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In
English common law
English law is the common law legal system of England and Wales, comprising mainly criminal law and civil law, each branch having its own courts and procedures.
Principal elements of English law
Although the common law has, historically, be ...
, real property, real estate, immovable property or, solely in the US and Canada, realty, is
land
Land, also known as dry land, ground, or earth, is the solid terrestrial surface of the planet Earth that is not submerged by the ocean or other bodies of water. It makes up 29% of Earth's surface and includes the continents and various isla ...
which is the
property
Property is a system of rights that gives people legal control of valuable things, and also refers to the valuable things themselves. Depending on the nature of the property, an owner of property may have the right to consume, alter, share, r ...
of some person and all structures (also called
improvements
Improvement is the process of a thing moving from one state to a state considered to be better, usually through some action intended to bring about that better state. The concept of improvement is important to governments and businesses, as well a ...
or
fixtures) integrated with or affixed to the land, including crops, buildings, machinery, wells, dams, ponds, mines, canals, and roads, among other things. The term is historic, arising from the now-discontinued
form of action
The forms of action were the different procedures by which a legal claim could be made during much of the history of the English common law. Depending on the court, a plaintiff would purchase a writ in Chancery (or file a bill) which would set in ...
, which distinguished between real property disputes and
personal property disputes. Personal property, or personalty, was, and continues to be, all property that is not real property.
In countries with personal ownership of real property,
civil law protects the status of real property in real-estate markets, where
estate agent
An estate agent is a person or business that arranges the selling, renting, or management of properties and other buildings. An agent that specialises in renting is often called a letting or management agent. Estate agents are mainly engaged ...
s work in the market of buying and selling real estate.
Scottish civil law calls real property "heritable property", and in French-based law, it is called ''immobilier'' ("immovable property").
Historical background
The word "real" derives from Latin ''res'' ("thing"). Under European civil law, a lawsuit that seeks official recognition of a property right is known as an ''actio
in rem
''In rem'' jurisdiction ("power about or against 'the thing) is a legal term describing the power a court may exercise over property (either real or personal) or a "status" against a person over whom the court does not have ''in personam'' jurisd ...
'' (action in relation to a thing). This contrasts with an ''actio
in personam
''In personam'' is a Latin phrase meaning "against a particular person". In a lawsuit in which the case is against a specific individual, that person must be served with a summons and complaint (E&W known as Particulars of Claim (CPR 1999) to give ...
'' in which the plaintiff seeks relief for the actions of a particular person. The distinction can be subtle; the medieval action of
novel disseisin
In English law, the assize of novel disseisin ("recent dispossession"; ) was an action to recover lands of which the plaintiff had been disseised, or dispossessed. It was one of the so-called "petty (possessory) assizes" established by Henry II ...
, although aimed at repossessing land, was not an ''actio in rem'' because it was brought against the alleged dispossessor.
Henry de Bracton
Henry of Bracton, also Henry de Bracton, also Henricus Bracton, or Henry Bratton also Henry Bretton (c. 1210 – c. 1268) was an English cleric and jurist.
He is famous now for his writings on law, particularly ''De legibus et consuetudinibus ...
's ''Treatise on the Laws and Customs of England'' is credited with giving "real property" its peculiar meaning in English law. After discussing the distinction in civil law, Bracton proposed that actions for movable property were inherently actions for relief, and that therefore an ''actio in rem'' could be brought only upon immovable property. This view is not accepted in continental civil law, but can be understood in the context of legal developments during Bracton's lifetime. In thirteenth-century England the courts of
canon law
Canon law (from grc, κανών, , a 'straight measuring rod, ruler') is a set of ordinances and regulations made by ecclesiastical authority (church leadership) for the government of a Christian organization or church and its members. It is th ...
claimed broad authority to interpret
wills Wills may refer to:
* Will (law)
A will or testament is a legal document that expresses a person's (testator) wishes as to how their property ( estate) is to be distributed after their death and as to which person (executor) is to manage the pr ...
, but inheritance of land remained a matter for the royal courts. Laws governing the conveyance of land and that of movable
personal property then developed along different paths.
In modern legal systems derived from English common law, classification of property as real or personal may vary somewhat according to jurisdiction or, even within jurisdictions, according to purpose, as in defining whether and how the property may be taxed.
Houseboats, for example, occupy a gray area between personal and real property, and may be treated as either according to jurisdiction and circumstance.
Bethell (1998) contains much information on the historical evolution of real property and property rights.
Characteristics of real property
Immobility
Real property is immobile, preventing it from moving to a better market. Landlords are incapable of moving their physical land to the desired location, such as to another city for sale. To benefit from using parcels of land, users must travel from location to location to increase utility, therefore, location is a large component of a real property's value.
Externalities
Changes that take place nearby will directly affect the real property’s value. Real property is vulnerable to externalities due to its immobile nature. External factors outside of the real property will affect the value of the real property, for example, the noises that neighboring people and construction sites produce.
Development
A location of desired resources will draw attention to the location. Natural locational attractions include water supply, climate, soil fertility, water frontage, and mineral deposits. As the area develops revolving around such natural resources, these developments become components to look for when determining land use and real property values. The surrounding development and proximity, such as markets and transportation routes, will also determine the value of the real property.
Supply of Urban Land
Although the amount of land in terms of the surface area is fixed, the supply of urban land is often not limited due to the nature of how urban land is supplied. By bidding land away from non-urban uses of land, such as farmland, will increase urban land supply. Urban land value is expected to exceed that of agricultural land value in the long run, therefore, creating the incentive to convert non-urban land to urban land. The value of the land is directly associated with its use. Zoning regulations regarding multi-story development are modified to intensify the use of cities, instead of occupying more physical space.
Identification of real property
To be of any value, a claim to any property must be accompanied by a verifiable and legal
property description. Such a description usually makes use of natural or man-made boundaries such as seacoasts, rivers, streams, the crests of ridges,
lakeshores,
highway
A highway is any public or private road or other public way on land. It is used for major roads, but also includes other public roads and public tracks. In some areas of the United States, it is used as an equivalent term to controlled-acces ...
s,
road
A road is a linear way for the conveyance of traffic that mostly has an improved surface for use by vehicles (motorized and non-motorized) and pedestrians. Unlike streets, the main function of roads is transportation.
There are many types of ...
s, and
railroad track
A railway track (British English and UIC terminology) or railroad track (American English), also known as permanent way or simply track, is the structure on a railway or railroad consisting of the rails, fasteners, railroad ties (sleepers, ...
s or purpose-built markers such as
cairns,
surveyor's posts, iron pins or pipes, concrete monuments,
fence
A fence is a structure that encloses an area, typically outdoors, and is usually constructed from posts that are connected by boards, wire, rails or netting. A fence differs from a wall in not having a solid foundation along its whole length.
...
s, official government surveying marks (such as ones affixed by the
National Geodetic Survey
The National Geodetic Survey (NGS) is a United States federal agency that defines and manages a national coordinate system, providing the foundation for transportation and communication; mapping and charting; and a large number of applications ...
), and so forth. In many cases, a description refers to one or more lots on a
plat
In the United States, a plat ( or ) (plan) is a cadastral map, drawn to scale, showing the divisions of a piece of land. United States General Land Office surveyors drafted township plats of Public Lands Surveys to show the distance and bea ...
, a map of property boundaries kept in public records.
These legal descriptions are usually described in two different ways –
metes & bounds, and
lot & block. A third way is the
Public Land Survey System
The Public Land Survey System (PLSS) is the surveying method developed and used in the United States to plat, or divide, real property for sale and settling. Also known as the Rectangular Survey System, it was created by the Land Ordinance of 178 ...
, as used in the United States.
* Metes. The term "metes" refers to a boundary defined by the measurement of each straight run, specified by a distance between the terminal points, and orientation or direction. A direction may be a simple compass bearing (magnetic), or a more precise orientation determined by accurate survey methods.
* Bounds. The term "bounds" refers to a more general boundary description, the
abuttals and boundaries, such as along a certain watercourse, a stone wall, an adjoining public roadway, an adjoining property owner, or an existing building. The system is often used to define larger pieces of property (e.g. farms), and political subdivisions (e.g. town boundaries) where the precise definition is not required or would be far too expensive, or previously designated boundaries can be incorporated into the description.
* The
Lot &
Block
Block or blocked may refer to:
Arts, entertainment and media Broadcasting
* Block programming, the result of a programming strategy in broadcasting
* W242BX, a radio station licensed to Greenville, South Carolina, United States known as ''96.3 ...
system is perhaps the simplest of the three main survey systems to understand. For a legal description in the Lot and Block system a description must identify:
** the individual lot,
** the block in which the lot is located, if applicable,
** a reference to a platted subdivision or a phase thereof,
** a reference to find the cited plat map (
i.e., a page and/or volume number), and
** a description of the map's place of official recording (e.g., ''recorded in the files of the County Engineer'').
*
![Meridians-baselines](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Meridians-baselines.png)
The Public Land Survey System (PLSS) is the
surveying method developed and used in the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...
to divide real property for sale and settling. The PLSS used nominally rectangular shapes to divide. The basic unit in the PLSS is the
Section
Section, Sectioning or Sectioned may refer to:
Arts, entertainment and media
* Section (music), a complete, but not independent, musical idea
* Section (typography), a subdivision, especially of a chapter, in books and documents
** Section sig ...
of land, typically 1-mile square. A 6 x 6-mile grid of sections of landform is what is referred to as a
Township
A township is a kind of human settlement or administrative subdivision, with its meaning varying in different countries.
Although the term is occasionally associated with an urban area, that tends to be an exception to the rule. In Australia, C ...
. Townships are laid out east and west of a
Principal Meridian
A principal meridian is a meridian used for survey control in a large region.
Canada
The Dominion Land Survey of Western Canada took its origin at the First (or Principal) Meridian, located at 97°27′28.41″ west of Greenwich, just west of Wi ...
, and north and south of a
Baseline.
Estates and ownership interests defined
The law recognizes different sorts of interests called
estates, in real property. The type of estate is usually determined by the language of the
deed,
lease
A lease is a contractual arrangement calling for the user (referred to as the ''lessee'') to pay the owner (referred to as the ''lessor'') for the use of an asset. Property, buildings and vehicles are common assets that are leased. Industrial ...
,
bill of sale
A bill of sale is a document that transfers ownership of goods from one person to another. It is used in situations where the former owner transfers possession of the goods to a new owner. Bills of sale may be used in a wide variety of transaction ...
,
will,
land grant
A land grant is a gift of real estate—land or its use privileges—made by a government or other authority as an incentive, means of enabling works, or as a reward for services to an individual, especially in return for military service. Grants ...
, etc., through which the estate was acquired. Estates are distinguished by the varying
property right
The right to property, or the right to own property (cf. ownership) is often classified as a human right for natural persons regarding their possessions. A general recognition of a right to private property is found more rarely and is typically ...
s that vest in each and determine the duration and transferability of the various estates. A party enjoying an estate is called a "tenant".
Some important types of
estates in the land include:
*
Fee simple: An estate of indefinite duration, that can be freely transferred. The most common and perhaps most absolute type of estate, under which the tenant enjoys the greatest discretion over the disposal of the property.
*Fee simple conditional: An estate lasting forever as long as one or more conditions stipulated by the deed's grantor does not occur. If such a condition does occur, the property reverts to the grantor, or a remainder interest is passed on to a third party.
*
Fee tail
In English common law, fee tail or entail is a form of trust established by deed or settlement which restricts the sale or inheritance of an estate in real property and prevents the property from being sold, devised by will, or otherwise alien ...
: An estate which, upon the death of the tenant, is transferred to his or her heirs.
*
Life estate
In common law and statutory law, a life estate (or life tenancy) is the ownership of immovable property for the duration of a person's life. In legal terms, it is an estate in real property that ends at death when ownership of the property may ...
: An estate lasting for the natural life of the grantee, called a "life tenant". If a life estate can be sold, a sale does not change its duration, which is limited by the natural life of the original grantee.
*A life estate ''per autre vie'' is held by one person for the natural
life of another person. Such an estate may arise if the original life tenant sells her life estate to another, or if the life estate is originally granted ''per autre vie''.
*
Leasehold
A leasehold estate is an ownership of a temporary right to hold land or property in which a lessee or a tenant holds rights of real property by some form of title from a lessor or landlord. Although a tenant does hold rights to real property, a l ...
: An estate of limited-term, as set out in a contract, called a lease, between the party, granted the leasehold, called the lessee, and another party, called the lessor, having a longer estate in the property. For example, an apartment-dweller with a one-year lease has a leasehold estate in her apartment. Lessees typically agree to pay a stated rent to the lessor. Though a leasehold relates to real property, the leasehold interest is historically classified as personal property.
A tenant enjoying an undivided estate in some property after the termination of some estate of limited-term is said to have a "future interest". Two important types of future interests are:
*
Reversion: A reversion arises when a tenant grants an estate of the lesser maximum term than his own. Ownership of the land returns to the original tenant when the grantee's estate expires. The original tenant's future interest is a reversion.
*
Remainder
In mathematics, the remainder is the amount "left over" after performing some computation. In arithmetic, the remainder is the integer "left over" after dividing one integer by another to produce an integer quotient ( integer division). In algeb ...
: A remainder arises when a tenant with a fee simple grants someone a life estate or conditional fee simple, and specifies a third party to whom the land goes when the life estate ends or the condition occurs. The third party is said to have a remainder. The third-party may have a legal right to limit the life tenant's use of the land.
Estates may be held jointly as
joint tenants with rights of survivorship
In property law, a concurrent estate or co-tenancy is any of various ways in which property is owned by more than one person at a time. If more than one person owns the same property, they are commonly referred to as co-owners. Legal terminolo ...
or as
tenants in common
In property law, a concurrent estate or co-tenancy is any of various ways in which property is owned by more than one person at a time. If more than one person owns the same property, they are commonly referred to as co-owners. Legal terminolo ...
. The difference between these two types of joint ownership of an estate in land is basically the inheritability of the estate and the shares of interest that each tenant owns.
In a joint tenancy with rights of survivorship deed or JTWROS, the death of one tenant means that the surviving tenants become the sole owners of the estate. Nothing passes to the heirs of the deceased tenant. In some jurisdictions, the specific words "with right of survivorship" must be used, or the tenancy will assume to be tenants in common without rights of survivorship. The co-owners always take a JTWROS deed in equal shares, so each tenant must own an equal share of the property regardless of any contribution to the purchase price. If the property is someday sold or subdivided, the proceeds must be distributed equally with no credits given for any excess that anyone co-owner may have contributed to purchase the property.
The death of a co-owner of tenants in common (TIC) deed will have a heritable portion of the estate in proportion to his ownership interest which is presumed to be equal among all tenants unless otherwise stated in the
transfer deed {{Unreferenced, date=September 2019
A transfer deed is a document used in conveyancing in England and Wales
Wales ( cy, Cymru ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the nor ...
. However, if TIC property is sold or subdivided, in some States, Provinces, etc., a credit can be automatically made for unequal contributions to the purchase price (unlike a partition of a JTWROS deed).
Real property may be owned jointly with several tenants, through devices such as the
condominium,
housing cooperative, and
building cooperative
A building co-operative is a co-operative housing corporation where individuals or families work together to directly construct their own homes in a cooperative fashion.
Members of this type of co-operative purchase building materials in bulk a ...
.
Bundle of Rights
Real property is unique because there are multiple rights associated with each piece of property. For example, most U.S. jurisdictions recognized the following rights: right to sell; right to lease; right to acquire minerals, gas, oil, etc. within the land; right to use; right to possess; right to develop; etc. These multiple rights are important because owners of the real property can generally do what they choose with each right. For example, the owner could choose to keep all the rights but lease the right to drill for oil to an oil company, or the owner could choose to keep all the rights but lease the property to a tenant. In other words, the owner can elect to keep, lease or sell the rights to the land.
Other Ownership types
*
Allodial title: Real property that is independent of any superior landlord. Palladium is "Land held absolutely in one's own right, and not of any lord or superior; land not subject to feudal duties or burdens. An estate held by absolute ownership, without recognizing any superior to whom any duty is due on account thereof."
Jurisdictional peculiarities
In the law of almost every country, the
state
State may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media Literature
* ''State Magazine'', a monthly magazine published by the U.S. Department of State
* ''The State'' (newspaper), a daily newspaper in Columbia, South Carolina, United States
* ''Our S ...
is the ultimate owner of all land under its jurisdiction, because it is the
sovereign, or supreme lawmaking authority. Physical and corporate persons do not have
allodial title; they do not own land but only enjoy estates in the land, also known as "equitable interests".
Australia and New Zealand
In many countries, the
Torrens title
Torrens title is a land registration and land transfer system, in which a state creates and maintains a register of land holdings, which serves as the conclusive evidence (termed " indefeasibility") of title of the person recorded on the regist ...
system of real estate ownership is managed and guaranteed by the government and replaces cumbersome tracing of ownership. The Torrens title system operates on the principle of "title by registration" (i.e. the indefeasibility of a registered interest) rather than "registration of title". The system does away with the need for a chain of title (i.e. tracing title through a series of documents) and does away with the conveyancing costs of such searches. The State guarantees title and is usually supported by a compensation scheme for those who lose their title due to the State's operation. It has been in practice in all
Australian states and New Zealand since between 1858 and 1875, has more recently been extended to
strata title
Strata title is a form of ownership and housing tenure devised for multi-level apartment blocks and horizontal subdivisions with shared areas. The word "strata" refers to apartments being on different levels.
Strata title was first introduced ...
, and has been adopted by many states, provinces and countries, and in modified form in 9 states of the US.
United Kingdom
In the
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the European mainland, continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
,
The Crown
The Crown is the state in all its aspects within the jurisprudence of the Commonwealth realms and their subdivisions (such as the Crown Dependencies, overseas territories, provinces, or states). Legally ill-defined, the term has different ...
is held to be the ultimate owner of all real property in the realm. This fact is material when, for example, the property has been disclaimed by its erstwhile owner, in which case the law of
escheat
Escheat is a common law doctrine that transfers the real property of a person who has died without heirs to the crown or state. It serves to ensure that property is not left in "limbo" without recognized ownership. It originally applied to a ...
applies. In some other jurisdictions (not including the United States), real property is held
absolutely.
England and Wales
English law has retained the common law distinction between real property and personal property, whereas the
civil law distinguishes between "movable" and "immovable" property. In English law, real property is not confined to the ownership of property and the buildings sited thereonoften referred to as "land". Real property also includes many legal relationships between individuals or owners of the land that are purely conceptual. One such relationship is the
easement
An easement is a nonpossessory right to use and/or enter onto the real property of another without possessing it. It is "best typified in the right of way which one landowner, A, may enjoy over the land of another, B". An easement is a propert ...
, where the owner of one property has the right to pass over a neighboring property. Another is the various "incorporeal hereditaments", such as
''profits-à-Prendre'', where an individual may have the right to take crops from land that is part of another's estate.
English law retains several forms of property that are largely unknown in other common law jurisdictions such as the
advowson
Advowson () or patronage is the right in English law of a patron (avowee) to present to the diocesan bishop (or in some cases the ordinary if not the same person) a nominee for appointment to a vacant ecclesiastical benefice or church living ...
,
chancel repair liability
Chancel repair liability is a legal obligation on some property owners in England and Wales to pay for certain repairs to a church which may or may not be the local parish church.
Where people own property within land that was once rectorial (par ...
and lordships of the
manor. In the early common law, these are all classified as real property, as they would have been protected by
real actions.
United States
Each
U.S. State
In the United States, a state is a constituent political entity, of which there are 50. Bound together in a political union, each state holds governmental jurisdiction over a separate and defined geographic territory where it shares its sove ...
except
Louisiana
Louisiana , group=pronunciation (French: ''La Louisiane'') is a state in the Deep South and South Central regions of the United States. It is the 20th-smallest by area and the 25th most populous of the 50 U.S. states. Louisiana is borde ...
has its own laws governing real property and the estates therein, grounded in the
common law
In law, common law (also known as judicial precedent, judge-made law, or case law) is the body of law created by judges and similar quasi-judicial tribunals by virtue of being stated in written opinions."The common law is not a brooding omnipres ...
. In
Arizona
Arizona ( ; nv, Hoozdo Hahoodzo ; ood, Alĭ ṣonak ) is a state in the Southwestern United States. It is the 6th largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix. Arizona is part of the Fou ...
, real property is generally defined as land and the things permanently attached to the land. Things that are permanently attached to the land, which also can be referred to as ''improvements'', include homes, garages, and buildings. Manufactured homes can obtain an
affidavit
An ( ; Medieval Latin for "he has declared under oath") is a written statement voluntarily made by an ''affiant'' or '' deponent'' under an oath or affirmation which is administered by a person who is authorized to do so by law. Such a stateme ...
of affixture.
Economic aspects of real property
Land use, land valuation, and the determination of the incomes of landowners are among the oldest questions in economic theory.
Land
Land, also known as dry land, ground, or earth, is the solid terrestrial surface of the planet Earth that is not submerged by the ocean or other bodies of water. It makes up 29% of Earth's surface and includes the continents and various isla ...
is an essential input (
a factor of production) for agriculture, and agriculture is by far the most important economic activity in pre-industrial societies. With the advent of industrialization, important new uses for land emerge, as sites for factories, warehouses, offices, and urban agglomerations. Also, the value of the real property taking the form of man-made structures and machinery increases relative to the value of the land alone. The concept of the real property eventually comes to encompass effectively all forms of
tangible fixed capital. with the rise of extractive industries, real property comes to encompass
natural capital
Natural capital is the world's stock of natural resources, which includes geology, soils, air, water and all living organisms. Some natural capital assets provide people with free goods and services, often called ecosystem services. All of t ...
. With the rise of tourism and leisure, real property comes to include scenic and other amenity values.
Starting in the
1960s, as part of the emerging field of
law and economics
Law and economics, or economic analysis of law, is the application of microeconomic theory to the analysis of law, which emerged primarily from scholars of the Chicago school of economics. Economic concepts are used to explain the effects of law ...
, economists and legal scholars began to study the
property right
The right to property, or the right to own property (cf. ownership) is often classified as a human right for natural persons regarding their possessions. A general recognition of a right to private property is found more rarely and is typically ...
s enjoyed by tenants under the various estates and the economic benefits and costs of the various estates. This resulted in a much-improved understanding of the:
*
Property right
The right to property, or the right to own property (cf. ownership) is often classified as a human right for natural persons regarding their possessions. A general recognition of a right to private property is found more rarely and is typically ...
s enjoyed by tenants under the various estates. These include the right to:
**Decide how a piece of real property is used;
**Exclude others from enjoying the property;
**Transfer (alienate) some or all of these rights to others on mutually agreeable terms;
*Nature and consequences of
transaction cost
In economics and related disciplines, a transaction cost is a cost in making any economic trade when participating in a market. Oliver E. Williamson defines transaction costs as the costs of running an economic system of companies, and unlike pro ...
s when changing and transferring estates.
For an introduction to the economic analysis of property law, see Shavell (2004), and Cooter and Ulen (2003). For a collection of related scholarly articles, see Epstein (2007). Ellickson (1993) broadens the economic analysis of real property with a variety of facts drawn from history and
ethnography.
See also
*
Benefice
*
Fiefdom
A fief (; la, feudum) was a central element in medieval contracts based on feudal law. It consisted of a form of property holding or other rights granted by an overlord to a vassal, who held it in fealty or "in fee" in return for a form of f ...
*
Land ownership in Canada
*
Land tenure
In common law systems, land tenure, from the French verb "tenir" means "to hold", is the legal regime in which land owned by an individual is possessed by someone else who is said to "hold" the land, based on an agreement between both individual ...
*
Landlord
A landlord is the owner of a house, apartment, condominium, land, or real estate which is rented or leased to an individual or business, who is called a tenant (also a ''lessee'' or ''renter''). When a juristic person is in this position, t ...
*
Mesne assignment
*
Mineral rights
Mineral rights are property rights to exploit an area for the minerals it harbors. Mineral rights can be separate from property ownership (see Split estate). Mineral rights can refer to sedentary minerals that do not move below the Earth's surfac ...
*
Real estate
Real estate is property consisting of land and the buildings on it, along with its natural resources such as crops, minerals or water; immovable property of this nature; an interest vested in this (also) an item of real property, (more general ...
*
The Land Report
References
Further reading
Overview of real property
*Schram, Joseph F., 2006. ''Real Estate Appraisal'', Rockwell Publishing.
*Moore, Geoff., 2005. ''Essential Real Property'', Psychology Press.
The law of real property
*Stoebuck, W. B., and Dale A. Whitman, 2000. ''The Law of Property'', 3rd. ed. St. Paul MN: West Group Publishing.
*Thomas, David A., ed., 1996. ''Thompson on Real Property''. Charlottesville VA: Michie Co.
Analysis of the law of real property
*
Ackerman, B., R. Ellickson, and C.M. Rose, 2002. ''Perspectives on Property Law'', 3rd ed. Aspen Law and Business.
*
Tom Bethell, 1998. ''Noblest Triumph: Property and Prosperity through the Ages''. St Martin's Press. For laypeople.
*
Robert Cooter
Robert D. Cooter (born May 2, 1945) is the Herman F. Selvin Professor of Law at the University of California, Berkeley, School of Law.
Cooter works in the field of law and economics. He is co-editor of the ''International Review of Law and Econom ...
, and
Thomas Ulen, 2003. ''Law and Economics'', 4th. ed. Addison-Wesley. Chpts. 4,5. Easier text.
*
Ellickson, Robert, 1993,
Property in Land" ''Yale Law Journal'' 102: 1315–1400.
*
Richard Epstein, ed., 2007, ''Economics of Property Law''. Edward Elgar. An anthology of articles, mostly from the law literature.
*Shavell, Steven, 2004. ''Foundations of Economic Analysis of Law''. Harvard Univ. Press. Chpts. 2–5. Harder text; extensive references.
*
Jeremy Waldron
Jeremy Waldron (; born 13 October 1953) is a New Zealand professor of law and philosophy. He holds a University Professorship at the New York University School of Law, is affiliated with the New York University Department of Philosophy, and was ...
, 1988. ''The Right to Private Property''. Oxford Univ. Press.
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Oswaldo D. Agcaoili, , ed. 2006, ''Property Registration Code''. Agcaoili. Land Titles and Deeds: Property Law and Cases in the Philippines.
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Real property