Holy League (1684)
   HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

The Holy League (Latin: Sacra Ligua) of 1684 was a coalition of European nations formed during the Great Turkish War. Born out of the Treaty of Warsaw, it was founded as a means to prevent further Ottoman expansion into Europe. This consolidation of a large portion of Europe's military might led to unprecedented military successes, with large areas of previously ceded land recovered in
Morea The Morea ( el, Μορέας or ) was the name of the Peloponnese peninsula in southern Greece during the Middle Ages and the early modern period. The name was used for the Byzantine province known as the Despotate of the Morea, by the Ottom ...
,
Dalmatia Dalmatia (; hr, Dalmacija ; it, Dalmazia; see #Name, names in other languages) is one of the four historical region, historical regions of Croatia, alongside Croatia proper, Slavonia, and Istria. Dalmatia is a narrow belt of the east shore of ...
and Danubia in what has been dubbed a "14th crusade". The formation of the League has been recognised as a turning point in Ottoman history. By forcing the surrender of the Empire on multiple occasions, it shifted the balance of power away from the Ottomans, leading to a diminished Ottoman presence in Europe and the subsequent dissolution of the League in 1699.


Background and origins


Ottoman imperialism

The Ottoman Empire had annexed much of Eastern Europe under the control of grand vizier
Mehmed IV Mehmed IV ( ota, محمد رابع, Meḥmed-i rābi; tr, IV. Mehmed; 2 January 1642 – 6 January 1693) also known as Mehmed the Hunter ( tr, Avcı Mehmed) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1648 to 1687. He came to the throne at the a ...
through multiple successful conquests. After Poland’s surrender of most of Right Bank Ukraine in 1681 the Empire bordered with Poland, the
Habsburg Empire The Habsburg monarchy (german: Habsburgermonarchie, ), also known as the Danubian monarchy (german: Donaumonarchie, ), or Habsburg Empire (german: Habsburgerreich, ), was the collection of empires, kingdoms, duchies, counties and other polities ...
and the
Tsardom of Russia The Tsardom of Russia or Tsardom of Rus' also externally referenced as the Tsardom of Muscovy, was the centralized Russian state from the assumption of the title of Tsar by Ivan IV in 1547 until the foundation of the Russian Empire by Peter I i ...
. They assumed direct control over all of south-eastern Europe, and multiple free states such as
Wallachia Wallachia or Walachia (; ro, Țara Românească, lit=The Romanian Land' or 'The Romanian Country, ; archaic: ', Romanian Cyrillic alphabet: ) is a historical and geographical region of Romania. It is situated north of the Lower Danube and so ...
,
Transylvania Transylvania ( ro, Ardeal or ; hu, Erdély; german: Siebenbürgen) is a historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and south its natural border is the Carpathian Mountains, and to the west the Ap ...
and
Moldavia Moldavia ( ro, Moldova, or , literally "The Country of Moldavia"; in Romanian Cyrillic: or ; chu, Землѧ Молдавскаѧ; el, Ἡγεμονία τῆς Μολδαβίας) is a historical region and former principality in Centr ...
had become
eyalet Eyalets ( Ottoman Turkish: ایالت, , English: State), also known as beylerbeyliks or pashaliks, were a primary administrative division of the Ottoman Empire. From 1453 to the beginning of the nineteenth century the Ottoman local government ...
vassals of the Empire.
Crete Crete ( el, Κρήτη, translit=, Modern: , Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the 88th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, and ...
,
Cyprus Cyprus ; tr, Kıbrıs (), officially the Republic of Cyprus,, , lit: Republic of Cyprus is an island country located south of the Anatolian Peninsula in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Its continental position is disputed; while it is geo ...
, and other Mediterranean islands of strategic importance had also been seized from the
Venetian Republic The Republic of Venice ( vec, Repùblega de Venèsia) or Venetian Republic ( vec, Repùblega Vèneta, links=no), traditionally known as La Serenissima ( en, Most Serene Republic of Venice, italics=yes; vec, Serenìsima Repùblega de Venèsia, ...
. The culmination of Ottoman advances was the establishment of a military corridor from
Constantinople la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه , alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
, through Turkish-controlled
Moravia Moravia ( , also , ; cs, Morava ; german: link=yes, Mähren ; pl, Morawy ; szl, Morawa; la, Moravia) is a historical region in the east of the Czech Republic and one of three historical Czech lands, with Bohemia and Czech Silesia. The me ...
and
Belgrade Belgrade ( , ;, ; Names of European cities in different languages: B, names in other languages) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities in Serbia, largest city in Serbia. It is located at the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers a ...
, to the once-Habsburg fortress Érsekújvar in Royal Hungary.Treasure 2003, p.514 In the wake of this corridor was an inflow of
Ottoman culture Ottoman Empire, Ottomans culture evolved over several centuries as the ruling administration of the Turkish peoples, Turks absorbed, adapted and modified the various native cultures of conquered lands and their peoples. There was influence from th ...
, including the construction of new schools, baths and
mosques A mosque (; from ar, مَسْجِد, masjid, ; literally "place of ritual prostration"), also called masjid, is a place of prayer for Muslims. Mosques are usually covered buildings, but can be any place where prayers ( sujud) are performed, i ...
, in what Treasure has called a "Muslim penetration" into Europe. On the Venetian island of
Chios Chios (; el, Χίος, Chíos , traditionally known as Scio in English) is the fifth largest Greek island, situated in the northern Aegean Sea. The island is separated from Turkey by the Chios Strait. Chios is notable for its exports of mastic ...
, the Ottomans banned all Roman Catholic worship, converting previous Catholic churches to mosques. Prominent Christian figures at the time such as Pope Innocent XI and Friar
Marco d'Aviano Marco d'Aviano, born Carlo Domenico Cristofori (November 17, 1631 – August 13, 1699) was an Italian Capuchin friar. In 2003, he was beatified by Pope John Paul II. Life Carlo Domenico Cristofori was born in Aviano, a small community in th ...
saw these advances as a foreign threat to Christianity.


Secessionist movements

Concurrent to the imperialist threat was a growing secessionist movement in Royal Hungary. Under the rule of Leopold I, the
Habsburg monarchy The Habsburg monarchy (german: Habsburgermonarchie, ), also known as the Danubian monarchy (german: Donaumonarchie, ), or Habsburg Empire (german: Habsburgerreich, ), was the collection of empires, kingdoms, duchies, counties and other polities ...
had allowed grievances against the Protestant Church in Hungary to go unpunished, which included the conversion of Protestant churches and the expulsion of their ministers. This
counter-reformation The Counter-Reformation (), also called the Catholic Reformation () or the Catholic Revival, was the period of Catholic resurgence that was initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation. It began with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) a ...
movement saw the population of Hungary grow increasingly disillusioned with the Habsburg rule. This was heightened following the Treaty of Vasvár in 1664, when the Habsburgs refused to pursue retreating Ottoman forces beyond the borders of the Holy Roman Empire, which enabled them to set up garrison in Hungary. Using an already-established military corridor, Ottoman officials could then pass into Hungary unimpeded, where they demanded tax from the Hungarian wealthy and elite. When the Habsburgs refused to intervene, the Hungarian trust in the Monarchy declined further; the combined effect of declining trust and growing Ottoman presence prompted a conspiracy to secede Hungary to the Ottoman Empire. This culminated in an attempt at communication with the Turkish
Grand Vizier Grand vizier ( fa, وزيرِ اعظم, vazîr-i aʾzam; ota, صدر اعظم, sadr-ı aʾzam; tr, sadrazam) was the title of the effective head of government of many sovereign states in the Islamic world. The office of Grand Vizier was first ...
, which was only halted by the discovery of the conspiracy and the subsequent execution of the main conspirators, putting pressure on the Habsburgs to push back against the Ottoman presence in their western territory.


Treaty of Warsaw

Fearing further Ottoman advances into Europe, King Sobieski III of Poland sought to form an alliance with Leopold I. This was met by immediate controversy in the
Polish Diet The Sejm (English: , Polish: ), officially known as the Sejm of the Republic of Poland (Polish: ''Sejm Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej''), is the lower house of the bicameral parliament of Poland. The Sejm has been the highest governing body of t ...
, where the pro-Ottoman French party held a significant minority.von Pastor 1891, p.141 Further negotiations in the Diet led to violence among the senators, with the French party fearing an alliance would see French influence over Poland diminish. These fears were alleviated only slightly by the agreement that the alliance was only to be called upon if
Vienna en, Viennese , iso_code = AT-9 , registration_plate = W , postal_code_type = Postal code , postal_code = , timezone = CET , utc_offset = +1 , timezone_DST ...
or Cracow were under threat from the Ottomans. It was only through the backing of Pope Innocent XI that the Polish court would eventually sign this Treaty of Warsaw on March 31, 1683. This backing included a papal subsidy of 200,000 imperial
thalers A thaler (; also taler, from german: Taler) is one of the large silver coins minted in the states and territories of the Holy Roman Empire and the Habsburg monarchy during the Early Modern period. A ''thaler'' size silver coin has a diameter of ...
to Poland, the mobilisation of 60,000 Holy Roman troops, and the appointment of a Cardinal Protector for Sobieski III. The alliance was called into effect only six months later when the Ottomans besieged Vienna. Following the end of the siege and the liberation of the city by Polish forces, Sobieski wrote to Pope Innocent XI giving him his “unextinguished zeal in propagating the Christian faith”. Nevertheless, Innocent was wrought with anxiety, fearing that Vienna could not withstand another attack. He believed that without the help of Venice, there was no chance of repelling further Turkish advances. Venice had already voiced their desire to be part of an anti-Turkish alliance and desired to reclaim their Mediterranean territory from the Ottomans, however, an alliance with the Holy Roman Empire was complicated by tensions between the two states as a result of Venetian ambassadors taking advantage of Innocent XI’s goodwill and their privileges in Rome.


The League


The Treaty

Following the desire of Venice to join in an alliance, the Holy League was conceived of by Pope Innocent XI. Modeled after the Treaty of Warsaw, it compelled the members to mobilise their forces against an Ottoman threat exclusively, and to continue their campaigns until all members agreed to make peace. It was signed into effect on 5 March 1684 at
Linz Linz ( , ; cs, Linec) is the capital of Upper Austria and third-largest city in Austria. In the north of the country, it is on the Danube south of the Czech border. In 2018, the population was 204,846. In 2009, it was a European Capital of ...
by representatives of the Holy Roman Empire under the rule of the Habsburg Monarchy, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the Venetian Republic; all other Christian nations were invited to join as well. It was then sworn in by the Pope and most of the Cardinals of Rome on May 24, where the Pope became patron of the League. According to the alliance, The League stipulated that all members were to act independently, and that they would retain all land that their conquests allowed them. This proved difficult for Venice, who believed that they had insufficient foot troops and so Leopold I would reclaim previously Venetian land in
Dalmatia Dalmatia (; hr, Dalmacija ; it, Dalmazia; see #Name, names in other languages) is one of the four historical region, historical regions of Croatia, alongside Croatia proper, Slavonia, and Istria. Dalmatia is a narrow belt of the east shore of ...
. This prompted an amendment to the League in the days that followed its creation, so that Venice would receive all reconquered land in Dalmatia regardless. The name “The Holy League” has been called a propaganda term, which highlights the crusade-like nature of the war that the members waged.


The Tsardom of Russia

Negotiations for the Tsardom of Russia to join an alliance began in early 1684, when
nuncio An apostolic nuncio ( la, nuntius apostolicus; also known as a papal nuncio or simply as a nuncio) is an ecclesiastical diplomat, serving as an envoy or a permanent diplomatic representative of the Holy See to a state or to an international or ...
of Poland Girolamo Buonvisi had begun to reconcile relations with Russia.von Pastor 1891, p.218 Previous territorial wars had concluded in a truce, and the two were yet to formally make peace; Russia also currently had control of previously Polish
Kiev Kyiv, also spelled Kiev, is the capital and most populous city of Ukraine. It is in north-central Ukraine along the Dnieper, Dnieper River. As of 1 January 2021, its population was 2,962,180, making Kyiv the List of European cities by populat ...
, making two barriers which had to be overcome before Russia were to join any alliance. Innocent XI had similar intentions, sending an envoy to
Moscow Moscow ( , US chiefly ; rus, links=no, Москва, r=Moskva, p=mɐskˈva, a=Москва.ogg) is the capital and largest city of Russia. The city stands on the Moskva River in Central Russia, with a population estimated at 13.0 million ...
in April, and in the following month he gifted money to the
Cossacks The Cossacks , es, cosaco , et, Kasakad, cazacii , fi, Kasakat, cazacii , french: cosaques , hu, kozákok, cazacii , it, cosacchi , orv, коза́ки, pl, Kozacy , pt, cossacos , ro, cazaci , russian: казаки́ or ...
under the pretense that more would be given if Russia were to join the League. These attempts at diplomacy culminated in the Pope’s personal invitation in August to Tsarine Sophia, calling on Russia to join the Holy League; this was eventually accepted on 26 April 1686 after a peace treaty with Poland was made. Russia joined the League on the stipulation that they were to keep Kiev from the Polish in exchange for 1.5 million
florins The Florentine florin was a gold coin struck from 1252 to 1533 with no significant change in its design or metal content standard during that time. It had 54 grains (3.499 grams, 0.113 troy ounce) of nominally pure or 'fine' gold with a purcha ...
, with the requirement that they were to begin war with the Ottomans before the end of 1686.


Opposition

Having revived their long-standing alliance with the Ottoman Empire, France had publicly declared that they would refuse to aid in defending against a Turkish invasion. Prior to the Treaty of Warsaw, King
Louis XIV , house = Bourbon , father = Louis XIII , mother = Anne of Austria , birth_date = , birth_place = Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France , death_date = , death_place = Palace of Vers ...
exerted control over the Polish diet through a paid French minority, which sought to stall Sobieski III's attempts at joining in an alliance with Leopold I. This was supported by agents throughout Poland, who claimed that the Habsburgs sought Polish help with the intent of regaining Austrian land only. A conspiracy to install a French prince as Polish king was uncovered in 1692, which would have prevented the formation of the League entirely. King Louis XIV attempted to exert similar control over Leopold I himself, by sowing doubt in his mind over the necessity of the alliance. When this failed and the League went ahead, the Habsburgs were making large territorial gains and expanding their influence further into south-east Europe. In response, France attacked the Habsburg Empire in 1688, attempting to aid the Ottomans by creating a second front while expanding their influence in Europe.Hatton 1976, p.198 This Nine Years' War would go on to prolong the Ottoman surrender and cripple the Austrian efforts in the Great Turkish War.


Non-member allies


German principalities

Multiple German principalities, which Leopold I did not have full control over, had pledged to aid the Holy League.
Brandenburg Brandenburg (; nds, Brannenborg; dsb, Bramborska ) is a states of Germany, state in the northeast of Germany bordering the states of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Saxony, as well as the country of Poland. With an ar ...
, which had typically allied with France and resisted imperial control, pledged 7,000 men and 150,000 imperial thalers to the success of the League in 1685 following extensive negotiations between the Pope and Elector of Brandenburg, Frederick William.von Pastor 1891, p.223 Similarly,
Bavaria Bavaria ( ; ), officially the Free State of Bavaria (german: Freistaat Bayern, link=no ), is a state in the south-east of Germany. With an area of , Bavaria is the largest German state by land area, comprising roughly a fifth of the total lan ...
pledged 8,000 men,
Cologne Cologne ( ; german: Köln ; ksh, Kölle ) is the largest city of the German western States of Germany, state of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW) and the List of cities in Germany by population, fourth-most populous city of Germany with 1.1 m ...
2,900,
Franconia Franconia (german: Franken, ; Franconian dialect: ''Franggn'' ; bar, Frankn) is a region of Germany, characterised by its culture and Franconian dialect (German: ''Fränkisch''). The three administrative regions of Lower, Middle and Upper Fr ...
3,000,
Swabia Swabia ; german: Schwaben , colloquially ''Schwabenland'' or ''Ländle''; archaic English also Suabia or Svebia is a cultural, historic and linguistic region in southwestern Germany. The name is ultimately derived from the medieval Duchy of ...
1,400, the
Upper Rhine The Upper Rhine (german: Oberrhein ; french: Rhin Supérieur) is the section of the Rhine between Basel in Switzerland and Bingen in Germany, surrounded by the Upper Rhine Plain. The river is marked by Rhine-kilometres 170 to 529 (the sc ...
1,500 and Sweden 1,000 as a
guarantor of the imperial constitution The guarantors of the imperial constitution or guarantor powers were those states that were, by treaty, obligated to defend the constitution of the Holy Roman Empire. The three guarantor powers were Sweden, France and Russia. The role of the guaran ...
.


Persia

Despite not being a Christian nation, the League had allied with
Persia Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
and sought to invite them to join on multiple occasions, seeking to leverage the primarily
Shiite Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his successor (''khalīfa'') and the Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, most ...
Persians' history of opposition to the
Sunni Sunni Islam () is the largest branch of Islam, followed by 85–90% of the world's Muslims. Its name comes from the word '' Sunnah'', referring to the tradition of Muhammad. The differences between Sunni and Shia Muslims arose from a disagr ...
Ottomans. The first invitation was during the initial formation of the League in 1683, which the
Shah Shah (; fa, شاه, , ) is a royal title that was historically used by the leading figures of Iranian monarchies.Yarshater, EhsaPersia or Iran, Persian or Farsi, ''Iranian Studies'', vol. XXII no. 1 (1989) It was also used by a variety of ...
Suleiman of Persia Suleiman I (; born Sam Mirza, February or March 1648 – 29 July 1694) was the eighth and the penultimate Shah of Safavid Iran from 1666 to 1694. He was the eldest son of Abbas II and his concubine, Nakihat Khanum. Born as Sam Mirza, Suleiman s ...
rejected on the grounds that his troops were needed to defend Persia’s borders from Cossack raids. A similar request was made by the Archbishop of Naxivan at the turn of 1684, which was also rejected. The necessity of Persia to defend her borders from the Cossacks was removed when Russia joined the League, and on 20 July 1686 Innocent XI once more wrote to the Shah to encourage him to join the Holy League. In response, Suleiman prepared 30,000 troops to march against the Ottoman Empire, claiming he “would take advantage of so favourable an opportunity.” He did not bring Persia to join the League, however.


Diplomatic relations


With the Ottoman Empire

Following the formation of the League, the European powers made large territorial gains,Treasure 2003, p.517 in what has been called a “14th crusade” by von Hammer-Purgstall. The successes prompted the Ottoman Empire to open diplomatic relations in 1688, where an envoy was sent to the Habsburg court, seeking peace. With their advantageous position, the Habsburgs put forward ambitious peace terms, centred around retaining territorial gains and the handover of Hungary’s
Emeric Thököly Emeric Thököly de Késmárk ( hu, késmárki Thököly Imre; sk, Imrich Tököli; ; tr, Tököli İmre; 25 September 1657 13 September 1705) was a Hungarian nobleman, leader of anti-Habsburg uprisings like his father, Count István Thökö ...
, leader of the nation's secessionist movements. Despite six days of negotiations, the envoy was unable to meet both the Sultan’s and Habsburg’s demands, and peace was not reached. Following this failure and the throning of a new Sultan, the Ottomans redoubled their military efforts and made no more attempts at diplomatic communication with the League for almost a decade. The territorial gains of the League continued, however, and the defeat of the Ottomans at the
Battle of Zenta The Battle of Zenta, also known as the Battle of Senta, was fought on 11 September 1697, near Zenta, Ottoman Empire (modern-day Senta, Serbia), between Ottoman and Holy League armies during the Great Turkish War. The battle was the most deci ...
in September 1697 led to immediate calls for peace.Abou-El-Haj 1967, p.499


Finances

Financial issues plagued the members of the League for the first year of its existence, and almost led to its dissolution at this early stage. Soon after its formation, Sobieski III had demanded increasing sums of money from Rome, with the message that they were necessary to further the war efforts that Poland was preparing. When Innocent XI refused, he was informed that Poland were to leave the League if they did not receive the money they demanded. Within a year, Innocent XI had donated over 1.5 million florins to Poland. This was in spite of their refusal to begin conflict with the Ottoman Empire, a fact which annoyed Innocent XI greatly and was enunciated by Cardinal Cibo in his letter, where he states “had these sums been used elsewhere, they would have been a great help, whereas in Poland nothing was done.” These issues further strained the relationship between Poland and Rome until the former put their money to use and began conquest against the Ottoman Empire late in 1686.


Dissolution

Under the terms of the League, it was to be terminated at the end of the war with the Ottomans. When peace was brought forward in 1697, the League was quick to accept and put an end to the war for multiple reasons. The members, especially the Holy Roman Empire, needed to relocate troops to the opposite side of Europe nearing the end of 1698, where the issue of the succession of the Spanish crown loomed; death of the childless
Charles II of Spain Charles II of Spain (''Spanish: Carlos II,'' 6 November 1661 – 1 November 1700), known as the Bewitched (''Spanish: El Hechizado''), was the last Habsburg ruler of the Spanish Empire. Best remembered for his physical disabilities and the War ...
was imminent and the rest of Europe saw a chance to claim part of Spain for their own. The Venetians were holding onto newly gained territory at a great cost, to which the only end was peace. The death of Sobieski III in 1696 had halted the Polish advances significantly, as had financial issues and a lack of support from the Diet. Peace was officially made between the founding three members of the Holy League and the Ottoman Empire on January 26, 1699, through the signing of the
Treaty of Karlowitz The Treaty of Karlowitz was signed in Karlowitz, Military Frontier of Archduchy of Austria (present-day Sremski Karlovci, Serbia), on 26 January 1699, concluding the Great Turkish War of 1683–1697 in which the Ottoman Empire was defeated by the ...
. While Russia would not sign the treaty, and would not agree to a truce for another year, this marked the end of the Ottoman threat to Vienna and Cracow and thus the end of the Holy League.


Aftermath

The Treaty of Karlowitz guaranteed
uti possidetis ''Uti possidetis'' is an expression that originated in Roman private law, where it was the name of a procedure used in litigation about land. It came from a praetorial edict that could be abbreviated "As you possess, so shall you possess". La ...
, meaning the powers of the League were able to retain all conquered land. The Habsburg Empire was able to reclaim Hungary from Thököly's Ottoman control, Venice reclaimed Morea and regions in Dalmatia, Poland regained
Podolia Podolia or Podilia ( uk, Поділля, Podillia, ; russian: Подолье, Podolye; ro, Podolia; pl, Podole; german: Podolien; be, Падолле, Padollie; lt, Podolė), is a historic region in Eastern Europe, located in the west-central ...
and Russia regained parts of
Novorossiya Novorossiya, literally "New Russia", is a historical name, used during the era of the Russian Empire for an administrative area that would later become the southern mainland of Ukraine: the region immediately north of the Black Sea and Crimea. ...
as well as
Azak Azov (russian: Азов), previously known as Azak, is a types of inhabited localities in Russia, town in Rostov Oblast, Russia, situated on the Don River (Russia), Don River just from the Sea of Azov, which derives its name from the town. Popu ...
. The willingness of the Ottomans both in 1688 and 1697 to open diplomatic relations represents a major shift in power according to some historians. Yilmaz describes the formation of the Holy League as having “clearly altered the balance between the two Empires to the advantage of the Habsburgs”, which is in contrast to the successes the Ottoman Empire enjoyed in the century prior to its formation. This is echoed by Abou-El-Haj, who notes that the Ottoman Empire had little in the way of formal diplomatic procedures and relied upon continual military victories as foreign relations.Abou-El-Haj 1967, p.498


Notes


References


Sources

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{Authority control Military of the Ottoman Empire 1684 establishments in Europe 1699 disestablishments 17th-century military alliances 1684 in international relations Military alliances involving the Holy Roman Empire Military alliances involving Russia 1684 in Europe 1684 in the Ottoman Empire 1684 in the Holy Roman Empire Holy Leagues