Human interactions with insects in southern Africa
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Various cultures throughout Africa utilize insects for many things and have developed unique interactions with insects: as food sources, for sale or trade in markets, or for use in traditional practices and rituals, as
ethnomedicine Ethnomedicine is a study or comparison of the traditional medicine based on bioactive compounds in plants and animals and practiced by various ethnic groups, especially those with little access to western medicines, e.g., indigenous peoples. The ...
or as part of their traditional ecological knowledge. As food, also known as entomophagy, a variety of insects are collected as part of a protein rich source of nutrition for marginal communities. Entomophagy had been part of traditional culture throughout Africa, though this activity has been diminishing gradually with the influx of Western culture and market economies. Often the collection of insects for food has been the activity of children, both male and female. Within Southern Africa different communities have established practices for regulating and maintaining their insect harvests. Some groups, through taboos, ritual, and
hierarchical A hierarchy (from Greek: , from , 'president of sacred rites') is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) that are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important ...
organizational structures acting as regulating bodies, have maintained their traditional practice for centuries. They monitor the development of certain
caterpillar Caterpillars ( ) are the larval stage of members of the order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths). As with most common names, the application of the word is arbitrary, since the larvae of sawflies (suborder Sym ...
species' life cycles to ensure proper time frame for harvesting and sustainability. Understanding the diversity of relationships to nature is a crucial aspect of fully grasping and contending with the challenges of modernity and ecology. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations report from January 2012, it has been recommended that insects be utilized both for human consumption as well as for animal feed. However, as the climate changes many agencies are reporting on the risk of the decline in insect populations within the larger ongoing phenomenon of biodiversity loss and how it may affect the world's ecology.


Southern Africa


Blouberg, Limpopo

Maize is a staple crop of Blouberg, Limpopo. Yet due to the processing methods of removing the germ and pericarp, maize is a poor source of protein which often requires supplementation. Within the Blouberg Region, Limpopo, there are some 30 species of insect which are considered edible, and of those, the caterpillar '' Hemijana variegata'' Rothschild (
Lepidoptera Lepidoptera ( ) is an order (biology), order of insects that includes butterfly, butterflies and moths (both are called lepidopterans). About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera are described, in 126 Family (biology), families and 46 Taxonomic r ...
: Eupterotidae) is considered a delicacy while being nutritionally sound. Depending on how it is prepared, the nutritional values of protein, carbohydrate, fat, and essential vitamins varies. According to B.A. Egan et al. (2014) the fortification of staple cereals with insects would positively affect the protein content of the community's diet, and should be promoted as a healthy alternative to beef.


Traditional preparation

'' Hemijana variegata'' Rothschild are sold in local markets in the village of Ga Manaka. In this market, the caterpillars are collected by locals in the surrounding forests near Blouberg Mountain and transported back for preparation. Local residents report it was important to wash them after collection. They would wash them three times and purge them, before boiling them in salty water for an hour. They are then sun dried until brittle and the hairs are "shaken off by ' winnowing' in a basket or bucket."


Nutrition

The '' Hemijana variegata'' has protein content that exceeds that of more common livestock such as cows or chickens when measured per gram. The energy, and protein content of the caterpillars which had been traditionally dried had been lower than that of oven based drying. The energy content of the caterpillars (552  kcal/100 g.) is greater than that of beef (112 to 115 kcal/100 g), goat meat (96.36 and 101.47 kcal/100 g), and chicken (144 kcal/100 g). The fat content is 20% which is higher than beef or chicken. The vitamin C content was measured at (14.15 mg/100 g.) compared to (30 mg/100 g) in
pea The pea is most commonly the small spherical seed or the seed-pod of the flowering plant species ''Pisum sativum''. Each pod contains several peas, which can be green or yellow. Botanically, pea pods are fruit, since they contain seeds and d ...
s and over (90 mg/100 g) in broccoli.


Venda, South Africa

Caterpillars such as ''
Gonimbrasia belina ''Gonimbrasia belina'' is a species of emperor moth which is native to the warmer parts of southern Africa. Its large edible caterpillar, known as the mopane worm, madora, amacimbi or masontja, feeds primarily but not exclusively on mopane tree ...
'', or mopane, are a staple protein source for the communities of the Northern Province of South Africa (formerly Venda). Caterpillars are one of the many insects that are traded in wide reaching markets (southern Zimbabwe, eastern Botswana and northern provinces of South Africa, formerly known as
Transvaal Transvaal is a historical geographic term associated with land north of (''i.e.'', beyond) the Vaal River in South Africa. A number of states and administrative divisions have carried the name Transvaal. * South African Republic (1856–1902; af, ...
); not only are caterpillars traded in this expansive market, but other species traded include: soldier termites ('' Macrotermes'': Termitidae,
Isoptera Termites are small insects that live in colonies and have distinct castes (eusocial) and feed on wood or other dead plant matter. Termites comprise the infraorder Isoptera, or alternatively the epifamily Termitoidae, within the order Blattode ...
), green bugs ('' Encosternum'': Tessaratomidae,
Hemiptera Hemiptera (; ) is an order (biology), order of insects, commonly called true bugs, comprising over 80,000 species within groups such as the cicadas, aphids, planthoppers, leafhoppers, Reduviidae, assassin bugs, Cimex, bed bugs, and shield bugs. ...
) and flying termites (
Isoptera Termites are small insects that live in colonies and have distinct castes (eusocial) and feed on wood or other dead plant matter. Termites comprise the infraorder Isoptera, or alternatively the epifamily Termitoidae, within the order Blattode ...
). Within in rural communities still practicing traditional diets, grasshoppers and mopane worms are considered vital in their subsistence economy and the most important insects for nutrition. The amount of caught insects per time spent trapping varies, depending on the level of rainfall predominately, but also different environmental conditions. Within rural communities grasshoppers and locusts are often trapped for personal consumption rather than to be sold within a market. In the 1996 survey of the community upwards of 70% of rural households reported having consumed grasshoppers regularly, having an estimated daily intake of 14 grams. The practice of collecting grasshoppers for consumption is considered a common activity for young boys and girls, as well as older women, yet not for older men. Grasshoppers are a free source of nutritional food and as such are important for the sustenance of communities marginal to market economies; as much as 2350 tons of grasshoppers were estimated to be harvested over a period of eight months.


Language and description

Within the Venda language, Tshivenda, in general locusts and grasshoppers share a name, ''nzie''. The stages of the insects life also are distinctly named: nymphs as ''vhulka'', and the pre-adult stages: ''thathakubi'' or ''dengulamukumbi''. Researchers had documented approximately 155 vernacular names for varieties of grasshoppers which varied based on the local communities queried, of which most of the respondents were children. Overall, the vernacular names represented 42 species of grasshoppers. There are vivid linguistic descriptors of many varied species of grasshopper, based on appearance, behaviors, habits, location found, or the sound made.


Medicinal uses

Grasshopper Grasshoppers are a group of insects belonging to the suborder Caelifera. They are among what is possibly the most ancient living group of chewing herbivorous insects, dating back to the early Triassic around 250 million years ago. Grasshopp ...
s, or ''bapu'', are used for a variety of ailments, and different preparations have different medicinal properties according to the
ethnomedicine Ethnomedicine is a study or comparison of the traditional medicine based on bioactive compounds in plants and animals and practiced by various ethnic groups, especially those with little access to western medicines, e.g., indigenous peoples. The ...
of the communities studied. Some examples are: when ''bapu'' is fried, it is to be eaten as a treatment for young children who wet the bed; when ''bapu'' is dried and ground up and put in warm water it is used to treat nightmares; boiled ''bapu'' is for hyperactive children; ground and then burnt ''bapu'' mixed with
petroleum jelly Petroleum jelly, petrolatum, white petrolatum, soft paraffin, or multi-hydrocarbon, CAS number 8009-03-8, is a semi-solid mixture of hydrocarbons (with carbon numbers mainly higher than 25), originally promoted as a topical ointment for its h ...
is applied to the fontanel of newborns to strengthen them; the ashes of roasted ''bapu'' is rubbed onto women's breasts to alleviate pain.


Beliefs

Some species of grasshopper are for various reasons thought of to be inedible or dangerous. Besides being inedible, there are beliefs associated with the consumption of certain grasshoppers, such as those that are attracted to fire, which may lead to madness or the loss of one's hearing. Losing one's sanity is a persistent fear associated with eating grasshoppers that live near one's house. Other such forbidden species are ''silivhindi'' and ''banzi'' ( Pyrgomorphldae) which have a distinctly bad odor and are thought to be toxic to both humans and dogs. Within Zionist African Churches, many insects such as grasshoppers and locusts are thought of us unclean, and this translates into a stigma against eating those for fear of association. Several species are believed to become a snake if certain practices are not followed. For instance, ''mutotombudzi'' (''
Acrida ''Acrida'' is a genus of grasshoppers in the family Acrididae. The genus contains around 40 species which are found in Africa, Europe, Asia, North America, Hawaii, and Australia. Insects of this genus are omnivorous and a well-known pest of many ...
'' spp., ''
Truxalis ''Truxalis''Fabricius (1775) ''Systema entomologiae, sistens insectorum classes, ordines, genera, species, adiectis synonymis, locis, descriptionibus, observationibus'' 279. is a genus of grasshoppers in the family Acrididae, subfamily Acridinae ...
'' spp.) requires that you remove the antenna, or ''nzie-luvhele'' ('' Cyrtacanthracris fatarica'') must be squashed in a specific manner. The folklore associated with ''nyammbeulwana'' is that it could cause one to lose their hair or blood if it were to land on your head. Because of the belief that ''tshikwandavhokopfu'' ("powder eater") often eats human and cow feces some do not eat it. Other species have foul tastes or are associated with snakes which often leads to their not being eaten.


Zambia


Bisa people

The Bisa people inhabit the Kopa area of Mpika district of northern Zambia ( latitude, 11° 00'–13° 30' south; longitude, 29° 45'–32° 30' east). These people practice traditional subsistence farming,
hunting Hunting is the human activity, human practice of seeking, pursuing, capturing, or killing wildlife or feral animals. The most common reasons for humans to hunt are to harvest food (i.e. meat) and useful animal products (fur/hide (skin), hide, ...
and caterpillar collection, which is essential to their culture. K.J. Mbata, et al. (2002) conducted a household survey in 2000 to better understand their customs and knowledge concerning caterpillar harvesting. Upwards of 89.1% of respondents practiced caterpillar harvesting in the surrounding
miombo woodlands The Miombo woodland is a tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome (in the World Wide Fund for Nature scheme) located primarily in Central Africa. It includes four woodland savanna ecoregions (listed below) characterized b ...
. The two most well-known species for harvesting in this region of the eight said to live there were ''
Gynanisa maja ''Gynanisa maja'', the speckled emperor or chipumi, is a moth of the family Saturniidae. The species was first described by Johann Christoph Friedrich Klug in 1836. It is known from South Africa to eastern Africa (up to Angola and Zambia). ''Gyna ...
'' Strand (''chipumi'') and '' Gonimbrasia zambesina'' Walker (''mumpa''). Mostly due to their size, flavor, common lack of thorns or urticating hairs, and their market value, ''
Gynanisa maja ''Gynanisa maja'', the speckled emperor or chipumi, is a moth of the family Saturniidae. The species was first described by Johann Christoph Friedrich Klug in 1836. It is known from South Africa to eastern Africa (up to Angola and Zambia). ''Gyna ...
'' is the most popular. The Bisa people believe that the caterpillars have been with them since time immemorial, as gifts from god, and this respectful belief has helped them formulate sustainable traditional management systems.


=Traditional ecological knowledge

= The traditional ecological knowledge of the life cycles and harvesting practices have been taught through oral education and shared experiences over centuries, developed in interaction with their local environment. The Bisa identify caterpillar species in various ways, among them the sound that the caterpillars make while eating and on which plants they feed. They have an understanding of the life cycles of the harvested caterpillars, recognizing the stages:
egg An egg is an organic vessel grown by an animal to carry a possibly fertilized egg cell (a zygote) and to incubate from it an embryo within the egg until the embryo has become an animal fetus that can survive on its own, at which point the a ...
, larva, pupa, and then
adult An adult is a human or other animal that has reached full growth. In human context, the term ''adult'' has meanings associated with social and legal concepts. In contrast to a " minor", a legal adult is a person who has attained the age of major ...
. Through early September to late October the caterpillars oviposit, and then harvesting is done during the rainy season between November and April. Taboos and specific seasonal management for harvest are some regulatory mechanisms practiced by the Bisa to teach proper traditional hunting behavior, to protect the maturation process and life cycle of the caterpillar, and to ensure the sustainability of the caterpillar and health of the ecosystem. Traditional technologies protect the habitat of the caterpillars, such as the use of fire to prevent natural blazes from consuming the host trees.


= Ritual and beliefs

= The monitoring process of the Bisa people of the caterpillars are often reproduced and learned through ritual behavior, performed by members of the senior chief kopa royal establishment. These rituals act as a regulator for the harvesting of the caterpillar and involve many layers of the community. The village scouts will walk through the woodlands daily and will report the location of
egg An egg is an organic vessel grown by an animal to carry a possibly fertilized egg cell (a zygote) and to incubate from it an embryo within the egg until the embryo has become an animal fetus that can survive on its own, at which point the a ...
s within their chiefdom back to the senior chief of the chiefdom. In one such practiced ritual to thank the ancestral Bisa spirits for the edible caterpillars, the senior chief's assistant (''chilukuta'') places a white cloth in the shrine for the burial site of the senior chiefs (''chaipinda''). The white cloth is cut into two parts, half of it is to stay at the shrine while the other is cut into smaller pieces. Believed to bless the developing caterpillars, the smaller pieces are used by the chief's male grandchildren to mark the host plants. As the eggs begin to hatch, the monitors will gather several to present to the chief who will convene a meeting of himself, his adviser and sub-chiefs, and his senior wife. The chief's wife (''mukolo-wa-chalo'' or "mother-of-the-land"), will offer the young caterpillars to the ancestral Bisa spirits at the shrine (''babenye'') in a ritual known locally as ''Ukuposela.'' Once the caterpillars have begun reaching maturity and samples have been brought by monitors to the senior chief, another meeting is called and more caterpillars are offered up by the senior wife, who following the offering eats the caterpillars that were not offered. A third meeting is called to set up a harvesting date in which the wife does not participate, though representatives from buyers outside the chiefdom may be invited. In another meeting a price is set for caterpillar harvests, and no outside representative participates. The Bisa people have established rules and taboos for harvesting, such as a stoppage directive issued by the senior chief. The signal for the beginning of harvesting generally is the beginning of November and the signal to stop given around mid-December. Other taboos and associated beliefs are: collecting caterpillars before or after the signals are believed to lead to those involved getting lost, its forbidden to roast them in an open fire or eviscerate them with a knife, noisy or sexual behavior is forbidden while harvesting, and consuming young caterpillars would make people go
insane Insanity, madness, lunacy, and craziness are behaviors performed by certain abnormal mental or behavioral patterns. Insanity can be manifest as violations of societal norms, including a person or persons becoming a danger to themselves or to ...
.


Further reading

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (01/2012) Expert consultation: "Assessing the Potential of Insects as Food and Feed in assuring Food Security." http://www.fao.org/3/an233e/an233e00.pdf


References

{{Reflist Ethnobiology Insects in culture South African culture Zambian culture Insects as food