A humid continental climate is a
climatic
Climate is the long-term weather pattern in an area, typically averaged over 30 years. More rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years. Some of the meteorological ...
region defined by Russo-German
climatologist
Climatology (from Greek , ''klima'', "place, zone"; and , ''-logia'') or climate science is the scientific study of Earth's climate, typically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of at least 30 years. This modern field of study ...
Wladimir Köppen
Wladimir Peter Köppen (; russian: Влади́мир Петро́вич Кёппен, translit=Vladimir Petrovich Kyoppen; 25 September 1846 – 22 June 1940) was a Russian-German geographer, meteorologist, climatologist and botanist. After st ...
in 1900,
typified by four distinct seasons and large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and freezing cold (sometimes severely cold in the northern areas) winters. Precipitation is usually distributed throughout the year but often do have dry seasons. The definition of this climate regarding temperature is as follows: the mean temperature of the coldest month must be below or depending on the isotherm,
and there must be at least four months whose mean temperatures are at or above . In addition, the location in question must not be
semi-arid
A semi-arid climate, semi-desert climate, or steppe climate is a dry climate sub-type. It is located on regions that receive precipitation below potential evapotranspiration, but not as low as a desert climate. There are different kinds of semi- ...
or
arid. The cooler ''Dfb'', ''Dwb'', and ''Dsb'' subtypes are also known as
hemiboreal
Hemiboreal means halfway between the temperate and subarctic (or boreal) zones. The term is most frequently used in the context of climates and ecosystems.
Botany
A hemiboreal forest has some characteristics of a boreal forest to the north, and ...
climates.
Humid continental climates are generally found between latitudes
30° N and
60° N, within the central and northeastern portions of
North America,
Europe, and
Asia. They are rare and isolated in the
Southern Hemisphere, due to the larger ocean area at that latitude, smaller land mass, and the consequent greater maritime moderation. In the Northern Hemisphere, some of the humid continental climates, typically in
Hokkaido
is Japan's second largest island and comprises the largest and northernmost prefecture, making up its own region. The Tsugaru Strait separates Hokkaidō from Honshu; the two islands are connected by the undersea railway Seikan Tunnel.
The lar ...
,
Northern Honshu,
Sakhalin island, northeastern mainland
Europe,
Scandinavia,
Nova Scotia, and
Newfoundland are closer to the sea and is heavily maritime-influenced and comparable to
oceanic climates, with relatively cool summers and winters being just below the freezing mark (too cold for such a classification). More extreme and inland humid continental climates found in northeast
China, southern
Siberia, the
Korean Peninsula (except for the southern region in South Korea) and the
Canadian Prairies
The Canadian Prairies (usually referred to as simply the Prairies in Canada) is a region in Western Canada. It includes the Canadian portion of the Great Plains and the Prairie Provinces, namely Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. These provin ...
, where temperatures in the winter resemble those of
subarctic climates but have warmer and longer summers. In east-central China, southern
South Korea, the
Great Lakes region
The Great Lakes region of North America is a binational Canadian–American region that includes portions of the eight U.S. states of Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin along with the Canadian p ...
of the
American Midwest,
New England, and southern parts of
Central Canada the climate combines hotter summer maxima and colder winters than the marine-based variety and are less extreme than the most inland variety, with similarities to the adjacent
humid subtropical climate but with colder winters which preclude such classifications.
Definition
Using the
Köppen climate classification, a climate is classified as humid continental when the temperature of the coldest month is below or and there must be at least four months whose mean temperatures are at or above .
These temperatures were not arbitrary. In Europe, the average temperature
isotherm (line of equal temperature) was near the southern extent of winter
snowpack. In the United States, it is more common to use the isotherm instead. The average temperature was found to be roughly the minimum temperature necessary for tree reproduction and growth.
Wide temperature ranges are common within this climate zone.
Second letter in the classification symbol defines seasonal rainfall as follows:
* ''s'': A dry summer—the driest month in the high-sun half of the year (April to September in the Northern Hemisphere, October to March in the Southern Hemisphere) has less than / of rainfall and has exactly or less than the precipitation of the wettest month in the low-sun half of the year (October to March in the Northern Hemisphere, April to September in the Southern Hemisphere),
* ''w'': A dry winter—the driest month in the low-sun half of the year has exactly or less than one‑tenth of the precipitation found in the wettest month in the summer half of the year,
* ''f'': Without dry season—does not meet either of the alternative specifications above.
while the third letter denotes the extent of summer heat:
* ''a'': Hot summer, warmest month averages at least ,
* ''b'': Warm summer, warmest month averages below but at least four months averages above .
Associated precipitation
Within North America, moisture within this climate regime is supplied by the
Great Lakes,
Gulf of Mexico and adjacent western subtropical
Atlantic.
Precipitation is relatively well distributed year-round in many areas with this climate (''f''), while others may see a marked reduction in wintry precipitation,
which increases the chances of a wintertime
drought (''w'').
Snowfall occurs in all areas with a humid continental climate and in many such places is more common than
rain during the height of winter. In places with sufficient wintertime precipitation, the snow cover is often deep. Most summer rainfall occurs during
thunderstorms,
and in North America and Asia an occasional
tropical system. Though
humidity levels are often high in locations with humid continental climates, the "humid" designation means that the climate is not dry enough to be classified as
semi-arid
A semi-arid climate, semi-desert climate, or steppe climate is a dry climate sub-type. It is located on regions that receive precipitation below potential evapotranspiration, but not as low as a desert climate. There are different kinds of semi- ...
or
arid.
Vegetation
By definition,
forests thrive within this climate.
Biomes within this climate regime include temperate woodlands, temperate grasslands, temperate deciduous or evergreen forests,
coniferous forests, and coniferous swamps. Within wetter areas,
maple,
spruce,
pine,
fir, and
oak can be found. Fall foliage is noted during the autumn of deciduous forests.
Hot summer subtype
A hot summer version of a continental climate features an average temperature of at least in its warmest month. Since these regimes are limited to the Northern Hemisphere, the warmest month is usually July or August. High temperatures in the warmest month tend to be in the high 20s or low 30s °C (80s or low 90s °F), while average January afternoon temperatures are near or well below freezing. Frost free periods normally last 4–7 months within this climate regime.
Within
North America, this climate includes small areas of central and southeast Canada (including
Essex County, the core area of the
Golden Horseshoe
The Golden Horseshoe is a secondary region of Southern Ontario, Canada, which lies at the western end of Lake Ontario, with outer boundaries stretching south to Lake Erie and north to Lake Scugog, Lake Simcoe and Georgian Bay of Lake Huron. The ...
and
Greater Montreal
Greater Montreal (french: Grand Montréal) is the most populous metropolitan area in Quebec and the second most populous in Canada after Greater Toronto. In 2015, Statistics Canada identified Montreal's Census Metropolitan Area (CMA) as with ...
) and portions of the central and eastern United States from
100°W eastward to the
Atlantic. Precipitation increases further eastward in this zone and is less seasonally uniform in the west. The western states of the central
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...
(namely
Montana,
Wyoming, parts of southern
Idaho, most of
Lincoln County in
Eastern Washington
Eastern Washington is the region of the U.S. state of Washington located east of the Cascade Range. It contains the city of Spokane (the second largest city in the state), the Tri-Cities, the Columbia River and the Grand Coulee Dam, the Hanf ...
, parts of
Colorado, parts of
Utah, western
Nebraska, and parts of western
North and
South Dakota) have thermal regimes which fit the ''Dfa'' climate type, but are quite dry, and are generally grouped with the steppe (''BSk'') climates. In the eastern United States
Pennsylvania,
Connecticut,
Ohio,
New York,
Delaware and
Massachusetts have some part of their state in this climate zone.
In the Eastern Hemisphere, this climate regime is found within interior
Eurasia, east-central Asia, and parts of
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
. Within Europe, the ''Dfa'' climate type is present near the
Black Sea in southern
Ukraine
Ukraine ( uk, Україна, Ukraïna, ) is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which it borders to the east and northeast. Ukraine covers approximately . Prior to the ongoing Russian inv ...
, the
Southern Federal District
The Southern Federal District ( rus, Ю́жный федера́льный о́круг, Yuzhny federalny okrug, ˈjuʐnɨj fʲɪdʲɪˈralʲnɨj ˈokrʊk) is one of the eight federal districts of Russia. Its territory lies mostly on the Pontic� ...
of
Russia, southern
Moldova,
Serbia, parts of southern
Romania, and
Bulgaria,
but tends to be drier and can be even semi-arid in these places. In East Asia, this climate exhibits a
monsoonal tendency with much higher precipitation in summer than in winter, and due to the effects of the strong
Siberian High
The Siberian High (also Siberian Anticyclone; russian: Азиатский антициклон (''Aziatsky antitsiklon'')) is a massive collection of cold dry air that accumulates in the northeastern part of Eurasia from September until April. It ...
much colder winter temperatures than similar latitudes around the world, however with lower snowfall, the exception being western Japan with its heavy snowfall.
Tōhoku, between
Tokyo and
Hokkaidō and Western coast of Japan also has a climate with Köppen classification ''Dfa'', but is wetter even than that part of North America with this climate type. A variant which has dry winters and hence relatively lower snowfall with monsoonal type summer rainfall is to be found in northern
China including
Manchuria and parts of
North China, and over much of the
Korean Peninsula; it has the Köppen classification ''Dwa''. Much of
central Asia,
northwestern China
Northwest China () is a statistical region of China which includes the autonomous regions of Xinjiang and Ningxia and the provinces of Shaanxi, Gansu and Qinghai. It has an area of 3,107,900 km2.
The region is characterized by a (semi-)arid con ...
, and southern
Mongolia has a thermal regime similar to that of the ''Dfa'' climate type, but these regions receive so little precipitation that they are more often classified as steppes (''BSk'') or deserts (''BWk'').
''Dsa'' climates are rare; they are generally restricted to elevated areas adjacent to
Mediterranean climate regions with a ''Csa'' climate well inland to ensure hot summers and cold winters. They are generally found in the highly elevated areas of south-eastern Turkey (
Hakkâri), north-western Iran and parts of
Central Asia.
This climate zone does not exist at all in the southern hemisphere, where the only landmass that enters the upper-middle latitudes, South America,
tapers too much to have any place that gets the combination of snowy winters and hot summers. Marine influences preclude ''Dfa'', ''Dwa'', and ''Dsa'' climates in the southern hemisphere.
Warm summer subtype
Also known as
Hemiboreal climate, areas featuring this subtype of the continental climate have an average temperature in the warmest month below . Summer high temperatures in this zone typically average between during the daytime and the average temperatures in the coldest month are generally well or far below the (or ) isotherm. Frost-free periods typically last 3–5 months. Heat spells lasting over a week are rare.
The warm summer version of the humid continental climate covers a much larger area than the hot subtype. In North America, the climate zone covers from about
42°N to
50°N latitude mostly east of
100°W, including parts of
Southern Ontario
Southern Ontario is a primary region of the province of Ontario, Canada, the other primary region being Northern Ontario. It is the most densely populated and southernmost region in Canada. The exact northern boundary of Southern Ontario is disp ...
, the southern half of
Quebec,
The Maritimes, and
Newfoundland, as well as the northern United States from eastern
North Dakota east to
Maine. However, it can be found as far north as
54°N, and further west in the Canadian
Prairie Provinces
The Canadian Prairies (usually referred to as simply the Prairies in Canada) is a region in Western Canada. It includes the Canadian portion of the Great Plains and the Prairie Provinces, namely Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. These provin ...
and below
40°N in the high
Appalachians
The Appalachian Mountains, often called the Appalachians, (french: Appalaches), are a system of mountains in eastern to northeastern North America. The Appalachians first formed roughly 480 million years ago during the Ordovician Period. They ...
. In Europe, this subtype reaches its most northerly latitude in
Bodø at the
67°N.
High-altitude locations such as
Aspen, Colorado
Aspen is a home rule municipality that is the county seat and the most populous municipality of Pitkin County, Colorado, United States. The city population was 7,004 at the 2020 United States Census. Aspen is in a remote area of the Rocky Moun ...
and
Los Alamos, New Mexico in the western United States exhibit local ''Dfb'' climates. The south-central and southwestern
Prairie Provinces
The Canadian Prairies (usually referred to as simply the Prairies in Canada) is a region in Western Canada. It includes the Canadian portion of the Great Plains and the Prairie Provinces, namely Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. These provin ...
also fits the ''Dfb'' criteria from a thermal profile, but because of semi-arid precipitation portions of it are grouped into the ''BSk'' category.
In
Europe, it is found in much of
Central Europe:
Germany (in the east and southeast part of the country),
Austria (generally below ),
Poland,
Czech Republic,
Slovakia,
Hungary (generally above ),
Croatia (mostly
Slavonia region), in much of
Eastern Europe:
Ukraine
Ukraine ( uk, Україна, Ukraïna, ) is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which it borders to the east and northeast. Ukraine covers approximately . Prior to the ongoing Russian inv ...
(the whole country except the
Black Sea coast),
Belarus,
Russia (mostly central part of
European Russia), south and central parts of
Scandinavia not bathed by the
Atlantic Ocean
The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's five oceans, with an area of about . It covers approximately 20% of Earth's surface and about 29% of its water surface area. It is known to separate the " Old World" of Africa, Europe ...
or
North Sea:
Sweden (historical regions of
Svealand
Svealand (), or Swealand, is the historical core region of Sweden. It is located in south central Sweden and is one of three historical lands of Sweden, bounded to the north by Norrland and to the south by Götaland. Deep forests, Tiveden, T ...
and
Götaland
Götaland (; also '' Geatland'', '' Gothia'', ''Gothland'', ''Gothenland'' or ''Gautland'') is one of three lands of Sweden and comprises ten provinces. Geographically it is located in the south of Sweden, bounded to the north by Svealand, wit ...
),
Denmark,
Finland (south end, including the
three largest cities),
Norway (most populated area),
, all
Baltic States:
Estonia,
Latvia,
Lithuania and also in parts of:
Romania (generally above ),
Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Turkey and in the
Cairngorm Mountains of
Scotland
Scotland (, ) is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. Covering the northern third of the island of Great Britain, mainland Scotland has a Anglo-Scottish border, border with England to the southeast ...
, (generally above ).
It has little warming or precipitation effects from the northern Atlantic.
The cool summer subtype is marked by mild summers, long cold winters and less
precipitation than the hot summer subtype; however, short periods of extreme heat are not uncommon. Northern
Japan has a similar climate.
In the
Southern Hemisphere, it exists in well-defined areas only in the
Southern Alps
The Southern Alps (; officially Southern Alps / Kā Tiritiri o te Moana) is a mountain range extending along much of the length of New Zealand's South Island, reaching its greatest elevations near the range's western side. The name "Southern ...
of
New Zealand, in the
Snowy Mountains of
Australia in
Kiandra, New South Wales
Kiandra is an abandoned gold mining town and the birthplace of Australian skiing. The town is situated in the Snowy Mountains of New South Wales, Australia, in the Snowy Monaro Regional Council inside the Kosciuszko National Park. Its name ...
and the
Andes Mountains of
Argentina and
Chile.
Use in climate modeling
Since climate regimes tend to be dominated by vegetation of one region with relatively homogenous ecology, those that project
climate change remap their results in the form of climate regimes as an alternative way to explain expected changes.
See also
*
Continental climate
*
Subarctic climate
*
Hemiboreal
Hemiboreal means halfway between the temperate and subarctic (or boreal) zones. The term is most frequently used in the context of climates and ecosystems.
Botany
A hemiboreal forest has some characteristics of a boreal forest to the north, and ...
References
{{Koppen
Köppen climate types
Climate of North America
Climate of Europe
Climate of Asia