Hypolimnas bolina

''Hypolimnas bolina'', the great eggfly, common eggfly, varied eggfly or in New Zealand the blue moon butterfly is a species of nymphalid butterfly found from Madagascar to Asia and Australia.

Appearance

Race ''bolina''

''H. bolina'' is a black-bodied butterfly with a wingspan of about . The species has a high degree of sexual dimorphism. The female is mimetic with multiple morphs.

Male

Males are monomorphic. The dorsal wing surface is jet black but features three prominent spots, two on the forewing and one on the hindwing. To a human observer these appear as white spots fringed with blue-violet. They actually consist of a white center overlain by bright ultraviolet iridescence, a colour generated by nanostructures on the wing scale surface. Numerous smaller white spots fringe the fore- and hindwings. The ventral surface lacks any ultraviolet iridescence and consists essentially of banded white markings set against a brownish background.

Female

Females are owing to the presence of both genetic polymorphism and phenotypic plasticity. Polymorphism is expressed primarily on the dorsal surface, with morphs varying in the presence of white, orange and blue markings. One genetic morph, named ''euploeoides'' by Clarke & Sheppard (1975), is thought to present a mimic of one or several members of the genus ''Euploea''. The female ventral wing surfaces are similar to those of the male. Phenotypic plasticity is such that individuals are generally darker if they develop under cooler temperatures.

Gallery

Common Eggfly02 - melbourne zoo.jpg, Female, underside
Hypolimnas bolina by Kadavoor.jpg, Male, underside
Eggs of Hypolimnas bolina Linnaeus, 1758 – Great Eggfly OP2A9916.jpg, Eggs
Great eggfly cat.jpg, Caterpillar of race ''bolina''
Great eggfly pupa.jpg, Pupa of race ''bolina''

Distribution

''H. bolina'' is found in Madagascar in the west, through to South and Southeast Asia, Cambodia, the South Pacific islands ( French Polynesia, Tonga, Tuvalu, Samoa and Vanuatu), and occurs in parts of Australia as far south as Victoria during summer and autumn, Japan, and New Zealand. Appearances in New Zealand appear to be linked with favourable winds during April–June migratory periods in Australia, with the butterfly being recorded in 1956, 1971 and 1995. No populations have established locally in New Zealand.

Habitat

''H. bolina'' is a generally common butterfly across most tropical and sub-tropical habitat types, including wet/dry woodland (such as tropical savanna), rainforest and shrubland. It is a common visitor to suburban back yards and other areas of human disturbance. In the Australian tropics, ''H. bolina'' is particularly common along tracks, streambeds, and the corridors formed between remnant gallery forest and cultivated sugar cane fields. Both sexes are invariably found in association with one or more larval hostplant species, especially disturbance species such as '' Synedrella nodiflora'', ''Sida rhombifolia'', and ''Commelina cyanea''.

Mimicry

To the west the female is monomorphic, mimicking species of the oriental and Australasian danaid genus ''Euploea''. Eastwards ''H. bolina'' is frequently polymorphic and most forms are then non-mimetic. In areas where it resembles ''Euploea'' the butterfly has usually been designated a Batesian mimic.

Life cycle and ecology

Males are notably territorial. Individuals are known to return to defend the same location for up to 54 days, with site fidelity increasing with age. Territories that enhance the visual detection of adult females are preferred. Females are usually found gliding close to the ground in southern areas.

Unlike congenerics such as '' Hypolimnas anomala'', female ''H. bolina'' most often lay one or two eggs at a time. These are typically laid on the leaf underside. Early season (post-diapause) females in the Australian wet-dry tropics target freshly-germinated seedlings of their favoured host in this region, '' Synedrella nodiflora''. Eggs hatch after 3 days under a constant incubation temperature of ca. 25 degrees C. Newly hatched larva first consume their egg shell before feeding on the leaf upon which they were laid. Later larval instars are highly mobile and readily disperse in search of new host foliage. Individuals rarely pupate on (or in the immediate vicinity of) their host plant.

Host plants

Race ''bolina'' breeds on ''Sida rhombifolia'', '' Elatostemma cuneatum'', ''Portulaca oleracea'', '' Laportea interrupta'', '' Triumfetta pentandra'', and ''Asystasia'' species.

Other hosts include '' Elatostema cuneatum'', '' Fleurya interrupta'', '' Pseuderanthemum variabile'', ''Ipomoea batatas,'' ''Alternanthera denticulata'' and '' Synedrella nodiflora''. Caterpillars accept leaves of Pipiturus argenteus. They are also known to feed on ''Urtica dioica'' and ''Malva'' species. While in New Zealand, adult butterflies have been observed feeding on the nectar of ''Lantana'', ''Grevillea'', '' Hebe'', '' Symphyotrichum novi-belgii'' and ''Solanum muricatum'' plants.

Eggs

The eggs are a pale, glassy green with longitudinal ridges except on the top.

Caterpillar

After about four days the eggs hatch. The caterpillars immediately disperse. They are black with an orange head. The last segment is also orange. The head bears a pair of long branched black horns. The body surface is also covered with long, branched, orangish black spines. These spines look whitish and transparent immediately after moulting, but soon become the usual orange. In later instars the spiracles are surrounded by thin, dirty orange rings. Infection by ''Wolbachia'' bacteria is known to exclusively kill male specimens.

Pupa

The pupa is suspended by just one point. It is brown with a grey tinge on the wings. The abdominal segments have distinct tubercles. The surface of the pupa is rough. The butterfly emerges after seven to eight days as pupae (female development is always a bit longer).

Recent evolutionary changes

On the Samoan Islands of Upolu and Savai'i, a parasite (probably ''Wolbachia'') had been killing the male members of ''Hypolimnas bolina''. The problem was so severe that by 2001, males made up only 1% of the population. However, in 2007, it was reported that within a span of just 10 generations (about 5 years), the males had evolved to develop immunity to the parasite, and the male population increased to nearly 40%. This evolutionary event involved changes at a single genomic region on chromosome 25, and represents one of the fastest examples of natural selection observed to date in natural populations. Ed Yong has written a popular science account of this highly unusual evolutionary event.Yong, E. The Strange Case of the Butterfly and the Male-Murdering Microbe (2016) https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2016/08/the-strange-case-of-the-butterfly-and-the-male-killer/496637/

Subspecies

Listed alphabetically:_"''Hypolimnas''_Hübner,_[1819]"
at_Markku_Savela's_''Lepidoptera_and_Some_Other_Life_Forms''
*''H._b._bolina''_(Linnaeus,_1758)_–_(Sumatra,_Java,_Lesser_Sunda_Islands,_western_Borneo,_Sulawesi,_Salayar,_Kabaena,_Galla,_Banggai,_Sula,_Maluku,_New_Guinea,_Solomon_Islands,_Australia,_New_Caledonia)
*''H._b._constans''_(Butler,_1875)_–_(Tasmania?)
*''H._b._enganica''_Fruhstorfer,_1904__–_(Engano_Island)
*''H._b._gigas''_(Oberthür,_1879)_–_(Sangihe)
*''H._b._incommoda''_Butler,_1879
*''H._b._inconstans''_Butler,_1873_–_(Navigator_Islands)
*''H._b._jacintha''_(Drury,_1773)
*''H._b._jaluita''_Fruhstorfer,_1903
*''H._b._kezia''_(Butler)_–_(Formosa)
*''H._b._kraimoku''_(Eschscholtz,_1821)_–_(Lifu)
*''H._b._labuana''_Butler,_1879_–_(Labuan)
*''H._b._lisianassa''_(Cramer,_1779)_–_(Moluccas)
*''H._b._listeri''_Butler,_1888_–_(Christmas_Island)
*''H._b._montrouzieri''_(Butler)_–_(Woodlark,_Fergusson,_Trobriand_Islands)
*''H._b._naresii''_Butler,_1883_–_(Fiji)
*''H._b._nerina''_(Fabricius,_1775)_–_(Timor_-_Kai,_Aru,_Waigeu,_West_Irian_-_Papua,_northern_Australia_-_eastern_Victoria,_Bismarck_Archipelago,_Solomon_Islands,_New_Zealand)
*''H._b._pallescens''_(Butler)_–_(Fiji)
*''H._b._philippensis''_(Butler,_1874)_–_(Philippines)
*''H._b._pulchra''_(Butler)_–_(New_Caledonia)
*''H._b._rarik''_Eschscholtz,_1821)_–_(Lifu)

_References

_External_links

Evolution_of_Male-Killer_Suppression_in_a_Natural_Population


(English/German)
''Hypolimnas_bolina''
at_CalPhotos

{{Taxonbar.html" ;"title="819]""> "''Hypolimnas'' Hübner,
at_Markku_Savela's_''Lepidoptera_and_Some_Other_Life_Forms''
*''H._b._bolina''_(Linnaeus,_1758)_–_(Sumatra,_Java,_Lesser_Sunda_Islands,_western_Borneo,_Sulawesi,_Salayar,_Kabaena,_Galla,_Banggai,_Sula,_Maluku,_New_Guinea,_Solomon_Islands,_Australia,_New_Caledonia)
*''H._b._constans''_(Butler,_1875)_–_(Tasmania?)
*''H._b._enganica''_Fruhstorfer,_1904__–_(Engano_Island)
*''H._b._gigas''_(Oberthür,_1879)_–_(Sangihe)
*''H._b._incommoda''_Butler,_1879
*''H._b._inconstans''_Butler,_1873_–_(Navigator_Islands)
*''H._b._jacintha''_(Drury,_1773)
*''H._b._jaluita''_Fruhstorfer,_1903
*''H._b._kezia''_(Butler)_–_(Formosa)
*''H._b._kraimoku''_(Eschscholtz,_1821)_–_(Lifu)
*''H._b._labuana''_Butler,_1879_–_(Labuan)
*''H._b._lisianassa''_(Cramer,_1779)_–_(Moluccas)
*''H._b._listeri''_Butler,_1888_–_(Christmas_Island)
*''H._b._montrouzieri''_(Butler)_–_(Woodlark,_Fergusson,_Trobriand_Islands)
*''H._b._naresii''_Butler,_1883_–_(Fiji)
*''H._b._nerina''_(Fabricius,_1775)_–_(Timor_-_Kai,_Aru,_Waigeu,_West_Irian_-_Papua,_northern_Australia_-_eastern_Victoria,_Bismarck_Archipelago,_Solomon_Islands,_New_Zealand)
*''H._b._pallescens''_(Butler)_–_(Fiji)
*''H._b._philippensis''_(Butler,_1874)_–_(Philippines)
*''H._b._pulchra''_(Butler)_–_(New_Caledonia)
*''H._b._rarik''_Eschscholtz,_1821)_–_(Lifu)

_References

_External_links

Evolution_of_Male-Killer_Suppression_in_a_Natural_Population


(English/German)
''Hypolimnas_bolina''
at_CalPhotos

{{Taxonbar">from=Q309627

Hypolimnas.html" ;"title="819]"
at Markku Savela's ''Lepidoptera and Some Other Life Forms''
*''H. b. bolina'' (Linnaeus, 1758) – (Sumatra, Java, Lesser Sunda Islands, western Borneo, Sulawesi, Salayar, Kabaena, Galla, Banggai, Sula, Maluku, New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Australia, New Caledonia)
*''H. b. constans'' (Butler, 1875) – (Tasmania?)
*''H. b. enganica'' Fruhstorfer, 1904 – (Engano Island)
*''H. b. gigas'' (Oberthür, 1879) – (Sangihe)
*''H. b. incommoda'' Butler, 1879
*''H. b. inconstans'' Butler, 1873 – (Navigator Islands)
*''H. b. jacintha'' (Drury, 1773)
*''H. b. jaluita'' Fruhstorfer, 1903
*''H. b. kezia'' (Butler) – (Formosa)
*''H. b. kraimoku'' (Eschscholtz, 1821) – (Lifu)
*''H. b. labuana'' Butler, 1879 – (Labuan)
*''H. b. lisianassa'' (Cramer, 1779) – (Moluccas)
*''H. b. listeri'' Butler, 1888 – (Christmas Island)
*''H. b. montrouzieri'' (Butler) – (Woodlark, Fergusson, Trobriand Islands)
*''H. b. naresii'' Butler, 1883 – (Fiji)
*''H. b. nerina'' (Fabricius, 1775) – (Timor - Kai, Aru, Waigeu, West Irian - Papua, northern Australia - eastern Victoria, Bismarck Archipelago, Solomon Islands, New Zealand)
*''H. b. pallescens'' (Butler) – (Fiji)
*''H. b. philippensis'' (Butler, 1874) – (Philippines)
*''H. b. pulchra'' (Butler) – (New Caledonia)
*''H. b. rarik'' Eschscholtz, 1821) – (Lifu)

References

External links

Evolution of Male-Killer Suppression in a Natural Population


(English/German)
''Hypolimnas bolina''
at CalPhotos

{{Taxonbar">from=Q309627

bolina
Butterflies_of_Asia
Butterflies_of_Oceania.html" ;"title="Hypolimnas">bolina
Butterflies of Asia
Butterflies of Oceania">Hypolimnas">bolina
Butterflies of Asia
Butterflies of Oceania
Butterflies of Singapore
Butterflies of New Zealand
Butterflies described in 1758
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Articles containing video clips