sculpture

Excavations organized by John Marshall found several stone sculptures in the Early Saka layer (Layer No4, corresponding to the period of Azes I, in which numerous coins of the latter were found). Several of them are toilet trays (also called stone palettes) roughly imitative of earlier, and finer, Hellenistic examples found in the earlier layers. Marshall comments that "we have a praiseworthy effort to copy a Hellenistic original but obviously without the appreciation of form and skill which were necessary for the task". From the same layer, several statuettes in the round are also known, in very rigid and frontal style.


Bimaran casket

Azes Azes I (Greek: , epigraphically ; Kharosthi: , ) was an Indo-Scythian ruler who ruled around c. 48/47 BCE – 25 BCE with a dynastic empire based in the Punjab and Indus Valley, completed the domination of the Scythians in the northwestern Indi ...
is connected to the Bimaran casket, one of the earliest representations of the
Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in L ...
. The casket was used for the dedication of a
stupa A stupa ( sa, स्तूप, lit=heap, ) is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics (such as ''śarīra'' – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns) that is used as a place of meditation. In Buddhism, circum ...
in Bamiran, near Jalalabad in
Afghanistan Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,; prs, امارت اسلامی افغانستان is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Referred to as the Heart of Asia, it is borde ...
, and placed inside the stupa with several coins of Azes. This event may have happened during the reign of Azes (60–20 BCE), or slightly later. The Indo-Scythians are otherwise connected with Buddhism (see
Mathura lion capital The Mathura lion capital is an Indo-Scythian sandstone capital (a part of a pillar) from Mathura in Northern India, dated to the first decade of the 1st century CE (1–10 CE). It was consecrated under the rule of Rajuvula, one of the Northern S ...
), and it is indeed possible they would have commended the work.


Mathura area ("Northern Satraps")

In northern India, the Indo-Scythians conquered the area of Mathura over Indian kings around 60 BCE. Some of their satraps were Hagamasha and Hagana, who were in turn followed by the Saca Great Satrap
Rajuvula Rajuvula (Greek ; Brahmi: , ; Kharosthi: , ; , ; , ) was an Indo-Scythian Great Satrap (''Mahākṣatrapa''), one of the "Northern Satraps" who ruled in the area of Mathura in the northern Indian Subcontinent in the years around 10 CE. The M ...
. The
Mathura lion capital The Mathura lion capital is an Indo-Scythian sandstone capital (a part of a pillar) from Mathura in Northern India, dated to the first decade of the 1st century CE (1–10 CE). It was consecrated under the rule of Rajuvula, one of the Northern S ...
, an Indo-Scythian sandstone capital in crude style, from Mathura in northern India, and dated to the 1st century CE, describes in kharoshthi the gift of a
stupa A stupa ( sa, स्तूप, lit=heap, ) is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics (such as ''śarīra'' – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns) that is used as a place of meditation. In Buddhism, circum ...
with a relic of the Buddha, by Queen
Nadasi Kasa Nadasi Kasa (also Nadasi Akasa, Nadadi Akasa, or Nada Diaka) was a queen of the Saka Mahakshatrapa Rajuvula, daughter of Aiyasi Kamuia. She finds mention in inscription no A-5 of the Mathura Lion Capital. F. W. Thomas has read this name as ''Nad ...
, the wife of the Indo-Scythian ruler of Mathura,
Rajuvula Rajuvula (Greek ; Brahmi: , ; Kharosthi: , ; , ; , ) was an Indo-Scythian Great Satrap (''Mahākṣatrapa''), one of the "Northern Satraps" who ruled in the area of Mathura in the northern Indian Subcontinent in the years around 10 CE. The M ...
. The capital also mentions the genealogy of several Indo-Scythian satraps of Mathura. Rajuvula apparently eliminated the last of the Indo-Greek kings Strato II around 10 CE, and took his capital city, Sagala. The coinage of the period, such as that of Rajuvula, tends to become very crude and barbarized in style. It is also very much debased, the silver content becoming lower and lower, in exchange for a higher proportion of bronze, an alloying technique ( billon) suggesting less than wealthy finances. The Mathura lion capital inscriptions attest that Mathura fell under the control of the Sakas. The inscriptions contain references to Kharahostes and Queen Ayasia, the "chief queen of the Indo-Scythian ruler of Mathura, satrap
Rajuvula Rajuvula (Greek ; Brahmi: , ; Kharosthi: , ; , ; , ) was an Indo-Scythian Great Satrap (''Mahākṣatrapa''), one of the "Northern Satraps" who ruled in the area of Mathura in the northern Indian Subcontinent in the years around 10 CE. The M ...
." Kharahostes was the son of ''Arta'' as is attested by his own coins. Arta is stated to be brother of King Moga or
Maues Maues ( Greek: ; (epigraphic); Kharosthi: , , called , on the Taxila copper plate; also called , in the Mathura lion capital inscription,) was the first Indo-Scythian king, ruling from 98/85 to 60/57 BCE. He invaded India and establis ...
. The Indo-Scythian satraps of Mathura are sometimes called the "Northern Satraps", in opposition to the " Western Satraps" ruling in
Gujarat Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...
and
Malwa Malwa is a historical region of west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin. Geologically, the Malwa Plateau generally refers to the volcanic upland north of the Vindhya Range. Politically and administratively, it is also sy ...
. After Rajuvula, several successors are known to have ruled as vassals to the Kushans, such as the "Great Satrap" Kharapallana and the "Satrap"
Vanaspara Vanaspara (ruled circa 130 CE) was an Indo-Scythian Northern Satrap (''kshtrapa''). He is mentioned as a "Satrap" (Brahmi:, ''Kṣatrapa'', "Satrap") of Kushan ruler Kanishka I on an inscription discovered in Sarnath, and dated to the 3rd year of ...
, who are known from an inscription discovered in Sarnath, and dated to the 3rd year of Kanishka (c. CE 130), in which they were paying allegiance to the Kushans.


Pataliputra

The text of the Yuga Purana describes an invasion of
Pataliputra Pataliputra (IAST: ), adjacent to modern-day Patna, was a city in ancient India, originally built by Magadha ruler Ajatashatru in 490 BCE as a small fort () near the Ganges river.. Udayin laid the foundation of the city of Pataliputra at t ...
by the Scythians sometime during the 1st century BCE, after seven great kings had ruled in succession in Saketa following the retreat of the Yavanas. The Yuga Purana explains that the king of the Sakas killed one fourth of the population, before he was himself slain by the
Kalinga Kalinga may refer to: Geography, linguistics and/or ethnology * Kalinga (historical region), a historical region of India ** Kalinga (Mahabharata), an apocryphal kingdom mentioned in classical Indian literature ** Kalinga script, an ancient writin ...
king Shata and a group of Sabalas (Sabaras or Bhillas).


Kushan and Indo-Parthian conquests

After the death of Azes, the rule of the Indo-Scythians in northwestern India was shattered with the rise of the Indo-Parthian ruler Gondophares in the last years of the 1st century BCE. For the following decades, a number of minor Scythian leaders maintained themselves in local strongholds on the fringes of the loosely assembled Indo-Parthian empire, some of them paying formal allegiance to Gondophares I and his successors. During the latter part of the 1st century CE, the Indo-Parthian overlordship was gradually replaced with that of the Kushans, one of the five tribes of the Yuezhi who had lived in Bactria for more than a century, and were now expanding into India to create a Kushan Empire. The Kushans ultimately regained northwestern India from around CE 75, and the area of Mathura from around CE 100, where they were to prosper for several centuries.


Western Kshatrapas

Indo-Scythians continued to hold the area of
Seistan Sistān ( fa, سیستان), known in ancient times as Sakastān ( fa, سَكاستان, "the land of the Saka"), is a historical and geographical region in present-day Eastern Iran ( Sistan and Baluchestan Province) and Southern Afghanistan (N ...
until the reign of Bahram II (CE 276–293), and held several areas of India well into the 1st millennium:
Kathiawar Kathiawar () is a peninsula, near the far north of India's west coast, of about bordering the Arabian Sea. It is bounded by the Gulf of Kutch in the northwest and by the Gulf of Khambhat (Gulf of Cambay) in the east. In the northeast, i ...
and
Gujarat Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...
were under their rule until the 5th century under the designation of Western Kshatrapas. The Khsatrap Rudradaman I was a notable conqueror whose exploits are inscribed in the
Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman The Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman, also known as the Girnar Rock inscription of Rudradaman, is a Sanskrit prose inscribed on a rock by the Western Satraps ruler Rudradaman I. It is located near Girnar hill near Junagadh, Gujarat, ...
. During his campaigns, Rudradaman conqured the Yaudheyas and defeated the Satavahana Empire. The Western Kshatraps were eventually conquered by the
Gupta Gupta () is a common surname or last name of Indian origin. It is based on the Sanskrit word गोप्तृ ''goptṛ'', which means 'guardian' or 'protector'. According to historian R. C. Majumdar, the surname ''Gupta'' was adopted by sev ...
emperor Chandragupta II (also called Vikramaditya).


Indo-Scythian coinage

Indo-Scythian coinage is generally of a high artistic quality, although it clearly deteriorates towards the disintegration of Indo-Scythian rule around CE 20 (coins of
Rajuvula Rajuvula (Greek ; Brahmi: , ; Kharosthi: , ; , ; , ) was an Indo-Scythian Great Satrap (''Mahākṣatrapa''), one of the "Northern Satraps" who ruled in the area of Mathura in the northern Indian Subcontinent in the years around 10 CE. The M ...
). A fairly high-quality but rather stereotypical coinage would continue in the Western Satraps until the 4th century. Indo-Scythian coinage is generally quite realistic, artistically somewhere between Indo-Greek and Kushan coinage. It is often suggested Indo-Scythian coinage benefited from the help of Greek celators (Boppearachchi). Indo-Scythian coins essentially continue the Indo-Greek tradition, by using the Greek language on the obverse and the Kharoshthi language on the reverse. The portrait of the king is never shown however, and is replaced by depictions of the king on horse (and sometimes on camel), or sometimes sitting cross-legged on a cushion. The reverse of their coins typically show Greek divinities. Buddhist symbolism is present throughout Indo-Scythian coinage. In particular, they adopted the Indo-Greek practice since Menander I of showing divinities forming the vitarka mudra with their right hand (as for the mudra-forming Zeus on the coins of
Maues Maues ( Greek: ; (epigraphic); Kharosthi: , , called , on the Taxila copper plate; also called , in the Mathura lion capital inscription,) was the first Indo-Scythian king, ruling from 98/85 to 60/57 BCE. He invaded India and establis ...
or
Azes II Azes II (Greek: , epigraphically ; Kharosthi: , ), may have been the last Indo-Scythian king, speculated to have reigned circa 35–12 BCE, in the northern Indian subcontinent (modern day Pakistan). His existence has been questioned; if he did ...
), or the presence of the Buddhist lion on the coins of the same two kings, or the triratana symbol on the coins of
Zeionises Zeionises (Greek: , (epigraphic); Kharosthi: , , , ;) was an Indo-Scythian satrap. Name Zeionises's name appears on his coins in the Greek form () and the Kharosthi form (), and on a silver vase from Taxila in the Kharosthi form (), whic ...
.


Indo-Scythian art

Besides coinage, few works of art are known to indisputably represent Indo-Scythians. Indo-Scythian rulers are usually depicted on horseback in armour, but the coins of
Azilises Azilises (Greek: , (epigraphic); Kharosthi: , ) was an Indo-Scythian king who ruled in the area of Gandhara circa 57-35 BCE. Name Azes's name is attested on his coins in the Greek form () and the Kharosthi form (), which are both derived fro ...
show the king in a simple, undecorated, tunic. Several Gandharan sculptures also show foreigners in soft tunics, sometimes wearing the pointed hat typical of
Scythians The Scythians or Scyths, and sometimes also referred to as the Classical Scythians and the Pontic Scythians, were an ancient Eastern * : "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Cent ...
. They stand in contrast to representations of Kushan men, who seem to wear thick, rigid, tunics, and who are generally represented in a much more simplistic manner.


Buner reliefs

Indo-Scythian soldiers in military attire are sometimes represented in Buddhist friezes in the art of Gandhara (particularly in
Buner reliefs Buner reliefs is a term for a number of stone reliefs in or taken from Buner District, in the Peshawar valley in Pakistan, once in ancient Gandhara. They are also near the Swat Valley. Most come from Buddhist contexts, but are decorative small-sc ...
). They are depicted in ample tunics with trousers, and have heavy straight swords as weapons. They wear pointed hoods or the Scythian cap (see Pointed hat), which distinguishes them from the Indo-Parthians who only wore a simple fillet over their bushy hair, and which is also systematically worn by Indo-Scythian rulers on their coins. With the right hand, some of them are forming the Karana mudra against evil spirits. In Gandhara, such friezes were used as decorations on the pedestals of Buddhist stupas. They are contemporary with other friezes representing people in purely Greek attire, hinting at an intermixing of Indo-Scythians (holding military power) and Indo-Greeks (confined, under Indo-Scythian rule, to civilian life). Another relief is known where the same type of soldiers are playing musical instruments and dancing, activities which are widely represented elsewhere in Gandharan art: Indo-Scythians are typically shown as reveling devotees. File:Buner reliefs Scythian bacchanalian cropped.jpg, One of the
Buner reliefs Buner reliefs is a term for a number of stone reliefs in or taken from Buner District, in the Peshawar valley in Pakistan, once in ancient Gandhara. They are also near the Swat Valley. Most come from Buddhist contexts, but are decorative small-sc ...
showing Scythian soldiers dancing. Cleveland Museum of Art. File:IndoScythiansDyonisos.jpg, Indo-Scythians pushing along the Greek god Dionysos with Ariadne. File:SoldiersBattllingAnimals2.jpg, Hunting scene. File:SoldiersBattllingAnimals5.jpg, Hunting scene.


Stone palettes

Numerous stone palettes found in Gandhara are considered good representatives of Indo-Scythian art. These palettes combine Greek and Iranian influences, and are often realized in a simple, archaic style. Stone palettes have only been found in archaeological layers corresponding to Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian rule, and are essentially unknown in the preceding Mauryan layers or the succeeding Kushan layers. Very often these palettes represent people in Greek dress in mythological scenes, a few in Parthian dress (head-bands over bushy hair, crossed-over jacket on a bare chest, jewelry, belt, baggy trousers), and even fewer in Indo-Scythian dress (Phrygian hat, tunic and comparatively straight trousers). A palette found in Sirkap and now in the
New Delhi Museum The National Museum in New Delhi, also known as the National Museum of India, is one of the largest museums in India. Established in 1949, it holds a variety of articles ranging from pre-historic era to modern works of art. It functions under ...
shows a winged Indo-Scythian horseman riding winged deer, and being attacked by a lion.


The Indo-Scythians and Buddhism

The Indo-Scythians seem to have been followers of Buddhism, and many of their practices apparently continued those of the Indo-Greeks.


Royal dedications

Several Indo-Scythian kings after
Azes Azes I (Greek: , epigraphically ; Kharosthi: , ) was an Indo-Scythian ruler who ruled around c. 48/47 BCE – 25 BCE with a dynastic empire based in the Punjab and Indus Valley, completed the domination of the Scythians in the northwestern Indi ...
are known for making Buddhist dedications in their name, on plaques or reliquaries: *
Patika Kusulaka Patika Kusulaka (Kharosthi: , ) was an Indo-Scythian satrap in the northwestern South Asia during the 1st century BCE. Name Patika Kusulaka's name appears on the Taxila copper plate as (). This name is composed of: (), which is from the Saka nam ...
(25 BCE – 10 CE) related his donation of a relic of the Buddha Shakyamuni to a Buddhist monastery, in the Taxila copper plate. * Kharahostes (10 BCE – 10 CE) is mentioned on the Buddhist
Mathura lion capital The Mathura lion capital is an Indo-Scythian sandstone capital (a part of a pillar) from Mathura in Northern India, dated to the first decade of the 1st century CE (1–10 CE). It was consecrated under the rule of Rajuvula, one of the Northern S ...
and on a reliquary. His coins were also found in the Bimaran casket, a beautiful Buddhist gold reliquary with an early image of the Buddha, now in the
British Museum The British Museum is a public museum dedicated to human history, art and culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London. Its permanent collection of eight million works is among the largest and most comprehensive in existence. It docum ...
. Some of his coins bear the Buddhist triratna symbol. * Vijayamitra (ruled 12 BCE - 15 CE) personally dedicated in his name a Buddhist reliquary. Some of his coins bear the Buddhist triratna symbol. *
Indravarman Indravarman or Indravarma (Kharosthi: 𐨀𐨁𐨎𐨡𐨿𐨪𐨬𐨪𐨿𐨨 ', '), also called Itravasu on his coinage, was an Indo-Scythian king of the Apracas, who ruled in the area of Bajaur in modern northwestern Pakistan. He was the son of ...
, while still a Prince, personally dedicated in 5-6 CE a Buddhist reliquary, the Bajaur casket, now in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art The Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York City, colloquially "the Met", is the largest art museum in the Americas. Its permanent collection contains over two million works, divided among 17 curatorial departments. The main building at 1000 ...
. *
Zeionises Zeionises (Greek: , (epigraphic); Kharosthi: , , , ;) was an Indo-Scythian satrap. Name Zeionises's name appears on his coins in the Greek form () and the Kharosthi form (), and on a silver vase from Taxila in the Kharosthi form (), whic ...
and
Aspavarma Aspavarma or Aspa ( Kharosthi: 𐨀𐨭𐨿𐨤𐨬𐨪𐨿𐨨 ', ') was an Indo-Scythian ruler of the clan of the Apraca, who ruled from around 15 to 45 CE. He ruled in the Bajaur area of modern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan and is considere ...
also used the Buddhist triratna symbol on their coins. *
Rajuvula Rajuvula (Greek ; Brahmi: , ; Kharosthi: , ; , ; , ) was an Indo-Scythian Great Satrap (''Mahākṣatrapa''), one of the "Northern Satraps" who ruled in the area of Mathura in the northern Indian Subcontinent in the years around 10 CE. The M ...
erected the
Mathura lion capital The Mathura lion capital is an Indo-Scythian sandstone capital (a part of a pillar) from Mathura in Northern India, dated to the first decade of the 1st century CE (1–10 CE). It was consecrated under the rule of Rajuvula, one of the Northern S ...
, which incorporates Buddhist symbols and relates the donations by his wife of relics to a stupa.


Butkara Stupa

Excavations at the Butkara Stupa in Swat by an Italian archaeological team have yielded various Buddhist sculptures thought to belong to the Indo-Scythian period. In particular, an Indo-Corinthian capital representing a Buddhist devotee within foliage has been found which had a reliquary and coins of
Azes Azes I (Greek: , epigraphically ; Kharosthi: , ) was an Indo-Scythian ruler who ruled around c. 48/47 BCE – 25 BCE with a dynastic empire based in the Punjab and Indus Valley, completed the domination of the Scythians in the northwestern Indi ...
buried at its base, securely dating the sculpture to around 20 BCE. A contemporary pilaster with the image of a Buddhist devotee in Greek dress has also been found at the same spot, again suggesting a mingling of the two populations. Various reliefs at the same location show Indo-Scythians with their characteristic tunics and pointed hoods within a Buddhist context, and side-by-side with reliefs of standing Buddhas.


Gandharan sculptures

Other reliefs have been found, which show Indo-Scythian men with their characteristic pointed cap pushing a cart on which is reclining the Greek god
Dionysos In ancient Greek religion and myth, Dionysus (; grc, Διόνυσος ) is the god of the grape-harvest, winemaking, orchards and fruit, vegetation, fertility, insanity, ritual madness, religious ecstasy, festivity, and theatre. The Romans ...
with his consort
Ariadne Ariadne (; grc-gre, Ἀριάδνη; la, Ariadne) was a Cretan princess in Greek mythology. She was mostly associated with mazes and labyrinths because of her involvement in the myths of the Minotaur and Theseus. She is best known for having ...
.


Mathura lion capital

The
Mathura lion capital The Mathura lion capital is an Indo-Scythian sandstone capital (a part of a pillar) from Mathura in Northern India, dated to the first decade of the 1st century CE (1–10 CE). It was consecrated under the rule of Rajuvula, one of the Northern S ...
, which associates many of the Indo-Scythian rulers from
Maues Maues ( Greek: ; (epigraphic); Kharosthi: , , called , on the Taxila copper plate; also called , in the Mathura lion capital inscription,) was the first Indo-Scythian king, ruling from 98/85 to 60/57 BCE. He invaded India and establis ...
to
Rajuvula Rajuvula (Greek ; Brahmi: , ; Kharosthi: , ; , ; , ) was an Indo-Scythian Great Satrap (''Mahākṣatrapa''), one of the "Northern Satraps" who ruled in the area of Mathura in the northern Indian Subcontinent in the years around 10 CE. The M ...
, mentions a dedication of a relic of the Buddha in a
stupa A stupa ( sa, स्तूप, lit=heap, ) is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics (such as ''śarīra'' – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns) that is used as a place of meditation. In Buddhism, circum ...
. It also bears centrally the Buddhist symbol of the triratana, and is also filled with mentions of the bhagavat Buddha
Sakyamuni Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in Lu ...
, and characteristically Buddhist phrases such as: :''"sarvabudhana puya dhamasa puya saghasa puya"'' :"Revere all the Buddhas, revere the dharma, revere the sangha" :(
Mathura lion capital The Mathura lion capital is an Indo-Scythian sandstone capital (a part of a pillar) from Mathura in Northern India, dated to the first decade of the 1st century CE (1–10 CE). It was consecrated under the rule of Rajuvula, one of the Northern S ...
, inscription O1/O2) File:PilarImage4.jpg, Indo-Corinthian capital from Butkara Stupa, dated to 20 BC, during the reign of
Azes II Azes II (Greek: , epigraphically ; Kharosthi: , ), may have been the last Indo-Scythian king, speculated to have reigned circa 35–12 BCE, in the northern Indian subcontinent (modern day Pakistan). His existence has been questioned; if he did ...
. Turin City Museum of Ancient Art. File:DancingIndoScythians.jpg, Dancing Indo-Scythians (top) and hunting scene (bottom). Buddhist relief from Swat, Gandhara. File:ButkaraDoorJamb.jpg, Butkara doorjamb, with Indo-Scythians dancing and reveling. On the back side is a relief of a standing Buddha File:Loriya Tangai Buddha.jpg, Statue with inscription mentioning "year 318", probably 143 AD.Problems of Chronology in Gandharan Art pp.35-51, 2017
/ref> The two devotees on the right side of the pedestal are in
Indo-Scythian Indo-Scythians (also called Indo-Sakas) were a group of nomadic Iranian peoples of Scythian origin who migrated from Central Asia southward into modern day Pakistan and Northwestern India from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 4th c ...
suit (loose trousers, tunic, and hood).


Indo-Scythians in Indian literature

The Indo-Scythians were named "Shaka" in India, an extension on the name Saka used by the Persians to designate Scythians. Shakas receive numerous mentions in texts like the Purāṇas, the Manusmṛti, the Rāmāyaṇa, the Mahābhārata, the Mahābhāṣya of Patañjali, the Brhatsaṃhitā of Varāhamihira, the Kāvyamīmāṃsā, the Bṛhatkathāmañjarīi, the Kathāsaritsāgara and several other old texts. They are described as part of an amalgam of other war-like tribes from the northwest. There are important references to the warring ''Mleccha'' hordes of the Sakas,
Yavana The word Yona in Pali and the Prakrits, and the analogue Yavana in Sanskrit and Yavanar in Tamil, were words used in Ancient India to designate Greek speakers. "Yona" and "Yavana" are transliterations of the Greek word for "Ionians" ( gr ...
s, Kambojas and Pahlavas in the ''Bala Kanda'' of the Valmiki
Ramayana The ''Rāmāyana'' (; sa, रामायणम्, ) is a Sanskrit epic composed over a period of nearly a millennium, with scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 8th to 4th centuries BCE, and later stages ...
. H. C. Raychadhury glimpses in these verses the struggles between the Hindus and the invading hordes of Mlechcha barbarians from the northwest. The time frame for these struggles is the 2nd century BCE onwards. Raychadhury fixes the date of the present version of the Valmiki
Ramayana The ''Rāmāyana'' (; sa, रामायणम्, ) is a Sanskrit epic composed over a period of nearly a millennium, with scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 8th to 4th centuries BCE, and later stages ...
around or after the 2nd century CE.
Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the '' Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the K ...
too furnishes a veiled hint about the invasion of the mixed hordes from the northwest. ''Vanaparava'' by Mahabharata contains verses in the form of prophecy deploring that "......the Mlechha ( barbaric) kings of the Shakas,
Yavana The word Yona in Pali and the Prakrits, and the analogue Yavana in Sanskrit and Yavanar in Tamil, were words used in Ancient India to designate Greek speakers. "Yona" and "Yavana" are transliterations of the Greek word for "Ionians" ( gr ...
s, Kambojas, Bahlikas, etc. shall rule the earth un-righteously in '' Kali Yuga''..." As with many traditional epics, the two Indian epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, which comprise the Itihasa, have gone through multiple interpolations and redactions since its conception, rendering it impossible to accurately date. It is highly likely that these additions were made with changing political factors and the introduction of new people into society.


Indo-Scythians in Greco-Roman Sources

The country of Scythia in the area of
Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 24 ...
, and especially around the mouth of the Indus with its capital at Minnagara (modern day Karachi) is mentioned extensively in Western maps and travel descriptions of the period. The Ptolemy world map and
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea The ''Periplus of the Erythraean Sea'' ( grc, Περίπλους τῆς Ἐρυθρᾶς Θαλάσσης, ', modern Greek '), also known by its Latin name as the , is a Greco-Roman periplus written in Koine Greek that describes navigation and ...
mention prominently the country of Scythia in the Indus Valley, as well as Roman Tabula Peutingeriana. The Periplus states that Minnagara was the capital of Scythia, and that Parthian princes from within it were fighting for its control during the 1st century CE. It also distinguishes Scythia from
Ariaca Ariaca was a region of Western India beyond Barigaza, mentioned in ancient geographical sources, usually associated with the Western Satraps. According to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Ariaca was part of the kingdom of ''Nambanus'', though ...
further east, (centred in
Gujarat Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...
and
Malwa Malwa is a historical region of west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin. Geologically, the Malwa Plateau generally refers to the volcanic upland north of the Vindhya Range. Politically and administratively, it is also sy ...
), over which ruled the
Western Satrap The Western Satraps, or Western Kshatrapas (Brahmi:, ''Mahakṣatrapa'', "Great Satraps") were Indo-Scythian (Saka) rulers of the western and central part of India ( Saurashtra and Malwa: modern Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh ...
king
Nahapana Nahapana ( Ancient Greek: ; Kharosthi: , ; Brahmi: , ;), was an important ruler of the Western Kshatrapas, descendant of the Indo-Scythians, in northwestern India, who ruled during the 1st or 2nd century CE. According to one of his coins, h ...
.


Sai-Wang Scythian hordes of Chipin or Kipin

A section of the
Central Asia Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes the fo ...
n Scythians (under Sai-Wang) is said to have taken a southerly direction and after passing through the Pamirs entered the Chipin or Kipin after crossing the Xuandu (懸度 ''Hanging Pass'') located above the valley of Kanda in Swat country. Chipin has been identified by Pelliot, Bagchi, Raychaudhury and some others with Kashmir while other scholars identify it with Kapisha (
Kafirstan Kāfiristān, or Kāfirstān ( ps, کاپیرستان, prs, کافرستان), is a historical region that covered present-day Nuristan Province in Afghanistan and Chitral District of Pakistan. This historic region lies on, and mainly comprise ...
). The Sai-Wang had established his kingdom in Kipin. S. Konow interprets the Sai-Wang as Śaka Murunda of Indian literature, Murunda being equal to Wang i.e. king, master or lord, but Bagchi who takes the word Wang in the sense of the king of the Scythians but he distinguishes the Sai Sakas from the Murunda Sakas. There are reasons to believe that Sai Scythians were Kamboja Scythians and therefore ''Sai-Wang'' belonged to the ''Scythianised Kambojas'' (i.e.
Parama-Kambojas Parama Kamboja Kingdom was mentioned in the epic Mahabharata to be on the far north west along with the Bahlika, Uttara Madra and Uttara Kuru countries. It was located in parts of modern-day Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Parama Kam ...
) of the Transoxiana region and came back to settle among his own stock after being evicted from his ancestral land located in ''Scythia'' or ''Shakadvipa''. King Moga or
Maues Maues ( Greek: ; (epigraphic); Kharosthi: , , called , on the Taxila copper plate; also called , in the Mathura lion capital inscription,) was the first Indo-Scythian king, ruling from 98/85 to 60/57 BCE. He invaded India and establis ...
could have belonged to this group of Scythians who had migrated from the ''Sai'' country (''Central Asia'') to Chipin.


Evidence about joint invasions

The Scythian groups that invaded India and set up various kingdoms included, besides the Sakas, other allied tribes, such as the
Medii The Medes (Old Persian: ; Akkadian: , ; Ancient Greek: ; Latin: ) were an ancient Iranian people who spoke the Median language and who inhabited an area known as Media between western and northern Iran. Around the 11th century BC, ...
, Xanthii, and Massagetae. These peoples were all absorbed into the
community A community is a social unit (a group of living things) with commonality such as place, norms, religion, values, customs, or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given geographical area (e.g. a country, village, t ...
of
Kshatriya Kshatriya ( hi, क्षत्रिय) (from Sanskrit ''kṣatra'', "rule, authority") is one of the four varna (social orders) of Hindu society, associated with warrior aristocracy. The Sanskrit term ''kṣatriyaḥ'' is used in the co ...
s of mainstream Indian society. The Shakas were formerly a people of the ''trans-Hemodos'' region—the ''Shakadvipa'' of the
Purana Purana (; sa, , '; literally meaning "ancient, old"Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, , page 915) is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends an ...
s or the
Scythia Scythia ( Scythian: ; Old Persian: ; Ancient Greek: ; Latin: ) or Scythica (Ancient Greek: ; Latin: ), also known as Pontic Scythia, was a kingdom created by the Scythians during the 6th to 3rd centuries BC in the Pontic–Caspian steppe. ...
of the classical writings. ''Isidor of Charax'' (beginning of 1st century CE) attests them in Sakastana (modern Seistan). The ''
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea The ''Periplus of the Erythraean Sea'' ( grc, Περίπλους τῆς Ἐρυθρᾶς Θαλάσσης, ', modern Greek '), also known by its Latin name as the , is a Greco-Roman periplus written in Koine Greek that describes navigation and ...
'' (c. CE 70–80) also attests a Scythian district in lower Indus with Minnagra as its capital. Ptolemy (c. CE 140) also attests to an Indo-Scythia in south-western India which comprised the Patalene and Surastrene (Saurashtra) territories. The 2nd century BCE Scythian invasion of India, was in all probability carried out jointly by the Sakas, Pahlavas, Kambojas, Paradas, Rishikas and other allied tribes from the northwest.


Main Indo-Scythian tribes and rulers


Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Eastern

Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 24 ...
, and Kashmir

*
Maues Maues ( Greek: ; (epigraphic); Kharosthi: , , called , on the Taxila copper plate; also called , in the Mathura lion capital inscription,) was the first Indo-Scythian king, ruling from 98/85 to 60/57 BCE. He invaded India and establis ...
, c. 85–60 BCE * Vonones, c. 75–65 BCE *
Spalahores Spalahores, also spelled Spalohres or Spalahora, (Greek: ; , (epigraphic); Kharosthi: , ; ruled circa 57-35 BCE), was an Iranian king who ruled Sakastan in the 1st-century BC. Name Spalahores's name is attested on his coins in the Greek forms ...
, c. 75–65 BCE, satrap and brother of King Vonones, and probably the later King Spalirises. *
Spalagadames Spalagadames (Kharosthi: , ) was an Iranian king, who ruled Sakastan in the last quarter of the 1st-century BC after his father Spalahores, who was himself possibly a brother of king Vonones. Spalagadames has been suggested by the Iranologist Kho ...
, c. 60–57 BCE,satrap, and son of Spalahores.. *
Spalirises Spalirisos, also spelled Spalirises, (Greek: , (epigraphic); Kharosthi: , ) was an Iranian king who ruled Arachosia in the 1st century BCE. Name Spalarisos's name is attested on his coins in the Greek form () and in the Kharosthi form (), w ...
c. 50 BCE, king and brother of King Vonones. * Azes I was also descended from Maues, c. 48/47 – 25 BCE *
Azilises Azilises (Greek: , (epigraphic); Kharosthi: , ) was an Indo-Scythian king who ruled in the area of Gandhara circa 57-35 BCE. Name Azes's name is attested on his coins in the Greek form () and the Kharosthi form (), which are both derived fro ...
, c. 60–20 BCE *
Zeionises Zeionises (Greek: , (epigraphic); Kharosthi: , , , ;) was an Indo-Scythian satrap. Name Zeionises's name appears on his coins in the Greek form () and the Kharosthi form (), and on a silver vase from Taxila in the Kharosthi form (), whic ...
, c. 10 BCE – CE 10 * Kharahostes, c. 10 BCE – CE 10 *
Hajatria Mujatria ( Kharosthi: , ), previously read Hajatria (ruled circa 10 CE, or 40-50 CE according to more recent research based on numismatics), is the name of an Indo-Scythian ruler, the son of Kharahostes as mentioned on his coins.Dating and Loca ...


Kshaharatas (Punjab, Pakistan and beyond)

*
Liaka Kusuluka Liaka Kusulaka ( Greek: , on his coins; Prakrit: Liaka Kusulaka or , , on the Taxila copper plate) was an Indo-Scythian satrap of the area of Chukhsa in the northwestern South Asia during the 1st century BCE. Name Liaka Kusulaka name is reco ...
, satrap of
Chuksa Chukhsa was an ancient area of Pakistan, probably modern Chach, west of the city of Taxila. History The area is mentioned in various epigraphic material, such as the Taxila copper plate inscription, where it is described as a territory of ...
*
Kusulaka Patika Patika Kusulaka ( Kharosthi: , ) was an Indo-Scythian satrap in the northwestern South Asia during the 1st century BCE. Name Patika Kusulaka's name appears on the Taxila copper plate as (). This name is composed of: (), which is from the Saka n ...
, satrap of
Chuksa Chukhsa was an ancient area of Pakistan, probably modern Chach, west of the city of Taxila. History The area is mentioned in various epigraphic material, such as the Taxila copper plate inscription, where it is described as a territory of ...
and son of Liaka Kusulaka *
Bhumaka Bhumaka ( Kharosthi: , ; Brahmi: , ; ?–119 CE) was a Western Kshatrapa ruler of the early 2nd century CE. He was the father of the great ruler Nahapana, according to one of the latter's coins. He was preceded by Abhiraka (Aubhirakes), of whom ...
*
Nahapana Nahapana ( Ancient Greek: ; Kharosthi: , ; Brahmi: , ;), was an important ruler of the Western Kshatrapas, descendant of the Indo-Scythians, in northwestern India, who ruled during the 1st or 2nd century CE. According to one of his coins, h ...
(founder of the Western Satraps)


Aprācas ( Bajaur, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa,

Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 24 ...
)

* Vijayamitra (12 BCE - CE 15), wife Rukhana * Indravasu (c. CE 20), wife Vasumitra *
Vispavarman Vispavarma (Kharosthi: 𐨬𐨁𐨭𐨿𐨤𐨬𐨪𐨿𐨨 ', ') or Visnuvarma (Kharosthi: 𐨬𐨁𐨮𐨸𐨂𐨬𐨪𐨿𐨨 ', '; ruled circa 0-20 CE) was an Indo-Scythian king of the Apracas, who ruled in the area of Bajaur in modern northwe ...
, wife Śiśirena *
Indravarman Indravarman or Indravarma (Kharosthi: 𐨀𐨁𐨎𐨡𐨿𐨪𐨬𐨪𐨿𐨨 ', '), also called Itravasu on his coinage, was an Indo-Scythian king of the Apracas, who ruled in the area of Bajaur in modern northwestern Pakistan. He was the son of ...
, wife Uttara * Aspa (CE 15–45) or
Aspavarma Aspavarma or Aspa ( Kharosthi: 𐨀𐨭𐨿𐨤𐨬𐨪𐨿𐨨 ', ') was an Indo-Scythian ruler of the clan of the Apraca, who ruled from around 15 to 45 CE. He ruled in the Bajaur area of modern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan and is considere ...
(CE 15 - 45) *
Sasan Sāssān ( Middle Persian 𐭮𐭠𐭮𐭠𐭭 Sāsān > Persian ساسان, also known as Sasan), considered the eponymous ancestor of the Sasanian (or Sassanid) Dynasty (ruled 224-651) in Persia, was "a great warrior and hunter" and a Zoro ...


Pāratas ( Balochistan,

Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 24 ...
)

* , son of Bagareva (c. 125–150) * , son of Yolamira (c. 150) * Arjuna, a second son of Yolamira (c. 150–160) * , a third son of Yolamira (c. 160–175) * , son of Hvaramira (c. 175–185) * Miratakhma, another son of Hvaramira (c. 185–200) * Kozana, son of Bagavharna (and perhaps grandson of Bagamira?) (c. 200–220) * Bhimarjuna, son of Yolatakhma (and perhaps grandson of Arjuna?) (c. 220–235) * Koziya, son of Kozana (c. 235–265) * Datarvharna, son of Datayola I (possible grandson of Bhimarjuna) (c. 265–280) * Datayola II, son of Datarvharna (c. 280–300)


"Northern Satraps" (Mathura area)

* Hagamasha (satrap, 1st century BCE) * Hagana (satrap, 1st century BCE) *
Rajuvula Rajuvula (Greek ; Brahmi: , ; Kharosthi: , ; , ; , ) was an Indo-Scythian Great Satrap (''Mahākṣatrapa''), one of the "Northern Satraps" who ruled in the area of Mathura in the northern Indian Subcontinent in the years around 10 CE. The M ...
, c. CE 10 (Great Satrap) *
Sodasa Sodasa ( Kharosthi: , ; Middle Brahmi script: , , also , ) was an Indo-Scythian Northern Satrap and ruler of Mathura during the later part of the 1st century BCE or the early part of 1st century CE. He was the son of Rajuvula, the Great Satr ...
, son of Rajuvula * "Great Satrap" Kharapallana (c. CE 130) * "Satrap"
Vanaspara Vanaspara (ruled circa 130 CE) was an Indo-Scythian Northern Satrap (''kshtrapa''). He is mentioned as a "Satrap" (Brahmi:, ''Kṣatrapa'', "Satrap") of Kushan ruler Kanishka I on an inscription discovered in Sarnath, and dated to the 3rd year of ...
(c. CE 130)


Minor local rulers

*
Bhadayasa Bhadayasa, also Bhadrayasha ( Kharosthi: , ), was a minor Indo-Scythian ruler in the areas of Eastern Punjab and Mathura in India, during the 1st century CE. He is considered one of the Northern Satraps. He is mainly known through his coins, ...
* Mamvadi * Arsakes (Indo-Scythian)


Western Satraps

*
Nahapana Nahapana ( Ancient Greek: ; Kharosthi: , ; Brahmi: , ;), was an important ruler of the Western Kshatrapas, descendant of the Indo-Scythians, in northwestern India, who ruled during the 1st or 2nd century CE. According to one of his coins, h ...
(119–124) *
Chastana Chashtana ( Greek: (epigraphic), ; Brahmi: ; Kharosthi: , ) was a ruler of the Saka Western Satraps in northwestern India during 78-130 CE, when he was the satrap of Ujjain. Name Chashtana's name is attested in the Greek forms () and ...
(c. 120), son of Ghsamotika *
Jayadaman Jayadaman was a Western Kshatrapa ruler, although possibly only a Kshatrapa, rather than a Mahakshatrapa. He was the son of Chastana, and the father of Rudradaman I, but he may have pre-deceased Chastana, and never ruled as supreme ruler of the We ...
, son of Chastana * Rudradaman I (c. 130–150), son of Jayadaman *
Damajadasri I Damajadaśri I (circa 170–175 CE) was a ruler of the Western Kshatrapas dynasty. He was the son of Rudradaman I. His reign saw the decline of dynasty after his dominions were conquered by the Satavahanas and saw the rise of the Abhiras in the ...
(170–175) *
Jivadaman Jivadaman was a Saka ruler of the Western Kshatrapas in northwestern India from during the 2nd century CE. He was the son of Damajadasri I (170–175), and the brother of Satyadaman. Biography The exact dating of Jivadaman's reign has been d ...
(175 died 199) *
Rudrasimha I 300px, Gunda inscription of Rudrasimha, Saka year 103. Rudrasimha I was a Western Kshatrapa ruler, who reigned from 178 to 197 CE. He was son of Rudradaman I, grandson of Jayadaman, and grand-grandson of Chashtana. During his reign, the Abhira ...
(175–188 died 197) * Isvaradatta (188–191) *
Rudrasimha I 300px, Gunda inscription of Rudrasimha, Saka year 103. Rudrasimha I was a Western Kshatrapa ruler, who reigned from 178 to 197 CE. He was son of Rudradaman I, grandson of Jayadaman, and grand-grandson of Chashtana. During his reign, the Abhira ...
(restored) (191–197) *
Jivadaman Jivadaman was a Saka ruler of the Western Kshatrapas in northwestern India from during the 2nd century CE. He was the son of Damajadasri I (170–175), and the brother of Satyadaman. Biography The exact dating of Jivadaman's reign has been d ...
(restored) (197–199) * Rudrasena I (200–222) * Samghadaman (222–223) *
Damasena Damasena was a Western Kshatrapa ruler, who reigned from 223 to 232 CE. From the reign of Rudrasimha I, the date of minting of each coin, reckoned in the Saka era, is usually written on the obverse behind the king's head in Brahmi numerals, ...
(223–232) * Damajadasri II (232–239) with * Viradaman (234–238) * Yasodaman I (239) *
Vijayasena Vijayasena (Brahmi 𑀯𑀺𑀚𑀬𑀲𑁂𑀦 reigned 238-250) was a Saka ruler of the Western Satraps in India India, officially the Republic of India ( Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, t ...
(239–250) *
Damajadasri III Damajadasri III (Brahmi ) was a ruler of the Western Satraps. His reign lasted possibly from c. 251 AD to 256 AD. Biography Damajadasri was one of the four sons of Damasena. Damajadasri was the youngest of his siblings. He succeeded his elder br ...
(251–255) * Rudrasena II (255–277) * Visvasimha (277–282) *
Bhratadarman Bhartrdaman was a Saka ruler of the Western Kshatrapas in northwestern India from around 278 to 295.Senior, Robert C. ''Indo-Scythian Coins and History'', Lancaster: Classical Numismatic Group, 2001. For the first four years, his coins name him on ...
(282–295) with * Visvasena (293–304) * Rudrasimha II, son of Lord (Svami)
Jivadaman Jivadaman was a Saka ruler of the Western Kshatrapas in northwestern India from during the 2nd century CE. He was the son of Damajadasri I (170–175), and the brother of Satyadaman. Biography The exact dating of Jivadaman's reign has been d ...
(304–348) with * Yasodaman II (317–332) * Rudradaman II (332–348) * Rudrasena III (348–380) * Simhasena (Indo-Scythian ruler) (380– ?) * Rudrasena IV (382–388) *
Rudrasimha III Rudrasimha III (IAST: Rudrasiṃha) was the last ruler of the Western Satraps in India, in the 4th century AD. Rudrasimha III succeeded Rudrasena IV as the leader of the Indo-Scythians in India. Both were the sons of the Saka ruler Satyasimha, ma ...
(388–395)


Military actions


Descendants of the Indo-Scythians

Tadeusz Sulimirski notes that the
Sacae The Saka (Old Persian: ; Kharoṣṭhī: ; Ancient Egyptian: , ; , old , mod. , ), Shaka (Sanskrit ( Brāhmī): , , ; Sanskrit (Devanāgarī): , ), or Sacae (Ancient Greek: ; Latin: ) were a group of nomadic Iranian peoples who histori ...
also invaded parts of Northern India.
Weer Rajendra Rishi Weer Rajendra Rishi (September 23, 1917 – December 1, 2002
Rishi Roma
) was an Indian
, an Indian linguist has identified linguistic affinities between Indian and Central Asian languages, which further lends credence to the possibility of historical Sacae influence in Northern India.


See also

*
Ancient India and Central Asia Central Asia and Ancient India have long traditions of social-cultural, religious, political and economic contact since remote antiquity. The two regions have common and contiguous borders, climatic continuity, similar geographical features and g ...
* Tillya Tepe * Han–Xiongnu War


Notes


References

* Bailey, H. W. 1958. "Languages of the Saka." ''Handbuch der Orientalistik'', I. Abt., 4. Bd., I. Absch., Leiden-Köln. 1958. *Faccenna D., "Sculptures from the sacred area of Butkara I", Istituto Poligrafico Dello Stato, Libreria Dello Stato, Rome, 1964. * Harmatta, János, ed., 1994. ''History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250''. Paris, UNESCO Publishing. * Hill, John E. 2004. ''The Peoples of the West from the Weilue'' 魏略 ''by Yu Huan'' 魚豢'': A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between AD 239 and 265.'' Draft annotated English translation

*Hill, John E. (2009) ''Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries AD''. BookSurge, Charleston, South Carolina. . *Hulsewé, A. F. P. and Loewe, M. A. N. 1979. ''China in Central Asia: The Early Stage 125 BC – AD 23: an annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty''. E. J. Brill, Leiden. * Huet, Gerard (2010) ''"Heritage du Sanskrit Dictionnaire, Sanskrit-Francais,"'' p. 128

* Litvinsky, B. A., ed., 1996. ''History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750''. Paris, UNESCO Publishing. * Liu, Xinru 2001 "Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies." '' Journal of World History'', Volume 12, No. 2, Fall 2001. University of Hawaii Press, pp 261–292

* ''Bulletin of the Asia Institute: The Archaeology and Art of Central Asia''. Studies From the Former Soviet Union. New Series. Edited by B. A. Litvinskii and Carol Altman Bromberg. Translation directed by Mary Fleming Zirin. Vol. 8, (1994), pp 37–46. * Millward, James A. (2007). ''Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang''. Columbia University Press, New York. . * Pulleyblank, Edwin G. 1970. "The Wu-sun and Sakas and the Yüeh-chih Migration." ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 33'' (1970), pp 154–160. *
Ptolemy Claudius Ptolemy (; grc-gre, Πτολεμαῖος, ; la, Claudius Ptolemaeus; AD) was a mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist, who wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were of importanc ...
(1932). ''The Geography''. Translated and edited by Edward Luther Stevenson. 1991 unabridged reproduction. Dover Publications, Mineola, N. Y. (pbk) * Puri, B. N. 1994. "The Sakas and Indo-Parthians." In: ''History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250''. Harmatta, János, ed., 1994. Paris: UNESCO Publishing, pp 191–207. * Ronca, Italo (1971). ''Ptolemaios Geographie 6,9–21. Ostrian und Zentralasien, Teil I''. IsMEO — ROM. * Watson, Burton. Trans. 1993. ''Records of the Grand Historian of China: Han Dynasty II (Revised Edition).'' Translated from the '' Shih chi'' of Ssu-ma Ch'ien. Chapter 123: The Account of Ta-yüan. Columbia University Press. *Wilcox, Peter and Angus McBride (1986). ''Rome's Enemies (3): Parthians and Sassanid Persians (Men-at-Arms).'' Osprey Publishing; illustrated edition. . * Yu, Taishan. 1998. ''A Study of Saka History''. Sino-Platonic Papers No. 80. July 1998. Dept. of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Pennsylvania. * Yu, Taishan. 2000. ''A Hypothesis about the Source of the Sai Tribes''. Sino-Platonic Papers No. 106. September 2000. Dept. of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Pennsylvania. * ''Political History of Ancient India'', 1996, H. C. Raychaudhury * ''Hindu Polity, A Constitutional history of India in Hindu Times'', 1978, K. P. Jayswal * ''Geographical Data in Early Puranas'', 1972, M. R. Singh * ''India and Central Asia'', 1955,
P. C. Bagchi Prabodh Chandra Bagchi ( bn, প্রবোধচন্দ্র-বাগচী) (18 November 1898 – 19 January 1956) or P. C. Bagchi was one of the most notable Sino -Indologists of the 20th century. He was the third Upacharya (Vice-Chan ...
. * ''Geography of Puranas'', 1973, S. M. Ali * ''Greeks in Bactria and India'', W. W. Tarn * ''Early History of North India'', S. Chattopadhyava * ''Sakas in Ancient India'', S. Chattopadhyava * ''Development of Kharoshthi script'', C. C. Dasgupta * ''Ancient India'', 1956, R. K. Mukerjee * ''Ancient India'', Vol III, T. L. Shah * ''Hellenism in Ancient India'', G. N. Banerjee * ''Manu and Yajnavalkya'', K. P. Jayswal * Anabaseeos Alexanddrou, Arrian * Mathura lion capital inscriptions * ''Corpus Inscriptionium Indicarum'', Vol II, Part I, S. Konow


External links


"Indo-Scythian dynasties", R. C. Senior


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