![Indiana Territory 1812](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Indiana_Territory_1812.jpg)
During the
War of 1812
The War of 1812 (18 June 1812 – 17 February 1815) was fought by the United States, United States of America and its Indigenous peoples of the Americas, indigenous allies against the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, United Kingdom ...
,
Indiana Territory
The Indiana Territory, officially the Territory of Indiana, was created by a congressional act that President John Adams signed into law on May 7, 1800, to form an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from July 4, ...
was home to
several conflicts between the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...
territorial government and
partisan Native American forces backed by the British in
Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...
. The
Battle of Tippecanoe
The Battle of Tippecanoe ( ) was fought on November 7, 1811, in Battle Ground, Indiana, between American forces led by then Governor William Henry Harrison of the Indiana Territory and Native American forces associated with Shawnee leader Tecum ...
, months before the war officially began, was one of the catalysts that caused the war. The fighting in the territory is often considered a continuation of
Tecumseh's War
Tecumseh's War or Tecumseh's Rebellion was a conflict between the United States and Tecumseh's Confederacy, led by the Shawnee leader Tecumseh in the Indiana Territory. Although the war is often considered to have climaxed with William Henry Ha ...
, and the final struggle of the
Sixty Years' War
The Sixty Years' War (1754–1815) was a military struggle for control of the North American Great Lakes region, including Lake Champlain and Lake George, encompassing a number of wars over multiple generations. The term ''Sixty Years' War'' ...
.
The native tribes who were part of the battle joined forces with the British in Canada at the onset of the war. Led by future
U.S. President
The president of the United States (POTUS) is the head of state and head of government of the United States of America. The president directs the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States ...
William Henry Harrison
William Henry Harrison (February 9, 1773April 4, 1841) was an American military officer and politician who served as the ninth president of the United States. Harrison died just 31 days after his inauguration in 1841, and had the shortest pres ...
, American forces from Indiana, Ohio, and Kentucky were able to turn the tide of a war that began badly for the United States. After driving tribal forces into Canada, the American forces proceeded to invade Canada, rout the British army, and secure victory of American forces in the Northwest.
Background
![Battle of Tippecanoe LCCN2003656861](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Battle_of_Tippecanoe_LCCN2003656861.jpg)
Beginning with the 1809
Treaty of Fort Wayne, tensions between the settlers in the Indiana Territory and the Indians began to increase dramatically. The events led to the
Battle of Tippecanoe
The Battle of Tippecanoe ( ) was fought on November 7, 1811, in Battle Ground, Indiana, between American forces led by then Governor William Henry Harrison of the Indiana Territory and Native American forces associated with Shawnee leader Tecum ...
on November 6, 1811 during what is known as
Tecumseh's War
Tecumseh's War or Tecumseh's Rebellion was a conflict between the United States and Tecumseh's Confederacy, led by the Shawnee leader Tecumseh in the Indiana Territory. Although the war is often considered to have climaxed with William Henry Ha ...
. In the battle
William Henry Harrison
William Henry Harrison (February 9, 1773April 4, 1841) was an American military officer and politician who served as the ninth president of the United States. Harrison died just 31 days after his inauguration in 1841, and had the shortest pres ...
led the territorial militia and army regulars against the forces of
Tecumseh's Confederacy
Tecumseh's confederacy was a confederation of native Americans in the Great Lakes region of the United States that began to form in the early 19th century around the teaching of Tenskwatawa (The Prophet).See , pg. 211. The confederation grew ov ...
at
Prophetstown. The confederacy's defeat was a major blow to their plans for a larger uprising, but left the tribes looking to outward sources of support. The British accepted an alliance with the tribes and the conflict merged with the War of 1812 in the following year.
Henry Clay and his supporters in Congress attacked and denounced the British who had supplied firearms to the western tribes and the Battle of Tippecanoe further raised tensions between the United States and Great Britain. Although Tecumseh publicly claimed to be at peace with the United States, he was privately encouraging his followers to prepare for war. He sent messengers to the British to attempt to stir them, reporting that the Americans were amassing troops for an invasion of Canada.
War Years
1812
![Rembrandt Peale - William Henry Harrison - Google Art Project](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Rembrandt_Peale_-_William_Henry_Harrison_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg)
Just before the start of the war in June,
Territorial Governor William Henry Harrison
William Henry Harrison (February 9, 1773April 4, 1841) was an American military officer and politician who served as the ninth president of the United States. Harrison died just 31 days after his inauguration in 1841, and had the shortest pres ...
had left the territory for army reinforcements, leaving Secretary
John Gibson to govern in his absence. As it became apparent that hostilities would soon break out, Gibson ordered the militia to organize and sent emergency riders to inform Harrison of the situation and to return him to the territory as soon as possible.
July and August gave Harrison several impediments to defending Indiana. First, Chief
Little Turtle
Little Turtle ( mia, Mihšihkinaahkwa) (1747 July 14, 1812) was a Sagamore (chief) of the Miami people, who became one of the most famous Native American military leaders. Historian Wiley Sword calls him "perhaps the most capable Indian leader ...
died on July 14, which meant that the United States lost one of the Indian leaders they could rely on to maintain peace. This was followed three days later by British forces gaining control of
Lake Michigan by the capture of the American fort at
Mackinac Island. The
Potawatomi allies of the British captured
Fort Dearborn
Fort Dearborn was a United States fort built in 1803 beside the Chicago River, in what is now Chicago, Illinois. It was constructed by troops under Captain John Whistler and named in honor of Henry Dearborn, then United States Secretary of War. ...
at what is now
Chicago
(''City in a Garden''); I Will
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, coordinates =
, coordinates_footnotes =
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, subdivision_name ...
on August 15, massacring the defenders of the fort, including
William Wells, the adopted son of Little Turtle. The British and their allies captured
Fort Detroit
Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit or Fort Detroit (1701–1796) was a fort established on the north bank of the Detroit River by the French officer Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac and the Italian Alphonse de Tonty in 1701. In the 18th century, Fre ...
on August 16, putting British forces on the northern border of Indiana. On August 18 the Indians led by
Tecumseh refused to listen to Harrison's request for a peace council.
With the impending onset of hostilities, Harrison sought military assistance from neighboring
Kentucky
Kentucky ( , ), officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States and one of the states of the Upper South. It borders Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio to the north; West Virginia and Virginia ...
. After being appointed brigadier general of the Kentucky
militia
A militia () is generally an army or some other fighting organization of non-professional soldiers, citizens of a country, or subjects of a state, who may perform military service during a time of need, as opposed to a professional force of r ...
on August 22, Harrison went to attain the force in order to defend the Indiana territorial government at
Vincennes
Vincennes (, ) is a commune in the Val-de-Marne department in the eastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located from the centre of Paris. It is next to but does not include the Château de Vincennes and Bois de Vincennes, which are attache ...
.
Harrison had resigned his military commission in December 1811, but with the help of Kentucky governor
Charles Scott, he was able to recruit Kentucky citizens to help defend Indiana; citizens in Ohio and Indiana had heard of the lack of camp provisions and chose not to be burdened by such hardships. It is believed Harrison sought military command due to losing popularity in the territory, particularly for supporting
slavery in the territory.
During September the Territorial Legislature met and
Dennis Pennington introduced a bill to move the capitol from Vincennes because of its proximity to the Indians. The bill was passed and plans were put in place to begin selecting a new capitol and to evacuate the territorial records. The resolution stated: ''"Resolved: That the capitol be removed from Vincennes, because it is dangerous to continue longer here on account of threatened depredations of the Indians, who may destroy our valuable records."''
![Pigeon Roost](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Pigeon_Roost.jpg)
September saw additional attacks across the territory. On September 3 in northern
Clark County, Shawnees slaughtered the villagers of
Pigeon Roost Pigeon Roost or Pigeonroost may refer to:
*Horse Creek (Kentucky), location of Pigeon Roost Creek and Pigeonroost post office
*Pigeon Roost, Mississippi, a ghost town in Choctaw County
*Pigeonroost, North Carolina, an unincorporated community in Mi ...
. Early September saw two separate attacks on Fort Harrison and Fort Wayne, but this time the defenders were able to repel the attack. The
Siege of Fort Harrison
Fort Harrison, later renamed Fort Burnham, was an important component of the Confederate defenses of Richmond during the American Civil War. Named after Lieutenant William Harrison, a Confederate engineer, it was the largest in the series of for ...
, where the defenders were commanded by
Zachary Taylor
Zachary Taylor (November 24, 1784 – July 9, 1850) was an American military leader who served as the 12th president of the United States from 1849 until his death in 1850. Taylor was a career officer in the United States Army, rising to th ...
, resulted in the first land victory for American forces during the war; it was the heaviest assault the Indians threw at American defenders. Harrison himself relieved the
Siege of Fort Wayne
The Siege of Fort Wayne took place from 5th-12th September 1812, during the War of 1812. The stand-off occurred in the modern city of Fort Wayne, Indiana, between the United States garrison at Fort Wayne and a combined force of Potawatomi a ...
. On September 17, Harrison was given command of all American troops in the Northwest Territories as a brevet major general, replacing General
James Winchester, and ordered to retake
Detroit
Detroit ( , ; , ) is the largest city in the U.S. state of Michigan. It is also the largest U.S. city on the United States–Canada border, and the seat of government of Wayne County. The City of Detroit had a population of 639,111 at t ...
. Throughout the second half of the month Miamis continued sending emissaries to persuade the
Delaware tribe to attack Americans.
![Miami Memorial at the Battle of Mississinewa 0211](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Miami_Memorial_at_the_Battle_of_Mississinewa_0211.jpg)
The American forces struck back in November. Prophetstown was
again destroyed on November 22 by General
Samuel Hopkins, backed by attacking the deserted
Tippecanoe River
The Tippecanoe River ( ) is a gentle, U.S. Geological Survey. National Hydrography Dataset high-resolution flowline dataThe National Map accessed May 19, 2011 river in the Central Corn Belt Plains ecoregion in northern Indiana. It flows from Croo ...
villages of the
Kickapoo and
Winnebago. The
Battle of the Mississinewa
The Battle of the Mississinewa, also known as ''Mississineway'', was an expedition ordered by William Henry Harrison against Miami Indian villages in response to the attacks on Fort Wayne and Fort Harrison in the Indiana Territory. The site is n ...
saw forces under Colonel
John B. Campbell further attack the Indians, but with his troops devastated by
frostbite
Frostbite is a skin injury that occurs when exposed to extreme low temperatures, causing the freezing of the skin or other tissues, commonly affecting the fingers, toes, nose, ears, cheeks and chin areas. Most often, frostbite occurs in the ha ...
, Campbell took his men to Greenville.
The Indians were not aided by the British in their assaults in Indiana, as the dry summer hindered efforts to send 600 British troops to Fort Wayne down the
Maumee River.
On December 28 Harrison resigned from his office as territorial governor; the position was not filled until
Thomas Posey
Thomas Posey (July 9, 1750March 19, 1818) was an officer in the American Revolution, a general during peacetime, the third Lieutenant Governor of Kentucky, Governor of the Indiana Territory, and a Louisiana Senator.
Early life
Family and back ...
was given the office in April 1813.
1813
To combat the threat of Native American attacks, several companies of mounted
Indiana Rangers
The Indiana Rangers, also known as the Indiana Territorial Mounted Rangers, were a mounted militia formed in 1807 and operated in the early part of the 19th century to defend settlers in Indiana Territory from attacks by Native Americans. The ra ...
were organized. Each company was 100 men strong. The un-uniformed troops carried their own provisions, and carried a knife and long knives to fight. These forces sought out Indian villages to avenge previous Indian attacks. There were several skirmishes between Native Americans and Rangers, such as the
Battle of Tipton's Island, but they were smaller than the major clashes of 1812. In July 1813, a large punitive expedition left
Fort Vallonia
Vallonia is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) in Driftwood and Brownstown townships, Jackson County, Indiana, United States. It was an 18th-century French settlement and 19th-century American frontier fortification kno ...
and destroyed the well-developed Miami city at the confluence of the Wabash and Mississinewa Rivers. The town was deserted in advance of the army, however, and no Americans Indians were encountered during the entire expedition. That expedition was led by Colonel William Russell 7th regiment. He and 800 mounted rangers and riflemen traveled from Ft. Vallonia to as far north as Fort Wayne burning a British and Indian fort on the Wabash River. Then traveled south to Prophetstown and setting it afire once more. The expedition then made their way back to Vincennes. Officers with Colonel Russell include Colonel Joseph Bartholomew of Indiana.
On May 1, 1813, the territorial legislature relocated the capitol to
Corydon, Indiana
Corydon is a town in Harrison Township, Harrison County, Indiana. Located north of the Ohio River in the extreme southern part of the U.S. state of Indiana, it is the seat of government for Harrison County. Corydon was founded in 1808 and served ...
, a town near Kentucky that was central within the populated portion of the territory, yet farther from the Indians than the other candidate towns.
On September 29, 1813, Harrison was able to drive British forces from Detroit, forcing the British to retreat into Canada. After defeating the British again at the
Battle of Thames, Harrison chose to retire to Ohio, never again to live in Indiana.
Effects
From the days of the
American Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was a major war of the American Revolution. Widely considered as the war that secured the independence of t ...
to the end of the 1812 war, British agents operating from Canada had worked to instigate Native American tribes against the United States as part of an effort to create a pro-British
Indian barrier state
The Indian barrier state or buffer state was a British proposal to establish a Native American state in the portion of the Great Lakes region of North America. It was never created. The idea was to create it west of the Appalachian Mountains, bo ...
to block American expansion westward. In the
Treaty of Ghent
The Treaty of Ghent () was the peace treaty that ended the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom. It took effect in February 1815. Both sides signed it on December 24, 1814, in the city of Ghent, United Netherlands (now in ...
, Great Britain agreed not to arm nor trade with American Indians in the United States and dropped the proposal of a barrier state.
The first decade of the 19th century was a time of relative peace between the white settlers in southern Indiana territory and the Native American nations in the rest of the territory. Although the United States hoped to acquire more of this land for settlement, it had an official policy of coexistence with the native tribes. Following the massacres and destruction of villages from 1811–13, however, the United States adopted a
removal policy.
[Wilson, 239]
The punitive actions of the War of 1812 gave the United States firm control over Indiana Territory. This led to rapid settlement and development of the territory when peace was declared, and Indiana was admitted to the Union on December 11, 1816.
See also
*
Kentucky in the War of 1812 During the War of 1812, Kentucky supplied numerous troops and supplies to the war effort.
Because Kentucky did not have to commit manpower to defending fortifications, most Kentucky troops campaigned actively against the enemy. This led to Kentuck ...
Notes
Sources
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{{Authority control
1812 in Indiana