An insectoid robot is a, usually small, robot featuring some insect-like features. These can include the methods of

locomotion Locomotion means the act or ability of something to transport or move itself from place to place. Locomotion may refer to: Motion * Motion (physics) * Robot locomotion, of man-made devices By environment * Aquatic locomotion * Flight * Locomo ...

(including flying), methods of

navigation Navigation is a field of study that focuses on the process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another.Bowditch, 2003:799. The field of navigation includes four general categories: land navigation, ...

, and

artificial intelligence Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence—perceiving, synthesizing, and inferring information—demonstrated by machines, as opposed to intelligence displayed by animals and humans. Example tasks in which this is done include speech r ...

based on insect models. Many of the problems faced by miniature robot designers have been solved by insect evolution. Researchers naturally look to insects for inspiration and solutions.

Locomotion

Walking

Robot locomotion has frequently been inspired by insect physiology. These robots typically take the form of a hexapod. Research has become multidisciplinary, involving not only robotics engineers, but also biologists, especially neurobiologists. Engineers gain from thisrelationship by acquiring a better understanding of the functioning of the insects they have used to model their robots. Biologists in turn, gain a platform on which they can test their theories of insect motor control. Building a robot that can walk on a flat surface in the laboratory is a fairly straightforward task. A hexapod robot with mechanically linked simple pegs for legs will achieve this task. Then again, a wheeled robot might be even simpler, but may be entirely unable to solve the much more difficult problem of crossing rough terrain with unpredictable obstacles. For this,

articulated joint A joint or articulation (or articular surface) is the connection made between bones, ossicles, or other hard structures in the body which link an animal's skeletal system into a functional whole.Saladin, Ken. Anatomy & Physiology. 7th ed. McGraw ...

s in legs like a real insect, with sensor-motor control like the neurology of a real insect are needed. A simple rhythmic cycle of the legs will not do. The legs and joints must be controlled individually and in combination according to information received from limb position and load sensors. The gait of insects changes with desired speed. Research has shown that these gait patterns can still be generated locally in many insects even when completely disconnected from the

central nervous system The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting primarily of the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is so named because the brain integrates the received information and coordinates and influences the activity of all p ...

. In some insects, for instance the

cockroach Cockroaches (or roaches) are a Paraphyly, paraphyletic group of insects belonging to Blattodea, containing all members of the group except termites. About 30 cockroach species out of 4,600 are associated with human habitats. Some species are we ...

, the gait changes in a running insect partly because the nervous system of the insect cannot respond rapidly enough. A running cockcroach changes its gait to pushing with all three legs on one side together. The characteristic side-to-side motion of the animal is at the biomechanical resonant frequency set by the insect's weight and

spring stiffness Stiffness is the extent to which an object resists Deformation (mechanics), deformation in response to an applied force. The complementary concept is flexibility or pliability: the more flexible an object is, the less stiff it is. Calculations ...

of the combined legs. This mode needs no input from an external controller and it is both efficient and stable. Researchers recognise the advantages of features of real insects, but as of 2004, "they have only rarely come together in a robot..."

Flying

For a very small aircraft, fixed-wing flight becomes impractical due to rapidly decreasing lift-to-drag ratio with size. Insect flight, on the other hand, is always

ornithopter An ornithopter (from Greek ''ornis, ornith-'' "bird" and ''pteron'' "wing") is an aircraft that flies by flapping its wings. Designers sought to imitate the flapping-wing flight of birds, bats, and insects. Though machines may differ in form, ...

ic which suggests an approach for insectoid robots. Ma ''et al.'' for instance, developed a tethered robot fly with flapping wings constructed of

piezoelectric material Piezoelectricity (, ) is the electric charge that accumulates in certain solid materials—such as crystals, certain ceramics, and biological matter such as bone, DNA, and various proteins—in response to applied mechanical stress. The word '' ...

. Ma chose to model the robot on the fly because, according to their paper, it is the most agile creature alive, and therefore the most difficult to emulate as a robot.

Artificial intelligence

Insects have very little resource to devote to intelligence in the human sense of brain

processing power In computing, computer performance is the amount of useful work accomplished by a computer system. Outside of specific contexts, computer performance is estimated in terms of accuracy, efficiency and speed of executing computer program instruction ...

. The number of neurons in an insect varies by species from one million to as few as ten thousand. By comparison, humans have 86 billion neurons. Further, large brains are extremely energy hungry. Insects must therefore find other methods of developing intelligence such as embodying intelligence in hardware, local sensor-motor connections, and

swarm Swarm behaviour, or swarming, is a collective behaviour exhibited by entities, particularly animals, of similar size which aggregate together, perhaps milling about the same spot or perhaps moving ''en masse'' or migrating in some direction. ...

intelligence. At one time it was hoped that robots would avoid the need for such solutions because of the rapidly increasing processing power and decreasing size of computers according to Moore's law. However, this process seems to be reaching its limit and insect solutions look increasingly attractive. Walking rhythms independent of the central nervous system in cockroaches have already been mentioned. A major breakthrough in flying insectoid robots came by applying the same principles to the wings. Attempts to control the angle of attack of the wings with a central processor were not successful because a lift to weight ratio greater than unity could not be achieved. Removing the processor and allowing the wings to rotate passively at the

natural frequency Natural frequency, also known as eigenfrequency, is the frequency at which a system tends to oscillate in the absence of any driving force. The motion pattern of a system oscillating at its natural frequency is called the normal mode (if all pa ...

of the mechanical system reduced the weight sufficiently to allow controlled insectoid flight for the first time in 2008 with a fly-like robot. However, the robot was externally powered through an umbilical rather than completely free flight. Swarms of robots can solve problems that are not possible to solve with the limited processing resource of a single robot. They are particular useful in exploration tasks. They can be used to find the shortest route to a destination, and have been proposed to search for gas sources in dangerous environments. Another proposal is robots that self-assemble into a structure to allow the swarm to cross a gap in the manner of ants.

Navigation

Flying insects have poor visual spatial resolution, must respond rapidly, and have little to no advanced neural processing power. Due to limitations of space and weight, flying insectoid robots have a very similar set of problems. In 2003, Franceschini ''et al.'' investigated the possibility of using insect solutions to solve robot navigation problems. Franceschini built a research robot based on the neural physiology of a fly. The robot was not actually a flying robot, rather, it was a wheeled vehicle. The aim of the research was to show that simple sensor-motor control using only visual motion detection could navigate a course. Using insect intelligence in robot navigation has been going on since 1986, but initially was not taken up by engineers building robots. It was felt that because insects lack a

visual cortex The visual cortex of the brain is the area of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information. It is located in the occipital lobe. Sensory input originating from the eyes travels through the lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus and ...

, and hence cannot perform advanced visual processing and image formation, a robot based on such technology would not be very successful. Franceschini argues that it is not necessary to possess a visual cortex for the navigation task, and it would in fact be an unnecessary burden on an insect robot (both weight and processing time would be issues). Franceschini points out that many of the visual sysems in humans do not pass through the visual cortex either. It is not always necessary to form images and identify objects.Franceschini ''et al.'', pp. 31–32.

References

Bibliography

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''Science Robotics'', vol. 7, no. 67, 2022 . * Fred Delcomyn
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''Annual Review of Entomology'', vo. 49, pp. 51–70, 2004. * N. Franceschini, J. M. Pichon, C. Blanes
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''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B'', vol. 337, iss. 1281, 29 September 1992 . * Kevin Y. Ma , Pakpong Chirarattananon, Sawyer B. Fuller, and Robert J. Wood
"Controlled flight of a biologically inspired, insect-scale robot"
''Science'', vol. 340, iss. 6132, pp. 603–607, 3 May 2013 . * Bradley Voytek
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''Scitable'', 20 May 2013. * Robert J. Wood
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''IEEE Transactions on Robotics'', vol. 24, iss. 2, pp. 341–347, April 2008 {{doi:10.1109/TRO.2008.916997. Robots Insects and humans