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Horticulture is the branch of agriculture that deals with the art, science, technology, and business of plant cultivation. It includes the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, herbs, sprouts, mushrooms, algae, flowers, seaweeds and non-food crops such as grass and ornamental trees and plants. It also includes plant conservation, landscape restoration, landscape and garden design, construction, and maintenance, and arboriculture, ornamental trees and lawns. The study and practice of horticulture have been traced back thousands of years. Horticulture contributed to the transition from nomadic human communities to sedentary, or semi-sedentary, horticultural communities.von Hagen, V.W. (1957) The Ancient Sun Kingdoms Of The Americas. Ohio: The World Publishing Company Horticulture is divided into several categories which focus on the cultivation and processing of different types of plants and food items for specific purposes. In order to conserve the science of horticulture, multiple organizations worldwide educate, encourage, and promote the advancement of horticulture. Some notable horticulturists include
Luca Ghini Luca Ghini (Casalfiumanese, 1490 – Bologna, 4 May 1556) was an Italian physician and botanist, notable as the creator of the first recorded herbarium, as well as the first botanical garden in Europe. Biography Ghini was born in Casalfiumanese, ...
and
Luther Burbank Luther Burbank (March 7, 1849 – April 11, 1926) was an American botanist, horticulturist and pioneer in agricultural science. He developed more than 800 strains and varieties of plants over his 55-year career. Burbank's varied creations inc ...
.


Definition

Horticulture, from Latin ''hortus'' meaning garden and ''colere'' meaning to cultivate, focuses on the use of small plots, in contrast to
agronomy Agronomy is the science and technology of producing and using plants by agriculture for food, fuel, fiber, chemicals, recreation, or land conservation. Agronomy has come to include research of plant genetics, plant physiology, meteorology, and ...
which involves intensive crop farming and large-scale field crop production of grains and
forages Foraging is searching for wild food resources. It affects an animal's fitness because it plays an important role in an animal's ability to survive and reproduce. Foraging theory is a branch of behavioral ecology that studies the foraging behavi ...
or
forestry Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests, woodlands, and associated resources for human and environmental benefits. Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands. Th ...
involving forest trees and products derived form them. It deals with garden crops such as ornamental plants grown for their appearance, fruits and vegetable and spices grown for their food value, and medicinal plants.


Types

There are several major areas of focus within the science of horticulture. They include: *
Olericulture Olericulture is the science of vegetable growing, dealing with the culture of non-woody (herbaceous) plants for food. Olericulture is the production of plants for use of the edible parts. Vegetable crops can be classified into nine major categor ...
: the production of vegetables. *
Pomology Pomology (from Latin , “fruit,” + ) is a branch of botany that studies fruit and its cultivation. The term fruticulture—introduced from Romance languages (all of whose incarnations of the term descend from Latin and )—is also used. Pomol ...
, also called ''fruticulture'': the production of fruits and nuts. *
Viticulture Viticulture (from the Latin word for ''vine'') or winegrowing (wine growing) is the cultivation and harvesting of grapes. It is a branch of the science of horticulture. While the native territory of ''Vitis vinifera'', the common grape vine, ran ...
: the production of grapes (largely intended for winemaking). *
Floriculture Floriculture, or flower farming, is a branch of horticulture concerned with the cultivation of flowering and ornamental plants for gardens and for floristry, comprising the floral industry. The development of new varieties by plant breeding is ...
: the production of flowering and ornamental plants. *
Turf management Turf management or pitchcare describes the work needed to keep a sporting pitch ready for use. This article looks at the various types of sporting pitches and the type of challenges which they present. The skills needed vary considerably depende ...
: the production and maintenance of turf grass for sports, leisure and amenity use. *
Arboriculture Arboriculture () is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants. The science of arboriculture studies how these plants grow and respond to cultural practices and to their environmen ...
: the cultivation and care of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants, primarily for landscape and amenity purposes. *
Landscape horticulture A landscape is the visible features of an area of Terrestrial ecoregion, land, its landforms, and how they integrate with Nature, natural or man-made features, often considered in terms of their aesthetic appeal.''New Oxford American Dictionar ...
: the selection, production and care of plants used in landscape architecture. *
Postharvest physiology In agriculture, postharvest handling is the stage of crop production immediately following harvest, including cooling, cleaning, sorting and packing. The instant a crop is removed from the ground, or separated from its parent plant, it begins ...
: the management of harvested horticultural crops to retard spoilage while stored or transported. * Environmental horticulture: the science and management of green spaces. * Interiorscaping: the science and art of using indoor plants. It has an important role in house, hotel, office and mall decor. * Spices Crops Culture: deals with the cultivation of spice crops which include pepper, nutmeg and cardamom. * Plantation Crops Culture: deals with the plantation crop growth. * Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Culture: deals with growing and handling of medicinal and aromatic plants. * Post-Harvest Management: deals with the post-harvest handling, processing and marketing of horticultural products. It also includes grading, packaging and storage.


History

The history of horticulture overlaps with the
history of agriculture Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of Taxon, taxa. At least eleven separate regions of the Old World, Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin. The development ...
and
history of botany The history of botany examines the human effort to understand life on Earth by tracing the historical development of the discipline of botany—that part of natural science dealing with organisms traditionally treated as plants. Rudimentary b ...
. The origins of horticulture lie in the transition of human communities from a nomadic lifestyle as
hunter-gatherers A traditional hunter-gatherer or forager is a human living an ancestrally derived lifestyle in which most or all food is obtained by foraging, that is, by gathering food from local sources, especially edible wild plants but also insects, fungi, ...
to sedentary, or semi-sedentary, horticultural communities. In the Pre-Columbian Amazon Rainforest, natives used
biochar Biochar is the lightweight black residue, made of carbon and Ash (analytical chemistry), ashes, remaining after the pyrolysis of biomass. Biochar is defined by the International Biochar Initiative as "the solid material obtained from the th ...
to enhance soil productivity by smoldering plant waste. European settlers called this soil
Terra Preta de Indio ''Terra preta'' (, locally , literally "black soil" in Portuguese language, Portuguese) is a type of very dark, fertile human impact on the environment, anthropogenic soil (anthrosol) found in the Amazon Basin. It is also known as "Amazonian dark ...
. In forest areas, such horticulture was often carried out in swiddens, or "
slash and burn Slash-and-burn agriculture is a farming method that involves the cutting and burning of plants in a forest or woodland to create a field called a swidden. The method begins by cutting down the trees and woody plants in an area. The downed vegeta ...
" areas. In pre-contact North America, the semi-sedentary horticultural communities of the Eastern Woodlands, who grew maize, squash, and sunflower, contrasted markedly with the nomadic
hunter-gatherer A traditional hunter-gatherer or forager is a human living an ancestrally derived lifestyle in which most or all food is obtained by foraging, that is, by gathering food from local sources, especially edible wild plants but also insects, fungi, ...
communities of the Plains people.
Mesoamerican Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area in southern North America and most of Central America. It extends from approximately central Mexico through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica. Withi ...
cultures focused in the cultivating of crops on a small scale, such as the "
milpa Milpa is a crop-growing system used throughout Mesoamerica. It has been most extensively described in the Yucatán peninsula area of Mexico. The word ''milpa'' is derived from the Nahuatl word phrase ''mil-pa'', which translates into "cultivated ...
" or maize field, around their dwellings or in specialized plots which were visited occasionally during migrations from one area to the next. In Central America,
Maya Maya may refer to: Civilizations * Maya peoples, of southern Mexico and northern Central America ** Maya civilization, the historical civilization of the Maya peoples ** Maya language, the languages of the Maya peoples * Maya (Ethiopia), a populat ...
horticulture involved augmentation of the forest with useful trees such as
papaya The papaya (, ), papaw, () or pawpaw () is the plant species ''Carica papaya'', one of the 21 accepted species in the genus ''Carica'' of the family Caricaceae. It was first domesticated in Mesoamerica, within modern-day southern Mexico and ...
,
avocado The avocado (''Persea americana'') is a medium-sized, evergreen tree in the laurel family (Lauraceae). It is native to the Americas and was first domesticated by Mesoamerican tribes more than 5,000 years ago. Then as now it was prized for i ...
, cacao,
ceiba ''Ceiba'' is a genus of trees in the family Malvaceae, native to tropical and subtropical areas of the Americas (from Mexico and the Caribbean to N Argentina) and tropical West Africa. Some species can grow to tall or more, with a straight, la ...
and
sapodilla ''Manilkara zapota'', commonly known as sapodilla (), sapote, naseberry, nispero or chicle, is a long-lived, evergreen tree native to southern Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean. An example natural occurrence is in coastal Yucatán in the ...
. In the cornfields, multiple crops such as beans, squash, pumpkins and chili peppers were grown, and in some cultures, these crops were tended mainly or exclusively by women.


Organizations

There are various organizations worldwide that focus on promoting and encouraging research and education in all branches of horticultural science; such organizations include the
International Society for Horticultural Science The International Society for Horticultural Science (ISHS) is the world's leading independent organization of horticultural scientists. Its aim is "to promote and encourage research and education in all branches of horticultural science and to fa ...
and the
American Society of Horticultural Science Founded in 1903, the American Society for Horticultural Science in Alexandria, Virginia is "the largest, most visible organization dedicated to advancing all facets of horticultural research, education, and application." The ASHS's purpose is to pr ...
. In United Kingdom, there are two main horticulture societies. The
Ancient Society of York Florists Ancient history is a time period from the beginning of writing and recorded human history to as far as late antiquity. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with the Sumerian cuneiform script. Ancient history cove ...
is the oldest horticultural society in the world and was founded in 1768; this organization continues to host four horticultural shows annually in York, UK. Additionally,
The Royal Horticultural Society The Royal Horticultural Society (RHS), founded in 1804 as the Horticultural Society of London, is the UK's leading gardening charity. The RHS promotes horticulture through its five gardens at Wisley (Surrey), Hyde Hall (Essex), Harlow Carr ( ...
, established in 1804, is a charity in United Kingdom that leads on the encouragement and improvement of the science, art, and practice of horticulture in all its branches. The organization shares the knowledge of horticulture through its community, learning programs, and world-class gardens and shows. The Chartered Institute of Horticulture (CIoH) is the professional body which represents horticulturists in Great Britain and Ireland while also having an international branch for members outside of these islands. The Australian Society of Horticultural Science was established in 1990 as a professional society to promote and enhance Australian horticultural science and industry. Finally, the New Zealand Horticulture Institute is another known horticultural organization. In India, Horticultural Society of India (now Indian Academy of Horticultural Sciences) is the oldest society which was established in 1941 at Lyallpur, Punjab (now in Pakistan) but was later shifted to Delhi 1949. The another notable organisation in operation since 2005 is the Society for Promotion of Horticulture based at Bengaluru. Both these societies publish scholarly journals viz., Indian Journal of Horticulture and Journal of Horticultural Sciences for the advancement of horticultural sciences. Horticulture in the Indian state of
Kerala Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South ...
is spearheaded by
Kerala State Horticulture Mission Lakshkerala State Horticulture Mission is a registered society set up under the Travancore Cochin Literary Scientific & Charitable Societies Registration Act, 1955 to implement the National Horticulture Mission program, a centrally sponsored sch ...
. The
National Junior Horticultural Association The ''National Junior Horticultural Association'' (NJHA) is a non-profit organization in the United States that was founded in 1934 to promote and develop horticulture Horticulture is the branch of agriculture that deals with the art, science, t ...
(NJHA) was established in 1934 and was the first organization in the world dedicated solely to youth and horticulture. NJHA programs are designed to help young people obtain a basic understanding of horticulture and develop skills in this ever-expanding art and science. The Global Horticulture Initiative (GlobalHort) fosters partnerships and collective action among different stakeholders in horticulture. This organization has a special focus on horticulture for development (H4D), which involves using horticulture to reduce poverty and improve nutrition worldwide. GlobalHort is organized in a consortium of national and international organizations which collaborate in research, training, and technology-generating activities designed to meet mutually-agreed-upon objectives. GlobalHort is a non-profit organization registered in Belgium.


Techniques and Practices


Propagation

Plant propagation in horticulture is the process in which the multiplication of a species or cultivar is controlled to fit the desire of the horticulturalist. It is primarily used to increase the number of individual plants while preserving wanted genetic and morphological characteristics. Propagation involves both sexual or asexual methods. In sexual propagation seeds are used, while asexual propagation involves the division of plants, separation of tubers, corms, and bulbs and techniques such as cutting, layering, grafting. Seed propagation is a common method for both
self-pollinating Self-pollination is a form of pollination in which pollen from the same plant arrives at the stigma of a flower (in flowering plants) or at the ovule (in gymnosperms). There are two types of self-pollination: in autogamy, pollen is transferred to ...
and cross-pollinating plants. If stored in a cool, dry environment, seeds can last years and are a space efficient way to store plants and raraly transmit viruses. However, seeds do not preserve genetic homogeneity and depending on the species, can take a long time to grow into a mature plant. Asexual, or vegetative propagation relies on the regeneration of plant tissues. Asexual propagation preserves genetic and morphological characteristics and allows for the propagation of species that do not produce seeds. However, the reduced genetic diversity means every individual produced is susceptible to the same diseases. Asexual propagation techniques include the use of: * Apomictic seeds * Vegetative structures capable of regenerating entire plants such as tubers, corms, and runners. * Layering: propagation by manipulating the plant into regenerating missing parts, the part being regenerated is attached to the original plant. Roots and shoots can be used. * Cuttings: like layering, except the regenerated part is free from the original plant. Roots, stems, or leaves can be used. * Grafting: propagation using natural regeneration to fuse two plant parts with callus tissue. The plant part containing the root is the stock, the part being grafted unto the stock is the scion. * Budding: when the scion of a graft is a single plant bud. * Tissue culture: propagation involving placing plant tissue, which can be embryos, shoot tips, and callus, onto a substrate supplying food (sugars), inorganic and organic compounds, and growth regulators catered to the type of tissue used. * Embryo culture: used for species that do not grow an embryo within their fruit. * Shoot tip culture: useful for producing plants without the risk of disease. * Callus tissue culture: an experimental method of propagation by which callus tissue is grown and manipulated to differentiate into other plant organ tissue. This method is used in scientific research but is currently considered impractical for horticulture.


Controlling Environmental Variables

Environmental control is involved at all scales of horticulture, although the extensiveness of control varies between hobbyist and commercial horticulture. Basic control involves planting  location, sunlight availability, water availability, latitude, and longitude. More intensive control can involve the use of cold frames, greenhouses, and shade houses. Cold frames provide an enclosed environment, they are built close to the ground and with a top made of glass or plastic. The glass or plastic allows sunlight into the frame during the day and prevents heat loss that would have been lost as long-wave radiation at night. This allows plants to start to be grown before the growing season starts. Greenhouses are similar in function, but are larger in construction and heated with an external source, such as steam. They can be built out of glass, although they are now primarily made from plastic sheets. More expensive and modern greenhouses can include temperature control through shade and light control or air-conditioning as well as automatic watering. Shade houses provide shading to limit water loss by evapotranspiration. Temperature control can be done through a variety of methods. Covering plants with plastic in the form of cones, called hot caps, or tunnels can have the same effect as greenhouses. Mulching is also an effective method to protect plants from frost. Other frost prevention methods include the use of wind machines, heaters, and sprinklers. Light control by artificially increasing or decreasing the effective length of day through the use of fluorescent lights determines the time in which photosynthesis can occur. This increases the time in which the plant can grow and develop. Controlling the amount of light also controls which plants flower, lengthening the day encourages the flowering of long-day plants and discourages the flowering of short-day plants. Soil management methods include the use of planned crop rotation to prevent the degradation of soils that are seen in monocultures (need ref), applying fertilisers, and soil analysis. Water management methods involve employing irrigation and drainage systems, controlling soil moisture to the needs of the species. Methods of irrigation include surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, subirrigation, and trickle irrigation. Volume of water, pressure, and frequency are changed to optimise the growing environment. On a small scale watering can be done manually.


Plant Selection

When selecting plants to cultivate, a horticulturist may consider plant aspects based on their intended use and can include plant morphology, rarity, and utility.


Pre-Plant Bed Preparation

Before planting, plant beds are weeded, extra mulch is removed, fertilizers or other soil enrichment is added, the bed is tilled, and the irrigation system is tested.


Adding Plants

If transplanting plants from a pot to a soil bed, plants are planted at the same depth as the pot and are spaced as to not crowd the plants.


Pruning

Pruning has multiple functions. If growing shrubs, pruning overgrowth helps preserve the shape. Pruning can also increase the amount of flower buds on some species of flowering plants.


Mulching

Mulching is the process of applying a layer of mulch on top of the soil layer of a garden. Mulch is a natural weed suppressant, conserves moisture, and helps in moderating the soil temperature. There are different types of mulch and includes leaf and bark substrates.


Weed Management

Weeds can be suppressed and managed through techniques such as mulching, selecting species that reduce weeds, and using cultural techniques.  


Challenges


Abiotic Stresses

Commercial horticulture is required to support a rapidly growing population with demands for its products. Due to global climate change, extremes in temperatures, strength of precipitation events, flood frequency, and drought length and frequency are increasing. Together with other abiotic stressors such salinity, heavy metal toxicity, UV damage, and air pollution stressful environments are created for crop production as evapotranspiration is increased, soils are degraded of their nutrients, and oxygen levels are depleted, resulting in up to a 70% loss in crop yield.


Biotic Stresses

Living organisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, insects, weeds and native plants are sources of biotics stresses and can deprive the host of its nutrients. Plants respond to these stresses using defence mechanisms such as morphological and structural barriers, chemical compounds, proteins, enzymes and hormones. The impact of biotic stresses can be prevented using practices such as incorporate tilling, spraying or Integrated Pest Management (IPM).


Transportation

After harvest, horticultural crops are sold commercially. Loading and in-transit conditions are a challenge to maintain the quality of the products. Distance, transport time and transport methods are factors that need to be considered to minimise bruising and damage to horticultural goods.


Harvest Management

Care is required to reduce damages and losses to horticultural crops during harvest. Compression forces occur during harvesting, and horticultural goods can be hit in a series of impacts during transport and packhouse operations. Different techniques are used to minimize mechanical injuries and wounding to plants such as: * Manual harvesting: This is the process of harvesting horticultural crops by hand. Fruits, such as apples, pears and peaches, can be harvested by clippers * Sanitation: Harvest bags, crates, clippers and other equipment must be cleaned prior to harvest.


Emerging Technology

Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR/Cas9) has recently gained recognition as a highly efficient, simplified, precise, and low cost method of altering the genomes of species. Since 2013, CRISPR has been used to enhance a variety of species of grains, fruits, and vegetables. Crops are modified to increase their resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors such as parasites, disease, and drought as well as increase yield, nutrition, and flavour. Additionally, CRISPR has been used to edit undesirable traits, for example, reducing the browning and production of toxic and bitter substances of potatoes. CRISPR has also been employed to solve issues of low pollination rates and low fruit yield common in greenhouses.


See also

*
Agronomy Agronomy is the science and technology of producing and using plants by agriculture for food, fuel, fiber, chemicals, recreation, or land conservation. Agronomy has come to include research of plant genetics, plant physiology, meteorology, and ...
*
Floriculture Floriculture, or flower farming, is a branch of horticulture concerned with the cultivation of flowering and ornamental plants for gardens and for floristry, comprising the floral industry. The development of new varieties by plant breeding is ...
*
Forest gardening Forest gardening is a low-maintenance, Sustainable gardening, sustainable, plant-based food production and agroforestry system based on woodland ecosystems, incorporating fruit and Nut (fruit), nut trees, shrubs, herbs, vines and perennial vegeta ...
*
Gardening Gardening is the practice of growing and cultivating plants as part of horticulture. In gardens, ornamental plants are often grown for their flowers, foliage, or overall appearance; useful plants, such as root vegetables, leaf vegetables, fruits ...
*
Genetically modified tree A genetically modified tree (GMt, GM tree, genetically engineered tree, GE tree or transgenic tree) is a tree whose DNA has been modified using genetic engineering techniques. In most cases the aim is to introduce a novel trait to the plant ...
s * Genomics of domestication *
Hoe-farming Hoe-farming is a term introduced (as german: Hackbau; as opposed to ''Ackerbau'') by Eduard Hahn in 1910 to collectively refer to primitive forms of agriculture, defined by the absence of the plough. Tillage in hoe-farming cultures is done by si ...
*
Horticultural botany Horticultural botany is the study of the botany of current and potential cultivated plants, with emphasis on the ornamental plants of horticulture, by a horticultural botanist or ''plantsman''—plantsperson." Horticultural botanists Professional ...
*
Horticultural flora A horticultural flora, also known as a garden flora, is a plant identification aid structured in the same way as a native plants flora. It serves the same purpose: to facilitate plant identification; however, it only includes plants that are under c ...
*
Horticultural oil Horticultural oils or narrow range oils are lightweight oils, either petroleum or vegetable based. They are used in both horticulture and agriculture, where they are applied as a dilute spray on plant surfaces to control insects and mites. They are ...
*
Horticultural therapy Horticultural therapy (also known as garden therapy or social and therapeutic horticulture or STH) is defined by the American Horticultural Therapy Association (AHTA) as the engagement of a person in gardening and plant-based activities, facilita ...
* Indigenous horticulture *
Landscaping Landscaping refers to any activity that modifies the visible features of an area of land, including the following: # Living elements, such as flora or fauna; or what is commonly called gardening, the art and craft of growing plants with a goal o ...
*
Permaculture Permaculture is an approach to land management and settlement design that adopts arrangements observed in flourishing natural ecosystems. It includes a set of design principles derived using whole-systems thinking. It applies these principle ...
*
Plant nutrition Plant nutrition is the study of the chemical elements and compounds necessary for plant growth and reproduction, plant metabolism and their external supply. In its absence the plant is unable to complete a normal life cycle, or that the element i ...
*
Plug (horticulture) Plugs in horticulture are small-sized seedlings grown in seed trays filled with potting soil. This type of plug is used for commercially raising vegetables and bedding plants. Similarly plugs may also refer to small sections of lawn grass sod. ...
*
Tropical horticulture 185px, rubber tree (''Hevea brasiliensis''), and a bucket of collected latex Tropical horticulture is a branch of horticulture that studies and cultivates plants in the tropics, i.e., the Equatorial climate, equatorial regions of the world. The f ...
*
Turf management Turf management or pitchcare describes the work needed to keep a sporting pitch ready for use. This article looks at the various types of sporting pitches and the type of challenges which they present. The skills needed vary considerably depende ...
*
Vertical farming Vertical farming is the practice of growing crops in vertically stacked layers. It often incorporates controlled-environment agriculture, which aims to optimize plant growth, and soilless farming techniques such as hydroponics, aquaponics, and ae ...


References


Further reading

* C.R. Adams, ''Principles of Horticulture'' Butterworth-Heinemann; 5th edition (11 Aug 2008), .


External links


The Institute of Horticulture

ISHS – International Society for Horticultural Science

The Royal Horticultural Society


– information on the
horticulture industry The horticulture industry embraces the production, processing and shipping of and the market for fruits and vegetables. As such it is a sector of agribusiness and industrialized agriculture. Industrialized horticulture sometimes also includes the f ...

History of Horticulture

HORTIVAR – The FAO Horticulture Cultivars Performance Database

Global Horticulture Initiative – GlobalHort

Horticulture Information & Resource Library

Plant and Soil Sciences eLibrary
{{Authority control Agronomy Agriculture by type