History
Origins
The vast majority of the Muslims in India belong toEarly history of Islam in India
Trade relations have existed between Arabia and the Indian subcontinent since ancient times. Even in the pre-Islamic era, Arab traders used to visit the Konkan- Gujarat coast and Malabar Coast, which linked them with the ports of Southeast Asia. Newly Islamised Arabs were Islam's first contact with India. Historians Elliot and Dowson say in their book '' The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians'', that the first ship bearing Muslim travellers was seen on the Indian coast as early as 630 CE. H.G. Rawlinson in his book ''Ancient and Medieval History of India'' claims that the firstArab–Indian interactions
There is much historical evidence to show that Arabs and Muslims interacted with Indians from the very early days of Islam or even before the arrival of Islam in Arab regions. Arab traders transmitted the numeral system developed by Indians to the Middle East and Europe. Many Sanskrit books were translated into Arabic as early as the 8th century. George Saliba in his book "Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance", writes that "some major Sanskrit texts began to be translated during the reign of the second Abbasid caliph al-Mansur (r. 754–775), if not before; some texts on logic even before that, and it has been generally accepted that the Persian and Sanskrit texts, few as they were, were indeed the first to be translated." Commercial intercourse between Arabia and India had gone on from time immemorial, with for example the sale of dates and aromatic herbs by Arabs traders who came to Indian shores every spring with the advent of the monsoon breeze. People living on the western coast of India were as familiar with the annual coming of Arab traders as they were with the flocks of monsoon birds; they were as ancient a phenomenon as the monsoon itself. However, whereas monsoon birds flew back to Africa after a sojourn of few months, not all traders returned to their homes in the desert; many married Indian women and settled in India. The advent of Muhammad (569–632 CE) changed the idolatrous and easy-going Arabs into a nation unified by faith and fired with zeal to spread the gospel of Islam. The merchant seamen who brought dates year after year now brought a new faith with them. The new faith was well received by South India. Muslims were allowed to build mosques, intermarry with Indian women, and very soon an Indian-Arabian community came into being. Early in the 9th century, Muslim missionaries gained a notable convert in the person of the King of Malabar. According to Derryl N. Maclean, a link between Sindh(currently province of Pakistan) and early partisans of Ali or proto-Shi'ites can be traced to Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, aPolitical history of Islam in India
Role in the Indian independence movement
The contribution of Muslim revolutionaries, poets and writers is documented in the history of India's struggle for independence. Titumir raised a revolt against the British Raj. Abul Kalam Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Rafi Ahmed Kidwai are other Muslims who engaged in this endeavour. Ashfaqulla Khan of Shahjahanpur conspired to loot the British treasury at Kakori(Lucknow) (See Kakori conspiracy). Bacha Khan, Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan (popularly known as "Frontier Gandhi") was a noted nationalist who spent 45 of his 95 years of life in jail; Abdul Hafiz Mohamed Barakatullah, Barakatullah of Bhopal was one of the founders of the Ghadar Party, which created a network of anti-British organisations; Syed Rahmat Shah of the Ghadar Party worked as an underground revolutionary in France and was hanged for his part in the unsuccessful Ghadar Mutiny in 1915; Ali Ahmad Siddiqui of Faizabad (UP) planned the Indian Rebellion of 1857, Indian Mutiny in British Malaya, Malaya and Myanmar, Burma, along with Syed Mujtaba Hussain of Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh, Jaunpur, and was hanged in 1917; Vakkom Moulavi, Vakkom Abdul Khadir of Kerala participated in the "Quit India Movement, Quit India" struggle in 1942 and was hanged; Umar Subhani, an industrialist and millionaire from Bombay, provided Mahatma Gandhi with Congress expenses and ultimately died for the cause of independence. Among Muslim women, Begum Hazrat Mahal, Hazrat Mahal, Asghari Begum, and Bi Amma contributed in the struggle for independence from the British. Other famous Muslims who fought for independence against British Raj, British rule were Abul Kalam Azad, Mahmud al-Hasan of Darul Uloom Deoband, who was implicated in the famous Silk Letter Movement to overthrow the British through an armed struggle, Husain Ahmad Madani, former Shaikhul Hadith of Darul Uloom Deoband, Ubaidullah Sindhi, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Hasrat Mohani, Syed Mahmud, Ahmadullah Shah, Professor Abdul Hafiz Mohamed Barakatullah, Maulavi Barkatullah, Maghfoor Ahmad Ajazi, Zakir Husain (politician), Zakir Husain, Saifuddin Kitchlew, Vakkom Moulavi, Vakkom Abdul Khadir, Manzoor Abdul Wahab, Bahadur Shah II, Bahadur Shah Zafar, Hakeem Nusrat Husain, Bacha Khan, Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan, Abdul Samad Khan Achakzai, Colonel Shahnawaz, Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, Rafi Ahmed Kidwai, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, Ansar Harwani, Tak Sherwani, Nawab Viqarul Mulk, Nawab Mohsinul Mulk, Mustsafa Husain, V. M. Obaidullah, S.R. Rahim, Badruddin Tyabji, Abid Hasan and Moulvi Abdul Hamid. Until 1920, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, later the founder of Pakistan, was a member of the Indian National Congress and was part of the independence struggle. Muhammad Iqbal, poet and philosopher, was a strong proponent of Hindu–Muslim unity and an undivided India, perhaps until 1930. Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy was also active in the Indian National Congress in Bengal, during his early political career. Mohammad Ali Jouhar and Shaukat Ali struggled for the emancipation of the Muslims in the overall Indian context, and struggled for independence alongside Mahatma Gandhi and Abdul Bari of Firangi Mahal. Until the 1930s, the Muslims of India broadly conducted their politics alongside their countrymen, in the overall context of an undivided India.Partition of India
The partition of India was the Partition (politics), partition of Presidencies and provinces of British India, British India on the basis of Two-nation theory, religious demographics. This led to the creation of the dominions of Dominion of Pakistan, Pakistan (that later split into the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the Bangladesh, People's Republic of Bangladesh) and Dominion of India, India (later India, Republic of India). The Indian Independence Act 1947 had decided 15 August 1947, as the appointed date for the partition. However, Pakistan celebrates its day of creation on 14 August. The partition of India was set forth in the Act and resulted in the dissolution of the British Indian Empire and the end of the British Raj. It resulted in a struggle between the newly constituted states of India and Pakistan and displaced up to 12.5 million people with estimates of loss of life varying from several hundred thousand to a million (most estimates of the numbers of people who crossed the boundaries between India and Pakistan in 1947 range between 10 and 12 million). The violent nature of the partition created an atmosphere of mutual hostility and suspicion between India and Pakistan that plagues India–Pakistan relations, their relationship to this day. The partition included the geographical Partition of Bengal (1947), division of the Bengal province into East Bengal, which became part of Pakistan (from 1956, East Pakistan). West Bengal became part of India, and a similar partition of the Punjab Province (British India), Punjab province became West Punjab (later the Punjab, Pakistan, Pakistani Punjab and Islamabad Capital Territory) and East Punjab (later the Punjab, India, Indian Punjab, as well as Haryana and Himachal Pradesh). The partition agreement also included the division of Indian government assets, including the Indian Civil Service (British India), Indian Civil Service, the British Indian Army, Indian Army, the Royal Indian Navy (1612–1950), Royal Indian Navy, the Rail transport in India#History, Indian railways and the central treasury, and other administrative services. The two self-governing countries of India and Pakistan legally came into existence at the stroke of midnight on 14–15 August 1947. The ceremonies for the transfer of power were held a day earlier in Karachi, at the time the capital of the new state of Pakistan, so that the last British Governor-General of India, Viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma, Lord Mountbatten of Burma, could attend both the ceremony in Karachi and the ceremony in Delhi. Thus, Independence Day (Pakistan), Pakistan's Independence Day is celebrated on 14 August and Independence Day (India), India's on 15 August. After Partition of India in 1947, two-thirds of the Muslims resided in Pakistan (both east and West Pakistan) but a third resided in India. Based on 1951 census of displaced persons, 7,226,000 Muslims went to Pakistan (both West and East) from India while 7,249,000 Hindus and Sikhs moved to India from Pakistan (both West and East). Some critics allege that British haste in the partition process increased the violence that followed. Because independence was declared ''prior'' to the actual Partition, it was up to the new governments of India and Pakistan to keep public order. No large population movements were contemplated; the plan called for safeguards for minorities on both sides of the new border. It was a task at which both states failed. There was a complete breakdown of law and order; many died in riots, massacre, or just from the hardships of their flight to safety. What ensued was one of the largest population movements in recorded history. According to Richard Symonds: At the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve million became homeless. However, many argue that the British were forced to expedite the Partition by events on the ground. Once in office, Mountbatten quickly became aware if Britain were to avoid involvement in a civil war, which seemed increasingly likely, there was no alternative to partition and a hasty exit from India. Law and order had broken down many times before Partition with much bloodshed on both sides. A massive civil war was looming by the time Mountbatten became Viceroy. After the Second World War, Britain had limited resources, perhaps insufficient to the task of keeping order. Another viewpoint is that while Mountbatten may have been too hasty he had no real options left and achieved the best he could under difficult circumstances. The historian Lawrence James concurs that in 1947 Mountbatten was left with no option but to cut and run. The alternative seemed to be involvement in a potentially bloody civil war from which it would be difficult to get out.Demographics
With around 204 million Muslims (2019 estimate), India's Muslim population is about the Islam by country, world's third-largest and the world's largest Muslim-minority population. India is home to 10.9% of the world's Muslim population. According to Pew Research Center, there can be 213 million Muslims in 2020, India's 15.5% population. Indian Muslim have a fertility rate of 2.36, the highest in the nation as per as according to year 2019-21 estimation. Muslim populations (top 5 countries) Est. 2020 Muslims represent a majority of the local population in Lakshadweep (96.2%) and Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), Jammu and Kashmir (68.3%). The largest concentration – about 47% of all Muslims in India, live in the three states of Islam in Uttar Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Islam in West Bengal, West Bengal, and Bihari Muslims, Bihar. High concentrations of Muslims are also found in the states of Andhra Muslims, Andhra Pradesh, Islam in Assam, Assam, Delhi, Gujarati Muslims, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Islam in Kerala, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Marathi Muslims, Maharashtra, Manipur, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Muslims, Telangana, Tripura, and Uttarakhand.Percentage by states
, Muslims comprise the majority of the population in the only Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), Jammu and Kashmir and in a Union territory Lakshadweep. In 110 minority-concentrated districts, at least a fifth of the population are Muslim.Population growth rate
After India's independence and the creation of Pakistan in 1947, the Muslim population in India declined from 42,400,000 in 1941 to 35,400,000 in the 1951 census, due to the Partition of India. The 1951 Census of Pakistan identified the number of displaced persons in Pakistan at 7,226,600, presumably all Muslims refugees who had entered Pakistan from India. Muslims in India have a much higher total fertility rate (TFR) compared to that of other religious communities in the country. Because of higher birthrates the percentage of Muslims in India has risen from about 9.8% in 1951 to 14.2% by 2011. However, since 1991, the largest decline in fertility rates among all religious groups in India has occurred among Muslims. The Sachar Committee, Sachar Committee Report shows that the Muslim Population Growth has slowed down and will be on par with national averages. The Sachar Committee Report estimated that the Muslim proportion will stabilise at between 17% and 21% of the Indian population by 2100. Social and economic reasons behind population growth According to sociologists Roger and Patricia Jeffery, socio-economic conditions rather than religious determinism is the main reason for higher Muslim birthrates. Indian Muslims are poorer and less educated compared to their Hindu counterparts. Noted Indian sociologist, B.K. Prasad, argues that since India's Muslim population is more urban compared to their Hindu counterparts, infant mortality rates among Muslims is about 12% lower than those among Hindus. However, other sociologists point out that religious factors can explain high Muslim birthrates. Surveys indicate that Muslims in India have been relatively less willing to adopt family planning measures and that Muslim women have a larger fertility period since they get married at a much younger age compared to Hindu women. On the other hand, it is also documented that Muslims tend to adopt family planning measures. A study conducted by K.C. Zacharia in Kerala in 1983 revealed that on average, the number of children born to a Muslim woman was 4.1 while a Hindu woman gave birth to only 2.9 children. Religious customs and marriage practices were cited as some of the reasons behind the high Muslim birth rate. According to Paul Kurtz, Muslims in India are much more resistant to modern contraception than are Hindus and, as a consequence, the decline in fertility rate among Hindu women is much higher compared to that of Muslim women. The National Family and Health survey conducted in 1998–99 highlighted that Indian Muslim couples consider a substantially higher number of children to be ideal for a family as compared to Hindu couples in India. The same survey also pointed out that percentage of couples actively using family planning measures was more than 49% among Hindus against 37% among Muslims. ;Controversy of Muslim population in India As per the 2011 census of India, it was found that 172.2 million Muslims were living in India as its citizens, constituting 14.2% of the country's population. As per as recent estimation of year (2020) Indian religious demography by Pew research center, it has been found that 213.34 million Muslims are living in India constituting 15.4% of the country's population. But however, at a same time, many individuals and experts have said that the Muslim population in India is more than the expected census results, leading to a heated debate and controversies as their claim of being that estimation as truth is still not known today. As per as Zakir Naik, an Islamic preacher, he claimed that India has over 250-300 million Muslims. He also told that the government of India suppress real Muslim population. As per as author Shakir Lakhani, there should be at least 90 million Indian Muslims who have not been registered by the Indian authorities during last census. He have also said that there should have been about 262 million Muslims in 2011 census, instead of 172.2 million as reported by census authority earlier. In 2021, Congress MLA from Bhopal Arif Masood have also said, "The country's population is over 130 crores and the Muslim population stands at around 25 crores."Denominations
There are two major denominations amongst Indian Muslims. The majority of Indian Muslims (over 85%) belong to the Sunni Islam, Sunni branch of Islam while a substantial minority (over 13%) belong to the Shia Islam, Shia branch. There are also tiny minorities of Ahmadiyya and Quranism, Quranists across the country. Many Indian Muslim communities, bothSunni
Indian Sunnis largely follow the Hanafi school of Islamic law. The majority of Indian Sunnis follow the Barelvi, Barelvi movement which was founded in 1904 by Ahmed Raza Khan Barelvi, Ahmed Razi Khan of Bareilly in defense of traditional Islam as understood and practised in South Asia and in reaction to the revivalist attempts of the Deobandi movement. In the 19th century the Deobandi, a revivalist movement in Sunni Islam was established in India. It is named after Deoband a small town northeast of Delhi, where the original madrasa or seminary of the movement was founded. From its early days this movement has been influenced by Wahhabism. A minority of Indian Muslims also follow the Ahl-i Hadith movement.Shia
Shia Islam, Shia Muslims are a large minority among India's Muslims forming about 13% of the total Muslim population. However, there has been no particular census conducted in India regarding sects, but Indian sources like Times of India and Daily News and Analysis reported Indian Shia population in mid 2005–2006 to be up to 25% of the entire Muslim population of India which accounts them in numbers between 40,000,000 to 50,000,000 of 157,000,000 Indian Muslim population. However, as per an estimation of one reputed Shia NGO Alimaan Trust, India's Shia population in early 2000 was around 30 million with Sayyids comprising just a tenth of the Shia population. According to some national and international sources Indian Shia population is the world's second-largest after Iran.Bohra
Khojas
The Khojas are a group of diverse people who converted toSufis
Sufism, Sufis (Islamic mystics) played an important role in the spread of Islam in India. They were very successful in spreading Islam, as many aspects of Sufi belief systems and practices had their parallels in Indian philosophical literature, in particular nonviolence and monism. The Sufis' orthodox approach towards Islam made it easier for Hindus to practice. Erwadi, Sulthan Syed Ibrahim Shaheed, Moinuddin Chishti, Hazrat Khawaja Muin-ud-din Chishti, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki, Nizamuddin Auliya, Shah Jalal, Amir Khusrow, Alauddin Sabir Kaliyari, Shekh Alla-ul-Haq Pandwi, Ashraf Jahangir Semnani, Waris Ali Shah, Ata Hussain Fani Chishti trained Sufis for the propagation of Islam in different parts of India. The Sufi movement also attracted followers from the artisan and Dalit, untouchable communities; they played a crucial role in bridging the distance between Islam and the indigenous traditions. Ahmad Sirhindi, a prominent member of the Naqshbandi Sufism, Sufi advocated the peaceful conversion of Hindus to Islam.Ahmadiyya
The Ahmadiyya movement was founded in 1889 by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian. He claimed to be the promised messiah and mahdi awaited by the Muslims and obtained a considerable number of followers initially within the United Provinces, the Punjab andQuranists
Non-sectarian Muslims who reject the authority of hadith, known as Quranism, Quranists, Quraniyoon, or Ahle Quran, are also present in India. In South Asia during the 19th century, the Ahle Quran movement formed partially in reaction to the Ahl-i Hadith, Ahle Hadith movement whom they considered to be placing too much emphasis on hadith. Notable Indian Quranists include Chiragh Ali, Aslam Jairajpuri, Khwaja Kamal-ud-Din, and Abdullah Chakralawi.Islamic traditions in India
Sufism is a mystical dimension of Islam, often complementary with the legalistic path of the sharia had a profound impact on the growth of Islam in India. A Sufi attains a direct vision of oneness with God, often on the edges of orthodox behaviour, and can thus become a Pir (living saint) who may take on disciples (murids) and set up a spiritual lineage that can last for generations. Orders of Sufis became important in India during the thirteenth century following the ministry of Moinuddin Chishti (1142–1236), who settled in Ajmer and attracted large numbers of converts to Islam because of his holiness. His Chishti Order went on to become the most influential Sufi lineage in India, although other orders from Central Asia and Southwest Asia also reached India and played a major role in the spread of Islam. In this way, they created a large literature in regional languages that embedded Islamic culture deeply into older South Asian traditions.Intra-Muslim relations
Shia–Sunni relations
The Sunnis and Shia are the biggest Muslim groups by denomination. Although the two groups remain cordial, there have been instances of conflict between the two groups, especially in the city of Lucknow.Society
Religious administration
The religious administration of each States and union territories of India, state is headed by the ''Mufti of the State'' under the supervision of the Grand Mufti of India, the most senior, most influential religious authority and spiritual leader of Muslims in India. The system is executed in India from the Mughal period.Muslim institutes
There are several well established Muslim institutions in India. Here is a list of reputed institutions established by Muslims in India.Modern universities and institutes
* Al-Ameen Educational Society * Aliah University * Aligarh Muslim University * Markazu Saqafathi Sunniyya, Jamia Markazu Saqafathi Sunniyya * Ma'din, Ma'dinu Ssaquafathil Islamiyya * B. S. Abdur Rahman University * Darul Huda Islamic University * Darul Uloom Deoband * Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama * Farook College, Kozhikode * Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences * Integral University (Lucknow), Integral University * Jamal Mohamed College, Tiruchirappalli * Jamia Hamdard, Hamdard University, Delhi * Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi * M.S.S. Wakf Board College, Madurai (The only college in India run by a State Wakf Board) * Madeenathul Uloom Arabic College, Pulikkal, Malappuram district, Malappuram *Maulana Azad National Urdu University Hyderabad *Maulana Mazharul Haque Arabic and Persian University Patna Bihar * Maulana Azad College of Arts and Science, Aurangabad, Maharashtra, Aurangabad * Muslim Educational Association of Southern India * Muslim Educational Society, Kerala * National College of Engineering, Tirunelveli * Osmania University, Hyderabad * Pocker Sahib Memorial Orphanage College, Tirurangadi * Thangal Kunju Musaliar College of Engineering,Traditional Islamic universities
* Al Jamea tus Saifiyah, Bohra * Al Jamiatul Ashrafia, Barelvi * Jamia Darussalam, Oomerabad * Al-Jame-atul-Islamia, Uttar Pradesh * Jamia Nizamia, Hyderabad, India, Hyderabad * Manzar-e-Islam, Bareilly * Raza Academy * Sunni Cultural Center, Karanthur, KeralaLeadership and organisations
* The Ajmer Sharif Dargah and Dargah-e-Ala Hazrat at Bareilly Shareef are prime center of Sufi oriented Sunni Muslims of India. * Indian Shia Islam, Shia Muslims form a substantial minority within the Muslim community of India comprising between 25 and 31% of total Muslim population in an estimation done during mid-2005 to 2006 of the then Indian Muslim population of 157 million. Sources like The Times of India and Daily News and Analysis, DNA reported Indian Shia Islam, Shia population during that period between 40,000,000 to 50,000,000 of 157,000,000 Indian Muslim population. *The Deobandi movement, another section of the Sunni Muslim population, originate from the Darul Uloom Deoband, an influential religious seminary in the district of Saharanpur of Uttar Pradesh. The Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind, founded by Deobandi scholars in 1919, became a political mouthpiece for the Darul Uloom. * The Jamaat-e-Islami Hind, founded in 1941, advocates the establishment of an Islamic government and has been active in promoting education, social service and ecumenical outreach to the community.Culture
Indo-Islamic art and architecture
Mosques
There are more than 300,000 active mosques in India, which is higher than any other country, including the Muslim world. The mosque or masjid is a representation of Muslim art in its simplest form. The mosque is basically an open courtyard surrounded by a pillared verandah, crowned off with a dome. A ''mihrab'' indicates the direction of the ''qibla'' for prayer. Towards the right of the ''mihrab'' stands the ''minbar'' or pulpit from where the ''Imam'' presides over the proceedings. An elevated platform, usually a minaret from where the Faithful are summoned to attend prayers is an invariable part of a mosque. Large mosques where the faithful assemble for the Friday prayers are called the Jama Masjids.Tombs and Mausoleum
The tomb or maqbara could range from being a simple affair (Aurangazeb's grave) to an awesome structure enveloped in grandeur (Taj Mahal). The tomb usually consists of a solitary compartment or tomb chamber known as the ''huzrah'' in whose centre is the cenotaph or ''zarih''. This entire structure is covered with an elaborate dome. In the underground chamber lies the mortuary or the ''maqbara'', in which the corpse is buried in a grave or ''qabr''. Smaller tombs may have a ''mihrab'', although larger mausoleums have a separate mosque located at a distance from the main tomb. Normally the whole tomb complex or ''rauza'' is surrounded by an enclosure. The tomb of a Muslim saint is called a dargah. Almost all Islamic monuments were subjected to free use of verses from the Quran and a great amount of time was spent in carving out minute details on walls, ceilings, pillars and domes.Styles of Islamic architecture in India
Islamic architecture in India can be classified into three sections: Delhi or the imperial style (1191–1557 CE); the provincial style, encompassing the surrounding areas like Ahmedabad, Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh, Jaunpur and the Deccan Plateau, Deccan; and the Mughal architecture style (1526–1707 CE).Law, Politics, and Government
Certain civil matters of jurisdiction for Muslims such as marriage, inheritance and waqf properties are governed by the Muslim Personal Law, which was developed during British rule and subsequently became part of independent India with some amendments. Indian Muslim personal law is not developed as a Sharia law but as an interpretation of existing Muslim laws as part of common law. The Supreme Court of India has ruled that Sharia or Muslim law holds precedence for Muslims over Indian civil law in such matters. Muslims in India are governed by "The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937."The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937Active Muslim political parties
* All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen (AIMIM), led by Asaduddin Owaisi active in states of Telangana, Maharashtra, Bihar, Uttarpradesh, Gujarat and Karnataka. * Indian Union Muslim League (IUML), led by E. Ahamed active in Kerala. * All India United Democratic Front (AIUDF), led by Badruddin Ajmal active in Assam state. *Jammu and Kashmir People's Conference (JKPC), founded by Abdul Ghani Lone and Molvi Iftikhar Hussain Ansari. Led by Sajjad Lone. It is active in Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), Jammu and Kashmir. * Jammu & Kashmir National Conference, National Conference (NC) main party of Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), Jammu and Kashmir. * Jammu and Kashmir Peoples Democratic Party, Peoples Democratic Party (PDP) main party of Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), Jammu and Kashmir. * Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party, Apni Party (JKAP) a newly formed party of Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), Jammu and Kashmir * Peace Party of India of Mohamed AyubGhettoisation of Muslim areas
Ghettoisation among Indian Muslims began in the mid-1970s when the first Religious violence in India, communal riots occurred. This was heightened after the 1989 Bhagalpur violence in Bihar and became a trend after the demolition of the Babri Masjid in 1992. Soon several major cities developed ghettos, or segregated areas, where the Muslim population moved into. This trend, however, did not help with the anticipated security the anonymity of ghetto was thought to have provided. During the 2002 Gujarat riots, several such ghettos became easy targets for the rioting mobs, as they enabled the profiling of residential colonies. This kind of ghettoisation can be seen in Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata and many cities of Gujarat where a clear socio-cultural demarcation exists between Hindu-dominated and Muslim-dominated neighbourhoods. In places like Gujarat, riots and alienation of Muslims have led to large-scale ghettoisation of the community. For example, the Juhapura area of Ahmedabad district, Ahmadabad has swelled from 250,000 to 650,000 residents since 2002 riots. Muslims in Gujarat have no option but to head to a ghetto, irrespective of their economic and professional status. An increase in ghetto living has also shown a strengthening of Stereotype, stereotyping due to a lack of cross-cultural interaction, and reduction in economic and educational opportunities at large. Secularism in India is being seen by some as a favour to the Muslims, and not an imperative for democracy.Consanguineous marriages
The National Family Health Survey, NFHS(National Family Health Survey) on 1992-93 showed that 22 per cent of marriages in India were consanguineous, with the highest per cent recorded in J&K, which is a Muslim majority state. Post partition percentage of Consanguineous marriages, consanguineous marriages in Delhi Sunni Muslims has risen to 37.84 per cent. As per Nasir, such unions are perceived to be exploitative as they perpetuate the existing power structures within the family.Muslims in government
India has seen three Muslim presidents and many Chief Minister (India), chief ministers of State Governments have been Muslims. Apart from that, there are and have been many Muslim ministers, both at the Centre and at the state level. Out of the 12 President of India, Presidents of the Republic of India, three were Muslims – Zakir Husain (politician), Zakir Husain, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed and A. P. J. Abdul Kalam. Additionally, Mohammad Hidayatullah, Aziz Mushabber Ahmadi, Mirza Hameedullah Beg and Altamas Kabir held the office of the Chief Justice of India on various occasions since independence. Mohammad Hidayatullah also served as the acting President of India on two separate occasions; and holds the distinct honour of being the only person to have served in all three offices of the President of India, the Vice-President of India and the Chief Justice of India. The former Vice-President of India, Mohammad Hamid Ansari, former Foreign Minister Salman Khurshid and former Director (Head) of the Intelligence Bureau (India), Intelligence Bureau, Syed Asif Ibrahim are Muslims. Ibrahim was the first Muslim to hold this office. From 30 July 2010 to 10 June 2012, Dr. S. Y. Quraishi served as the Chief Election Commissioner of India. He was the first Muslim to serve in this position. Prominent Indian bureaucrats and diplomats include Abid Hussain, Ali Yavar Jung and Asaf Ali. Zafar Saifullah was Cabinet Secretary (India), Cabinet Secretary of the Government of India from 1993 to 1994. Salman Haidar was the Foreign Secretary (India), Foreign Secretary from 1995 to 1997 and Deputy Permanent Representative of India to the United Nations. Influential Muslim politicians in India include Sheikh Abdullah, Farooq Abdullah and his son Omar Abdullah (former Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), Jammu and Kashmir), Mufti Mohammad Sayeed, Mehbooba Mufti, Sikander Bakht, A. R. Antulay, Ahmed Patel, C. H. Mohammed Koya, A. B. A. Ghani Khan Choudhury, Mukhtar Abbas Naqvi, Salman Khurshid, Saifuddin Soz, E. Ahamed, Ghulam Nabi Azad, Syed Shahnawaz Hussain, Asaduddin Owaisi, Azam Khan (politician), Azam Khan and Badruddin Ajmal, Najma Heptulla.Haj subsidy
The government of India subsidises the cost of the airfare for Hajj pilgrims. All pilgrims travel on Air India. In compliance with Supreme Court of India and Allahabad High Court directions, the Government of India has proposed that, starting from 2011, the amount of government subsidy per person will be decreased and by 2017 will be ended completely. Maulana Mahmood A. Madani, a member of the Rajya Sabha and general secretary of the Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind, declared that the Hajj subsidy is a technical violation of Islamic Sharia, since the Quran declares that Hajj should be performed by Muslims using their own resources. Influential Muslim lobbies in India have regularly insisted that the Hajj subsidy should be phased out as it is un-Islamic.Conflict, and controversy
Conversion controversy
Considerable controversy exists both in scholarly and public opinion about the conversions to Islam typically represented by the following schools of thought: # The bulk of Muslims are descendants of migrants from the Iranian Plateau or Arabs. # Conversions occurred for non-religious reasons of pragmatism and patronage such as social mobility among the Muslim ruling elite or for relief from taxes # Conversion was a result of the actions of Sunni Islam, Sunni Sufism, Sufi saints and involved a genuine change of heart. # Conversion came from Buddhism, Buddhists and the en masse conversions of lower castes for social liberation and as a rejection of the oppressive Caste system in India, Hindu caste strictures. # A combination, initially made under duress followed by a genuine change of heart. # As a socio-cultural process of diffusion and integration over an extended period of time into the sphere of the dominant Muslim world, Muslim civilisation and global polity at large. Embedded within this lies the concept of Islam as a foreign imposition and Hinduism being a natural condition of the natives who resisted, resulting in the failure of the project to Islamization, Islamize the Indian subcontinent and is highly embroiled within the politics of the Partition of India, partition and Communalism (South Asia), communalism in India. Historians such as Will Durant described Islamic invasions of India as "The bloodiest story in history.Will Durant (1976), The Story of Civilization: Our Oriental Heritage, Simon & Schuster, , pp. 458–472, Quote: "The Mohammedan conquest of India is probably the bloodiest story in history. It is a discouraging tale, for its evident moral is that civilization is a precarious thing, whose delicate complex of order and liberty, culture and peace may at any time be overthrown by barbarians invading from without or multiplying within. The Hindus had allowed their strength to be wasted in internal division and war; they had adopted religions like Buddhism and Jainism, which unnerved them for the tasks of life; they had failed to organize their forces for the protection of their frontiers and their capitals." Jadunath Sarkar contends that several Muslim invaders were waging a systematic jihad against Hindus in India to the effect that "Every device short of massacre in cold blood was resorted to in order to convert heathen subjects". Hindus who converted to Islam were not immune to persecution due to the Caste system among South Asian Muslims, Muslim Caste System in India established by Ziauddin al-Barani in the ''Fatawa-i Jahandari'', where they were regarded as an "Ajlaf" caste and subjected to discrimination by the "Ashraf" castes. Others argue that, during the Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent, Indian-origin religions experienced persecution from various Muslim conquerors who massacred Hindus, Jains and Buddhists, attacked temples and monasteries, and forced conversions on the battlefield. Disputers of the "conversion by the sword theory" point to the presence of the large Muslim communities found in Southern India, Sri Lanka, Western Burma, Bangladesh, Southern Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia coupled with the distinctive lack of equivalent Muslim communities around the heartland of historical Muslim empires in the Indian subcontinent as a refutation to the "conversion by the sword theory". The legacy of the Muslim conquest of South Asia is a hotly debated issue and argued even today. Muslim invaders were not all simply raiders. Later rulers fought on to win kingdoms and stayed to create new ruling dynasties. The practices of these new rulers and their subsequent heirs (some of whom were born to Hindu wives) varied considerably. While some were uniformly hated, others developed a popular following. According to the memoirs of Ibn Battuta who travelled through Delhi in the 14th century, one of the previous sultans had been especially brutal and was deeply hated by Delhi's population. Batuta's memoirs also indicate that Muslims from the Arab world, Greater Iran, Persia and Anatolia were often favoured with important posts at the royal courts, suggesting that locals may have played a somewhat subordinate role in the Delhi administration. The term "Turk" was commonly used to refer to their higher social status. S.A.A. Rizvi (''The Wonder That Was India – II'') however points to Muhammad bin Tughluq as not only encouraging locals but promoting artisan groups such as cooks, barbers and gardeners to high administrative posts. In his reign, it is likely that conversions to Islam took place as a means of seeking greater social mobility and improved social standing. Numerous temples were destroyed by Muslim conquerors. Richard M. Eaton lists a total of 80 temples that were desecrated by Muslim conquerors, but notes this was not unusual in medieval India where numerous temples were also desecrated by Hindu and Buddhist kings against rival Indian kingdoms during conflicts between devotees of different Hindu deities, and between Hindus, Buddhists and Jains. He also notes there were many instances of theRelations non-Muslim communities
Muslim–Hindu conflict
;Before 1947 The conflict between Hindus and Muslims in the Indian subcontinent has a complex history which can be said to have begun with the Umayyad Caliphate's invasion ofMuslim–Sikh conflict
Sikhism emerged in the Punjab region, Punjab during the Mughal Empire, Mughal period. Conflict between early Sikhs and the Muslim power center at Delhi reached an early high point in 1606 when Guru Arjan, the fifth guru of the Sikhs, was tortured and killed by Jahangir, the Mughal emperor. After the death of the fifth beloved Guru his son took his spot as Guru Hargobind, who basically made the Sikhs a warrior religion. Guru ji was the first to defeat the Mughal empire in a battle which had taken place in present Sri Hargobindpur in Gurdaspur After this point the Sikhs were forced to organise themselves militarily for their protection. Later in the 16th century, Guru Tegh Bahadur, Tegh Bahadur became guru in 1665 and led the Sikhs until 1675. Teg Bahadur was executed by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb for helping to protect Hindus, after a delegation of Kashmiri Pandits came to him for help when the Emperor condemned them to death for failing to convert to Islam. At this point Aurangzeb had instituted forceful conversions on the basis of charging citizens with crimes then sparing them from punishments (up to death) if they converted. This led to a high increase of violence between the Sikhs and Hindus as well as rebellions in Aurangzeb's empire. This is an early example which illustrates how the Hindu-Muslim conflict and the Muslim-Sikh conflicts are connected. After this Guru Gobind Singh and the Sikhs helped the next successor of the throne of India to rise, who was Bahadur Shah Zafar. For a certain period of time good relations were maintained somewhat like they were in Akbar's time until disputes arose again. The Mughal period saw various invaders coming into India through Punjab with which they would loot and severely plunder. Better relations have been seen by Dulla Bhatti, Mian Mir, Pir Budhu Shah, Pir Bhikham Shah, Bulleh Shah. In 1699, the Khalsa was founded by Guru Gobind Singh, the last guru. A former ascetic was charged by Gobind Singh with the duty of punishing those who had persecuted the Sikhs. After the guru's death, Baba Banda Singh Bahadur became the leader of the Sikh army and was responsible for several attacks on the Mughal empire. He was executed by the emperor Jahandar Shah after refusing the offer of a pardon if he converted to Islam. The decline of Mughal power during the 17th and 18th centuries, along with the growing strength of the Sikh Empire, resulted in a balance of power which protected the Sikhs from more violence. The Sikh empire was absorbed into the British Indian empire after the Second Anglo-Sikh War of 1849. Massive population exchanges took place during the Partition of India in 1947, and the British Indian province of Punjab was divided into two parts, where the western parts were assigned to Pakistan, while the eastern parts went to India. 5.3 million Muslims moved from India to West Punjab in Pakistan, as 3.4 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from Pakistan to East Punjab in India. The newly formed governments were completely unequipped to deal with migrations of such staggering magnitude, and massive violence and slaughter occurred on both sides of the border. Estimates of the number of deaths range around roughly 500,000, with low estimates at 200,000 and high estimates at 1,000,000.Muslim–Christian conflict
In spite of the fact that there have been relatively fewer conflicts between Muslims and Christians in India in comparison to those between Muslims and Hindus, or Muslims and Sikhs, the relationship between Muslims and Christians has also been occasionally turbulent. With the advent of European colonialism in India with the demise of the Mughal empire beginning in the 18th century, Christians were persecuted in some Muslim-ruled princely states in India. ;Anti-Christian persecution by Tipu Sultan in the 17th century Perhaps the most infamous acts of anti-Christian persecution by Muslims were committed by Tipu Sultan, the ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore, against the Mangalorean Catholics. Tipu was widely reputed to be anti-Christian. The Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam, captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Srirangapatna, which began on 24 February 1784 and ended on 4 May 1799, remains the most disconsolate memory in their history.Muslim–Buddhist conflict
In 1989 there was a social boycott by the Buddhists of the Muslims of Leh district. The boycott remained in force till 1992. Relations between the Buddhists and Muslims in Leh improved after the lifting of the boycott, although suspicions remained.Caste system among Indian Muslims
AlthoughStratification
In some parts of South Asia, the Muslims are divided as Ashrafs and Ajlafs. Ashrafs claim to be derived from their foreign ancestry. They, in turn, are divided into a number of occupational castes. Barrani was specific in his recommendation that the "sons of Mohamed" [i.e. Sayyid] be given a higher social status than the others.Das, Arbind, Arthashastra of Kautilya and Fatwa-i-Jahandari of Ziauddin Barrani: an analysis, Pratibha Publications, Delhi 1996, pp. 124–143 His most significant contribution in the fatwa was his analysis of the castes with respect to Islam. His assertion was that castes would be mandated through state laws or "Zawabi" and would carry precedence over Sharia law whenever they were in conflict. Every act which is "contaminated with meanness and based on ignominity, comes elegantly [from the Ajlaf]". He sought appropriate religious sanction to that effect. Barrani also developed an elaborate system of promotion and demotion of imperial officers ("Wazirs") that was primarily on the basis of their caste. In addition to the ashraf/ajlaf divide, there is also the ''arzal'' caste among Muslims, who were regarded by anti-caste activists like Babasaheb B. R. Ambedkar, Ambedkar as the equivalent of untouchables. The term "Arzal" stands for "degraded" and the Arzal castes are further subdivided into Bhanar, Halalkhor, Hijra, Kasbi, Lalbegi, Maugta, Mehtar etc. They are relegated to "menial" professions such as scavenging and carrying night soil. Some South Asian Muslims have been known to stratify their society according to ''qaums''. Studies of Bengali Muslims in India indicate that the concepts of purity and impurity exist among them and are applicable in inter-group relationships, as the notions of hygiene and cleanliness in a person are related to the person's social position and not to his/her economic status. Muslim Rajputs, Muslim Rajput is another caste distinction among Indian Muslims. Some of the upper and middle caste Muslim communities include Sayyid, Syed, Shaikhs in South Asia, Shaikh, Shaikhzada, Khanzada Rajputs, Khanzada, Rohilla, Pathan, Mughal tribe, Mughal, and Malik clan (Bihar), Malik. Genetic data has also supported this stratification. In three genetic studies representing the whole of South Asian Muslims, it was found that the Muslim population was overwhelmingly similar to the local non-Muslims associated with minor but still detectable levels of gene flow from outside, primarily from Iran and Central Asia, rather than directly from the Arabian Peninsula. The Sachar Committee's report commissioned by the government of India and released in 2006, documents the continued stratification in Muslim society.Interaction and mobility
Data indicates that the castes among Muslims have never been as rigid as that among Hindus. They have good interactions with the other communities. They participate in marriages and funerals and other religious and social events in other communities. Some of them also had inter-caste marriages since centuries but mostly they preferred to marry in the same caste. In Bihar state of India, cases had been reported in which the higher caste Muslims have opposed the burials of lower caste Muslims in the same graveyard.Criticism
Some Muslim scholars have tried to reconcile and resolve the "disjunction between Quranic egalitarianism and Indian Muslim social practice" through theorizing it in different ways and interpreting the Quran and Sharia to justify casteism. While some scholars theorize that Muslim castes are not as acute in their discrimination as that among Hindus, Dr. Babasaheb B. R. Ambedkar, Ambedkar argued otherwise, arguing the social evils in Muslim society were "worse than those seen in Hindu society". He was critical of Ashraf antipathy towards the Ajlaf and Arzal and attempts to palliate sectarian divisions. He condemned the Indian Muslim community of being unable to reform like Muslims in other countries such as Turkey did during the early decades of the twentieth century.Prominent Muslims in India
India is home to many eminent Muslims who have made their mark in numerous fields and have played a constructive role in India's economic rise and cultural influence across the world. Out of the 12 President of India, Presidents of the Republic of India, three were Muslims – Zakir Husain (politician), Zakir Husain, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed and A. P. J. Abdul Kalam. Additionally, 4 Muslims: Mohammad Hidayatullah, Aziz Mushabber Ahmadi, Mirza Hameedullah Beg and Altamas Kabir held the office of the Chief Justice of India. Mohammad Hidayatullah also served as the acting President of India on two separate occasions; and holds the distinct honour of being the only person to have served in all three offices of the President of India, the Vice-President of India and the Chief Justice of India. The former Vice-President of India, Mohammad Hamid Ansari, former Foreign Minister Salman Khurshid are Muslims. Dr. S. Y. Quraishi and Syed Nasim Ahmad Zaidi both served as the Chief Election Commissioner of India . Prominent Indian Muslim bureaucrats and diplomats include Abid Hussain, Ali Yavar Jung and Asaf Ali. Zafar Saifullah was Cabinet Secretary (India), Cabinet Secretary of the Government of India from 1993 to 1994. Salman Haidar was Foreign Secretary (India), Indian Foreign Secretary from 1995 to 1997 and Deputy Permanent Representative of India to the United Nations. Numerous Muslims have achieved high rank in the Indian Police Service, with several attaining the rank of Director general of police and serving as commanders of both state and Central Armed Police Forces. In 2013, IPS officer Syed Asif Ibrahim became the first Muslim Director of the Intelligence Bureau, the seniormost appointment in the service. There have been seven Muslim Chief Ministers of List of state and union territory capitals in India, Indian states (other than Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), Jammu and Kashmir): # Barkatullah Khan (Rajasthan: 1971–73) # Abdul Ghafoor (politician), Abdul Ghafoor (Bihar: 1973–75) # C. H. Mohammed Koya ( Kerala: 1979) # Anwara Taimur (Assam: 1980–81) # A. R. Antulay (Maharashtra: 1980–82) # Mohammed Alimuddin (Manipur: 1973–74) # M. O. H. Farook was a three-time CM of the Union Territory of Pondicherry. Some of the most popular and influential as well as critically acclaimed actors and actresses of the Indian film industry are Muslims. These include Dilip Kumar, Yusuf Khan (stage name Dilip Kumar), Shah Rukh Khan, Aamir Khan, Saif Ali Khan, Madhubala, Nawazuddin Siddiqui, Naseeruddin Shah, Johnny Walker (actor), Johnny Walker, Shabana Azmi, Waheeda Rehman, Amjad Khan (actor), Amjad Khan, Parveen Babi, Feroz Khan (actor), Feroz Khan, Meena Kumari, Prem Nazir, Mammootty, Nargis, Irrfan Khan, Farida Jalal, Arshad Warsi, Mehmood (actor), Mehmood, Zeenat Aman, Farooq Sheikh and Tabu (actress), Tabu. Some of the best known film directors of Indian cinema include Mehboob Khan, Khwaja Ahmad Abbas, Kamal Amrohi, K. Asif and the Abbas–Mustan duo. Indian Muslims also play pivotal roles in other forms of performing arts in India, particularly in music, modern art and theatre. M. F. Husain is one of India's best known contemporary artists. Academy Awards winners Resul Pookutty and A. R. Rahman, Naushad, Salim–Sulaiman and Nadeem Akhtar of the Nadeem–Shravan duo are some of India's celebrated musicians. Abrar Alvi penned many of the greatest classics of Indian cinema. Prominent poets and lyricists include Shakeel Badayuni, Sahir Ludhianvi and Majrooh Sultanpuri. Popular Indian singers of Muslim faith include Mohammed Rafi, Anu Malik, Lucky Ali, Talat Mahmood and Shamshad Begum. Another famous personality is the tabla maestro Zakir Hussain (musician), Zakir Hussian. Sania Mirza, from Hyderabad, India, Hyderabad, is the highest-ranked Indian woman tennis player. Prominent Muslim names in Indian cricket (the most popular sport of India) include Iftikhar Ali Khan Pataudi, Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi and Mohammad Azharuddin, who captained the Indian cricket team on various occasions. Other famous Muslim cricketers in India are Mushtaq Ali, Syed Kirmani, Arshad Ayub, Mohammad Kaif, Munaf Patel, Zaheer Khan, Irfan Pathan, Yusuf Pathan and Wasim Jaffer. India is home to several influential Muslim businessmen. Some of India's most prominent firms, such as Wipro, Wockhardt, Himalaya Health Care, Hamdard (Wakf) Laboratories, Hamdard Laboratories, Cipla and Mirza Tanners were founded by Muslims. The only two South Asian Muslim billionaires named by ''Forbes'' magazine, Yusuf Hamied and Azim Premji, are from India. Though Muslims are under-represented in the Indian Armed Forces, as compared to Hindus and Sikhs, several Indian military Muslim personnel have earned gallantry awards and high ranks for exceptional service to the nation. Air Chief Marshal I. H. Latif was Deputy Chief of the Air Staff (India) during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 and later served as Chief of the Air Staff (India), Chief of the Air staff of the Indian Air Force from 1973 to 1976. Air Marshal Jaffar Zaheer (1923–2008) commanded IAF Agra and was decorated for his service during the 1971 Indo-Pakistan War, eventually rising to the rank of air marshal and ending his career as Director-General of Civil Aviation from 1979 to 1980. Indian Army's Abdul Hamid (soldier), Abdul Hamid was posthumously awarded India's highest military decoration, the Param Vir Chakra, for knocking-out seven Pakistani tanks with a recoilless gun during the Battle of Asal Uttar in 1965. Two other Muslims – Brigadier Mohammed Usman and Mohammed Ismail – were awarded Maha Vir Chakra for their actions during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. High ranking Muslims in the Indian Armed Forces include: *Lieutenant General Jameel Mahmood (former GOC-in-C Eastern Command: 1992–93), *Lieutenant General Sami Khan (Commandant of the National Defence Academy: 1985–86, GoC-in-C, Central Command: 1988–89) *Lieutenant General Pattiarimmal Mohamed Hariz (GOC-in-C, Southern Command: 2016–17), *Air Marshal Syed Shahid Hussein Naqvi (Deputy Chief of Air Staff: 1997–99, Senior Air Staff Officer, Training Command 1999–2001) *Lieutenant General Syed Ata Hasnain (GOC XV Corps: 2010–2012, Military Secretary: 2012–13) *Major General Afsir Karim *Major General SM Hasnain *Major General Mohammed Amin Naik. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, Abdul Kalam, one of India's most respected scientists and the father of the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) of India, was honoured through his appointment as the 11th President of India. His extensive contribution to India's defence industry lead him to being nicknamed as the ''Missile Man of India'' and during his tenure as the President of India, he was affectionately known as ''People's President''. Syed Zahoor Qasim, former Director of the National Institute of Oceanography, India, National Institute of Oceanography, led India's first scientific expedition to Antarctica and played a crucial role in the establishment of Dakshin Gangotri. He was also the former Vice Chancellor of Jamia Millia Islamia, Secretary of the Department of Ocean Development and the founder of Polar Research in India. Other prominent Muslim scientists and engineers include C. M. Habibullah, a stem cell scientist and director of Deccan College of Medical Sciences and Center for Liver Research and Diagnostics, Hyderabad. In the field of Yunani medicine, one can name Hakim Ajmal Khan, Hakim Abdul Hameed and Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman. Salim Ali, was an Indian ornithologist and naturalist, also known as the "birdman of India". In the list of most influential Muslims list by Georgetown University, there were 21 Indians (in 2017) like Mahmood Madani, Maulana Mahmood Madani, Akhtar Raza Khan, Zakir Abdul Karim Naik, Wahiduddin Khan, Abul Qasim Nomani Syed Muhammad Ameen Mian Qaudri, Amir Khan and Aboobacker Ahmad Musliyar. Mahmood Madani, leader of Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind and MP was ranked at 36 for initiating a movement against terrorism in South Asia. Syed Ameen Mian has been ranked 44th in the list. In January 2018, Jamitha reportedly became the first woman to lead a Jumu'ah prayer service in India.See also
* Islamic art * Indo-Islamic architecture * List of scientists in medieval Islamic world * List of Muslim Nobel laureates * List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world * List of Islamic educational institutions * Islam in South Asia * Bihari Muslims * Gujarati Muslims * Hyderabadi Muslims * Tamil Muslim * Mappila Muslims * Hindu–Islamic relations * Muslim nationalism in South Asia * Persecution of Kashmiri Shias * NCERT textbook controversies * History of IslamReferences
Notes
Citations
Further reading
* Asghar Ali Engineer, ''Islam in India: The Impact of Civilizations''. Shipra Publications, 2002. . * Mohamed Taher. ''Muslims in India: Recent Contributions to Literature on Religion, Philosophy, History, & Social Aspects''. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD., 1993.External links
* Online Copy