The history of
Yemen describes the cultures, events, and peoples of what is one of the oldest centers of
civilization
A civilization (or civilisation) is any complex society characterized by the development of a state, social stratification, urbanization, and symbolic systems of communication beyond natural spoken language (namely, a writing system).
Ci ...
in the
Near East. Its relatively fertile land and adequate rainfall in a moister climate helped sustain a stable population, a feature recognized by the ancient Greek geographer
Ptolemy, who described Yemen as ''Eudaimon Arabia'' (better known in its Latin translation, ''
Arabia Felix
Arabia Felix (literally: Fertile/Happy Arabia; also Ancient Greek: Εὐδαίμων Ἀραβία, ''Eudaemon Arabia'') was the Latin name previously used by geographers to describe South Arabia, or what is now Yemen.
Etymology
The term Arabi ...
'') meaning "''fortunate Arabia''" or "''Happy Arabia''". Yemenis had developed the
South Arabian alphabet by the 12th to 8th centuries BC, which explains why most historians date all of the ancient Yemeni kingdoms to that era.
Between the 12th century BC and the 6th century AD, it was dominated by six successive civilizations which rivaled each other, or were allied with each other and controlled the lucrative
spice trade:
Ma'in
The Minaean people were the inhabitants of the kingdom of Ma'in ( Minaean: ''Maʿīn''; modern Arabic ''Maʿīn'') in modern-day Yemen, dating back to the 10th century BCE-150 BCE. It was located along the strip of desert called Ṣayhad by ...
,
Qataban,
Hadhramaut,
Awsan
The ancient Kingdom of Awsān ({{Lang-ar, مملكة أوسان) in South Arabia, modern-day Yemen, with a capital at Ḥajar Yaḥirr in Wādī Markhah, to the south of Wādī Bayḥān, is now marked by a tell or artificial mound, which is loca ...
,
Saba, and
Himyar.
Islam arrived in 630 AD, and Yemen became part of the wider
Muslim realm.
Ancient history
With its long sea border between early
civilization
A civilization (or civilisation) is any complex society characterized by the development of a state, social stratification, urbanization, and symbolic systems of communication beyond natural spoken language (namely, a writing system).
Ci ...
s, Yemen has long existed at a crossroads of cultures with a strategic location in terms of trade on the west of the
Arabian Peninsula
The Arabian Peninsula, (; ar, شِبْهُ الْجَزِيرَةِ الْعَرَبِيَّة, , "Arabian Peninsula" or , , "Island of the Arabs") or Arabia, is a peninsula of Western Asia, situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian Plate. ...
. Large settlements for their era existed in the mountains of northern Yemen as early as 5000 BC. Little is known about ancient Yemen and how exactly it transitioned from nascent
Bronze Age
The Bronze Age is a historic period, lasting approximately from 3300 BC to 1200 BC, characterized by the use of bronze, the presence of writing in some areas, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second prin ...
civilizations to more trade-focused caravan kingdoms.
The
Sabaean Kingdom
The Sabaeans or Sabeans ( Sabaean:, ; ar, ٱلسَّبَئِيُّوْن, ''as-Sabaʾiyyūn''; he, סְבָאִים, Səḇāʾīm) were an ancient group of South Arabians. They spoke the Sabaean language, one of the Old South Arabian langua ...
came into existence from at least the 11th century BC. There were four major kingdoms or tribal confederations in
South Arabia
South Arabia () is a historical region that consists of the southern region of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia, mainly centered in what is now the Republic of Yemen, yet it has also historically included Najran, Jizan, Al-Bahah, and 'A ...
:
Saba,
Hadramout
Hadhramaut ( ar, حَضْرَمَوْتُ \ حَضْرَمُوتُ, Ḥaḍramawt / Ḥaḍramūt; Hadramautic: 𐩢𐩳𐩧𐩣𐩩, ''Ḥḍrmt'') is a region in South Arabia, comprising eastern Yemen, parts of western Oman and southern Saud ...
,
Qataban and
Ma'in
The Minaean people were the inhabitants of the kingdom of Ma'in ( Minaean: ''Maʿīn''; modern Arabic ''Maʿīn'') in modern-day Yemen, dating back to the 10th century BCE-150 BCE. It was located along the strip of desert called Ṣayhad by ...
. Saba is believed to be biblical
Sheba and was the most prominent federation. The Sabaean rulers adopted the title
Mukarrib Mukarrib (Old South Arabian: , romanized: ) is a title variously defined as "priest-kings" or "federators"; the mukarribs may have been the first rulers of the early South Arabian states. Sometime in the fourth century BCE, the title was replaced b ...
generally thought to mean "unifier", or a "priest-king". The role of the Mukarrib was to bring the various tribes under the kingdom and preside over them all. The Sabaeans built the
Great Dam of Marib around 940 BC. The dam was built to withstand the seasonal flash floods surging down the valley.
Between 700 and 680 BC, the
Kingdom of Awsan dominated
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
and its surroundings. Sabaean
Mukarrib Mukarrib (Old South Arabian: , romanized: ) is a title variously defined as "priest-kings" or "federators"; the mukarribs may have been the first rulers of the early South Arabian states. Sometime in the fourth century BCE, the title was replaced b ...
Karib'il Watar I changed his ruling title to that of a king, and conquered the entire realm of Awsan, expanding Sabaean rule and territory to include much of
South Arabia
South Arabia () is a historical region that consists of the southern region of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia, mainly centered in what is now the Republic of Yemen, yet it has also historically included Najran, Jizan, Al-Bahah, and 'A ...
. Lack of water in the Arabian Peninsula prevented the Sabaeans from unifying the entire peninsula. Instead, they established various colonies to control trade routes. Evidence of Sabaean influence is found in northern Ethiopia, where the
South Arabian alphabet religion and pantheon, and the South Arabian style of art and architecture were introduced. The Sabaean created a sense of identity through their religion. They worshipped
El-Maqah and believed themselves to be his children. For centuries, the Sabaeans controlled outbound trade across the
Bab-el-Mandeb, a
strait
A strait is an oceanic landform connecting two seas or two other large areas of water. The surface water generally flows at the same elevation on both sides and through the strait in either direction. Most commonly, it is a narrow ocean chann ...
separating the Arabian Peninsula from the
Horn of Africa and the
Red Sea from the Indian Ocean.
By the 3rd century BC,
Qataban,
Hadramout
Hadhramaut ( ar, حَضْرَمَوْتُ \ حَضْرَمُوتُ, Ḥaḍramawt / Ḥaḍramūt; Hadramautic: 𐩢𐩳𐩧𐩣𐩩, ''Ḥḍrmt'') is a region in South Arabia, comprising eastern Yemen, parts of western Oman and southern Saud ...
and
Ma'in
The Minaean people were the inhabitants of the kingdom of Ma'in ( Minaean: ''Maʿīn''; modern Arabic ''Maʿīn'') in modern-day Yemen, dating back to the 10th century BCE-150 BCE. It was located along the strip of desert called Ṣayhad by ...
became independent from Saba and established themselves in the Yemeni arena. Minaean rule stretched as far as
Dedan, with their capital at
Baraqish
Barāqish or Barāgish or Aythel ( ar, براقش) is a town in north-western Yemen, 120 miles to the east of Sanaa in al Jawf Governorate on a high hill. It is located in Wādī Farda(h), a popular caravan route because of the presence of wate ...
. The Sabaeans regained their control over
Ma'in
The Minaean people were the inhabitants of the kingdom of Ma'in ( Minaean: ''Maʿīn''; modern Arabic ''Maʿīn'') in modern-day Yemen, dating back to the 10th century BCE-150 BCE. It was located along the strip of desert called Ṣayhad by ...
after the collapse of
Qataban in 50 BC. By the time of the
Roman expedition to Arabia Felix in 25 BC, the Sabaeans were once again the dominating power in Southern Arabia.
Aelius Gallus
Gaius Aelius Gallus was a Roman prefect of Egypt from 26 to 24 BC. He is primarily known for a disastrous expedition he undertook to Arabia Felix (modern day Yemen) under orders of Augustus.
Life
Aelius Gallus was the 2nd ''praefect'' of Roman Eg ...
was ordered to lead a military campaign to establish Roman dominance over the Sabaeans. The Romans had a vague and contradictory geographical knowledge about ''
Arabia Felix
Arabia Felix (literally: Fertile/Happy Arabia; also Ancient Greek: Εὐδαίμων Ἀραβία, ''Eudaemon Arabia'') was the Latin name previously used by geographers to describe South Arabia, or what is now Yemen.
Etymology
The term Arabi ...
'' or Yemen. The Roman army of ten thousand men reached
Marib, but was not able to conquer the city, according to
Cassius Dio
Lucius Cassius Dio (), also known as Dio Cassius ( ), was a Roman historian and senator of maternal Greek origin. He published 80 volumes of the history on ancient Rome, beginning with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. The volumes documented the ...
and
Pliny the Elder.
Strabo's close relationship with Aelius Gallus led him to attempt to justify his friend's failure in his writings. It took the Romans six months to reach Marib and sixty days to return to
Egypt. The Romans blamed their
Nabataean
The Nabataeans or Nabateans (; Nabataean Aramaic: , , vocalized as ; Arabic: , , singular , ; compare grc, Ναβαταῖος, translit=Nabataîos; la, Nabataeus) were an ancient Arab people who inhabited northern Arabia and the southern Lev ...
guide and executed him for treachery. No direct mention in Sabaean inscriptions of the Roman expedition has yet been found.
After the Roman expedition – perhaps earlier – the country fell into chaos and two clans, namely
Hamdan and
Himyar, claimed kingship, assuming the title ''King of
Sheba and
Dhu Raydan''. Dhu Raydan (i.e.
Himyarites) allied themselves with
Aksum
Axum, or Aksum (pronounced: ), is a town in the Tigray Region of Ethiopia with a population of 66,900 residents (as of 2015).
It is the site of the historic capital of the Aksumite Empire, a naval and trading power that ruled the whole regio ...
in Ethiopia against the Sabaeans. The chief of
Bakil
The Bakil ( ar, بكيل, Musnad: 𐩨𐩫𐩺𐩡) federation is the largest tribal federation in Yemen. The tribe consists of more than 10 million men and women they are the sister tribe of Hashid(4 million) whose leader was Abdullah Bin Hussein ...
and king of ''Saba and Dhu Raydan'',
El Sharih Yahdhib, launched successful campaigns against the Himyarites and ''Habashat'' (i.e.
Aksum
Axum, or Aksum (pronounced: ), is a town in the Tigray Region of Ethiopia with a population of 66,900 residents (as of 2015).
It is the site of the historic capital of the Aksumite Empire, a naval and trading power that ruled the whole regio ...
), El Sharih took proud of his campaigns and added the title ''Yahdhib'' to his name, which means "suppressor"; he used to kill his enemies by cutting them to pieces.
Sana'a came into prominence during his reign as he built the
Ghumdan Palace to be his place of residence.
The
Himyarite annexed
Sana'a from
Hamdan .
Hashdi tribesmen rebelled against them, however, and regained
Sana'a in around 180. It was not until 275 that
Shammar Yahri'sh conquered
Hadramout
Hadhramaut ( ar, حَضْرَمَوْتُ \ حَضْرَمُوتُ, Ḥaḍramawt / Ḥaḍramūt; Hadramautic: 𐩢𐩳𐩧𐩣𐩩, ''Ḥḍrmt'') is a region in South Arabia, comprising eastern Yemen, parts of western Oman and southern Saud ...
and
Najran
Najran ( ar, نجران '), is a city in southwestern Saudi Arabia near the border with Yemen. It is the capital of Najran Province. Designated as a new town, Najran is one of the fastest-growing cities in the kingdom; its population has risen f ...
and
Tihama, thus unifying Yemen and consolidating
Himyarite rule. The Himyarites rejected
polytheism
Polytheism is the belief in multiple deities, which are usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religious sects and rituals. Polytheism is a type of theism. Within theism, it contrasts with monotheism, the ...
and adhered to a consensual form of
monotheism called
Rahmanism Raḥmānān ( Musnad: 𐩧𐩢𐩣𐩬𐩬 rḥmnn, "the Merciful") was a South Arabian epithet used by Christians, Jews, and pagans in South Arabia. Raḥmānān is usually followed by " Dhu Samawi", possibly "the out of heaven". During the Himyar ...
. In 354,
Roman Emperor Constantius II sent an embassy headed by
Theophilos the Indian to convert the Himyarites to Christianity. According to
Philostorgius
Philostorgius ( grc-gre, Φιλοστόργιος; 368 – c. 439 AD) was an Anomoean Church historian of the 4th and 5th centuries.
Very little information about his life is available. He was born in Borissus, Cappadocia to Eulampia and Car ...
, the mission was resisted by local Jews.
Several inscriptions have been found in
Hebrew
Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...
and
Sabaean Sabean or Sabaean may refer to:
*Sabaeans, ancient people in South Arabia
**Sabaean language, Old South Arabian language
*Sabians, name of a religious group mentioned in the Quran, historically adopted by:
**Mandaeans, Gnostic sect from the marshl ...
praising the ruling house in Jewish terms for ''helping and empowering the People of
Israel''.
According to Islamic traditions, King
As'ad The Perfect mounted a military expedition to support the Jews of
Yathrib.
Abu Karib As'ad, as known from the inscriptions, led a military campaign to central Arabia or
Najd
Najd ( ar, نَجْدٌ, ), or the Nejd, forms the geographic center of Saudi Arabia, accounting for about a third of the country's modern population and, since the Emirate of Diriyah, acting as the base for all unification campaigns by the H ...
to support the vassal
Kinda
Kinda or Kindah may refer to:
Politics and society
*Kinda (tribe), an ancient and medieval Arab tribe
*Kingdom of Kinda, a tribal kingdom in north and central Arabia in –
Places
* Kinda, Idlib, Syria
* Kinda Hundred, a hundred in Sweden
* Kinda ...
against the
Lakhmids
The Lakhmids ( ar, اللخميون, translit=al-Laḫmiyyūn) referred to in Arabic as al-Manādhirah (, romanized as: ) or Banu Lakhm (, romanized as: ) was an Arab kingdom in Southern Iraq and Eastern Arabia, with al-Hirah as their capital ...
. However, no direct reference to Judaism or
Yathrib was discovered from his lengthy reign. Abu Karib As'ad died in 445, having reigned for almost 50 years. By 515, Himyar became increasingly divided along religious lines and a bitter conflict between different factions paved the way for an
Aksum
Axum, or Aksum (pronounced: ), is a town in the Tigray Region of Ethiopia with a population of 66,900 residents (as of 2015).
It is the site of the historic capital of the Aksumite Empire, a naval and trading power that ruled the whole regio ...
ite intervention. The last Himyarite king
Mu'di Karab Ya'fir was supported by
Aksum
Axum, or Aksum (pronounced: ), is a town in the Tigray Region of Ethiopia with a population of 66,900 residents (as of 2015).
It is the site of the historic capital of the Aksumite Empire, a naval and trading power that ruled the whole regio ...
against his
Jewish rivals. Mu'di Karab was Christian and launched a campaign against the
Lakhmids
The Lakhmids ( ar, اللخميون, translit=al-Laḫmiyyūn) referred to in Arabic as al-Manādhirah (, romanized as: ) or Banu Lakhm (, romanized as: ) was an Arab kingdom in Southern Iraq and Eastern Arabia, with al-Hirah as their capital ...
in Southern
Iraq, with the support of other Arab allies of
Byzantium
Byzantium () or Byzantion ( grc, Βυζάντιον) was an ancient Greek city in classical antiquity that became known as Constantinople in late antiquity and Istanbul today. The Greek name ''Byzantion'' and its Latinization ''Byzantium'' con ...
.
The
Lakhmids
The Lakhmids ( ar, اللخميون, translit=al-Laḫmiyyūn) referred to in Arabic as al-Manādhirah (, romanized as: ) or Banu Lakhm (, romanized as: ) was an Arab kingdom in Southern Iraq and Eastern Arabia, with al-Hirah as their capital ...
were a Bulwark of
Persia, which was intolerant to a proselytizing religion like Christianity.
After the death of Mu'di Karab Ya'fir in around 521, a
Himyarite Jewish warlord named
Yousef Asar Yathar rose to power. His honorary title ''Yathar'' means "to avenge". Yemenite Christians, aided by
Aksum
Axum, or Aksum (pronounced: ), is a town in the Tigray Region of Ethiopia with a population of 66,900 residents (as of 2015).
It is the site of the historic capital of the Aksumite Empire, a naval and trading power that ruled the whole regio ...
and
Byzantium
Byzantium () or Byzantion ( grc, Βυζάντιον) was an ancient Greek city in classical antiquity that became known as Constantinople in late antiquity and Istanbul today. The Greek name ''Byzantion'' and its Latinization ''Byzantium'' con ...
, systematically persecuted Jews and burned down several synagogues across the land. Yousef avenged his people with great cruelty.
He marched toward the port city of
Mocha killing 14,000 and capturing 11,000.
Then he settled a camp in
Bab-el-Mandeb to prevent aid flowing from
Aksum
Axum, or Aksum (pronounced: ), is a town in the Tigray Region of Ethiopia with a population of 66,900 residents (as of 2015).
It is the site of the historic capital of the Aksumite Empire, a naval and trading power that ruled the whole regio ...
. At the same time, Yousef sent an army under the command of another Jewish warlord, Sharahil Yaqbul, to
Najran
Najran ( ar, نجران '), is a city in southwestern Saudi Arabia near the border with Yemen. It is the capital of Najran Province. Designated as a new town, Najran is one of the fastest-growing cities in the kingdom; its population has risen f ...
. Sharahil had reinforcements from the Bedouins of the
Kinda
Kinda or Kindah may refer to:
Politics and society
*Kinda (tribe), an ancient and medieval Arab tribe
*Kingdom of Kinda, a tribal kingdom in north and central Arabia in –
Places
* Kinda, Idlib, Syria
* Kinda Hundred, a hundred in Sweden
* Kinda ...
and
Madh'hij
Madhḥij ( ar, مَذْحِج) is a large Qahtanite Arab tribal confederation. It is located in south and central Arabia. This confederation participated in the early Muslim conquests and was a major factor in the conquest of the Persian empire ...
tribes, eventually wiping out the Christian community in Najran. Yousef or
Dhu Nuwas (The one with
sidelocks) as known in Arabic literature, believed that Christians in Yemen were a
fifth column
A fifth column is any group of people who undermine a larger group or nation from within, usually in favor of an enemy group or another nation. According to Harris Mylonas and Scott Radnitz, "fifth columns" are “domestic actors who work to u ...
. Christian sources portray
Dhu Nuwas (Yousef Asar) as a Jewish zealot, while Islamic traditions say that he threw 20,000 Christians into pits filled with flaming oil.
This history, however, is shrouded in legend.
Dhu Nuwas left two inscriptions, neither of them making any reference to fiery pits.
Byzantium
Byzantium () or Byzantion ( grc, Βυζάντιον) was an ancient Greek city in classical antiquity that became known as Constantinople in late antiquity and Istanbul today. The Greek name ''Byzantion'' and its Latinization ''Byzantium'' con ...
had to act or lose all credibility as protector of eastern Christianity. It is reported that
Byzantium
Byzantium () or Byzantion ( grc, Βυζάντιον) was an ancient Greek city in classical antiquity that became known as Constantinople in late antiquity and Istanbul today. The Greek name ''Byzantion'' and its Latinization ''Byzantium'' con ...
Emperor
Justin I sent a letter to the
Aksum
Axum, or Aksum (pronounced: ), is a town in the Tigray Region of Ethiopia with a population of 66,900 residents (as of 2015).
It is the site of the historic capital of the Aksumite Empire, a naval and trading power that ruled the whole regio ...
ite
King Kaleb, pressuring him to "attack the abominable Hebrew".
A tripartite military alliance of Byzantine, Aksumite and Arab Christians successfully defeated Yousef around 525–527 and a Christian client king was installed on the Himyarite throne.
Esimiphaios
Sumyafaʿ (or Sumūyafaʿ) Ashwaʿ (Greek: ''Esimiphaios'', Latin: ''Esimiphaeus'') was the king of Ḥimyar under the Aksumite Empire from 525/531 until 535.
There is an inscription commemorating the refortification of Qanīʾ from February 530 ...
was a local Christian lord, mentioned in an inscription celebrating the burning of an ancient Sabaean palace in
Marib to build a church on its ruins.
Three new churches were built in Najran alone.
Many tribes did not recognize Esimiphaios's authority.
Esimiphaios
Sumyafaʿ (or Sumūyafaʿ) Ashwaʿ (Greek: ''Esimiphaios'', Latin: ''Esimiphaeus'') was the king of Ḥimyar under the Aksumite Empire from 525/531 until 535.
There is an inscription commemorating the refortification of Qanīʾ from February 530 ...
was displaced in 531 by a warrior named
Abraha
Abraha ( Ge’ez: አብርሃ) (also spelled Abreha, died after CE 570;Stuart Munro-Hay (2003) "Abraha" in Siegbert Uhlig (ed.) ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C''. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. r. 525–at least 553S. C. Munro-Hay (1991) ''Aksum ...
, who refused to leave Yemen and declared himself an independent king of
Himyar. Emperor
Justinian I sent an embassy to Yemen. He wanted the officially ''Christian''
Himyarites to use their influence on the tribes in inner Arabia to launch military operations against
Persia.
Justinian I bestowed the ''dignity of king'' upon the Arab
sheikh
Sheikh (pronounced or ; ar, شيخ ' , mostly pronounced , plural ' )—also transliterated sheekh, sheyikh, shaykh, shayk, shekh, shaik and Shaikh, shak—is an honorific title in the Arabic language. It commonly designates a chief of a ...
s of Kinda and
Ghassan
The Ghassanids ( ar, الغساسنة, translit=al-Ġasāsina, also Banu Ghassān (, romanized as: ), also called the Jafnids, were an Arab tribe which founded a kingdom. They emigrated from southern Arabia in the early 3rd century to the Levan ...
in central and north Arabia.
From early on, Roman and Byzantine policy was to develop close links with the powers of the coast of the
Red Sea. They were successful in converting
Aksum
Axum, or Aksum (pronounced: ), is a town in the Tigray Region of Ethiopia with a population of 66,900 residents (as of 2015).
It is the site of the historic capital of the Aksumite Empire, a naval and trading power that ruled the whole regio ...
and influencing their culture. The results with regard to Yemen were rather disappointing.
A Kindite prince called ''Yazid bin Kabshat'' rebelled against
Abraha
Abraha ( Ge’ez: አብርሃ) (also spelled Abreha, died after CE 570;Stuart Munro-Hay (2003) "Abraha" in Siegbert Uhlig (ed.) ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C''. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. r. 525–at least 553S. C. Munro-Hay (1991) ''Aksum ...
and his Arab Christian allies. A truce was reached once
The Great Dam of Marib had suffered a breach.
Abraha
Abraha ( Ge’ez: አብርሃ) (also spelled Abreha, died after CE 570;Stuart Munro-Hay (2003) "Abraha" in Siegbert Uhlig (ed.) ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C''. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. r. 525–at least 553S. C. Munro-Hay (1991) ''Aksum ...
died around 555–565 AD; no reliable sources regarding his death are available. The
Sasanid empire
The Sasanian () or Sassanid Empire, officially known as the Empire of Iranians (, ) and also referred to by historians as the Neo-Persian Empire, was the last Iranian empire before the early Muslim conquests of the 7th-8th centuries AD. Named ...
annexed
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
around 570. Under their rule, most of Yemen enjoyed great autonomy except for
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
and
Sana'a. This era marked the collapse of ancient South Arabian civilization, since the greater part of the country was under several independent clans until the arrival of
Islam in 630.
Middle Ages
Advent of Islam and the three Dynasties
Prophet Mohammed sent his cousin
Ali
ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib ( ar, عَلِيّ بْن أَبِي طَالِب; 600 – 661 CE) was the last of four Rightly Guided Caliphs to rule Islam (r. 656 – 661) immediately after the death of Muhammad, and he was the first Shia Imam. ...
to
Sana'a and its surroundings around 630. At the time, Yemen was the most advanced region in
Arabia
The Arabian Peninsula, (; ar, شِبْهُ الْجَزِيرَةِ الْعَرَبِيَّة, , "Arabian Peninsula" or , , "Island of the Arabs") or Arabia, is a peninsula of Western Asia, situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian Plat ...
. The
Banu Hamdan
Banu Hamdan ( ar, بَنُو هَمْدَان; Musnad: 𐩠𐩣𐩵𐩬) is an ancient, large, and prominent Arab tribe in northern Yemen.
Origins and location
The Hamdan stemmed from the eponymous progenitor Awsala (nickname Hamdan) whose desce ...
confederation were among the first to accept
Islam.
Mohammed
Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد; 570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monoth ...
sent
Muadh ibn Jabal as well to Al-Janad in present-day
Taiz
Taiz ( ar, تَعِزّ, Taʿizz) is a city in southwestern Yemen. It is located in the Yemeni Highlands, near the port city of Mocha, Yemen, Mocha on the Red Sea, at an elevation of about above sea level. It is the capital of Taiz Governorate. W ...
, and dispatched letters to various tribal leaders. The reason behind this was the division among the tribes and the absence of a strong central authority in Yemen during the days of the prophet. Major tribes, including
Himyar, sent delegations to
Medina during the ''Year of delegations'' around 630–631. Several Yemenis had already accepted
Islam, including
Ammar ibn Yasir
Abū 'l-Yaqẓān ʿAmmār ibn Yāsir ibn ʿĀmir ibn Mālik al-ʿAnsīy al-Maḏḥiǧī ( ar, أبو اليقظان عمار ابن ياسر ابن عامر ابن مالك العنسي المذحجي) also known as Abū 'l-Yaqẓān ʿAmmār i ...
,
Al-Ala'a Al-Hadrami Al-Ala al-Hadrami ( ar, العلاء الحضرمي, al-ʿAlāʾ al-Haḍramī; died 635–636 or 641–642) was an early Muslim commander and the tax collector of Bahrayn (eastern Arabia) under the Islamic prophet Muhammad in and Bahrayn's govern ...
,
Miqdad ibn Aswad
Miqdaad ibn Amr al-Bahrani ( ar, المقداد بن عمرو ٱلْبَهْرَانِيّ, '), better known as al-Miqdaad ibn al-Aswad al-Kindi ( ar, المقداد بن الأسود ٱلْكِنْدِيّ) or simply Miqdaad, was one of the co ...
,
Abu Musa Ashaari
Abu Musa Abd Allah ibn Qays al-Ash'ari ( ar, أبو موسى عبد الله بن قيس الأشعري, Abū Mūsā ʿAbd Allāh ibn Qays al-Ashʿarī), better known as Abu Musa al-Ash'ari ( ar, أبو موسى الأشعري, Abū Mūsā al-Ash ...
and
Sharhabeel ibn Hasana
Abū ʿAbd Allāh Shuraḥbīl ibn Ḥasana () was one of the earliest Muslim converts, ''sahaba'' (companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad) and a key commander in the Rashidun army during the Muslim conquest of the Levant.
Early life
Shurahbi ...
. A man named
'Abhala ibn Ka'ab Al-Ansi expelled the remaining Persians and claimed to be a
prophet of
Rahman. He was assassinated by a Yemeni of
Persian
Persian may refer to:
* People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language
** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples
** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...
origin called
Fayruz al-Daylami
Abū ʿAbd Allāh Fayrūz al-Daylamī ( ar, فيروز الديلمي, Persian: فیروز دیلمی, ''Firuz the Daylamite'') was a Persian companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He belonged to the descendants ('' abna) of Persians that ...
. Christians, who were mainly staying in
Najran
Najran ( ar, نجران '), is a city in southwestern Saudi Arabia near the border with Yemen. It is the capital of Najran Province. Designated as a new town, Najran is one of the fastest-growing cities in the kingdom; its population has risen f ...
along with
Jews, agreed to pay
Jizya
Jizya ( ar, جِزْيَة / ) is a per capita yearly taxation historically levied in the form of financial charge on dhimmis, that is, permanent non-Muslim subjects of a state governed by Islamic law. The jizya tax has been understood in Isl ...
, although some Jews converted to Islam, such as
Wahb ibn Munabbih and
Ka'ab al-Ahbar
Kaʿb al-Aḥbār ( ar, كعب الأحبار, full name Abū Isḥāq Kaʿb ibn Maniʿ al-Ḥimyarī ( ar, ابو اسحاق كعب بن مانع الحميري) was a 7th-century Yemenite Jew from the Arab tribe of "Dhī Raʿīn" ( ar, ذي � ...
.
The country was stable during the
Rashidun Caliphate. Yemeni tribes played a pivotal role in the Islamic conquests of
Egypt,
Iraq,
Persia, the
Levant,
Anatolia, North Africa,
Sicily and
Andalusia
Andalusia (, ; es, Andalucía ) is the southernmost autonomous community in Peninsular Spain. It is the most populous and the second-largest autonomous community in the country. It is officially recognised as a "historical nationality". The ...
. Yemeni tribes that settled in
Syria, contributed significantly to the solidification of
Umayyad rule, especially during the reign of
Marwan I. Powerful Yemenite tribes like
Kindah
Kinda or Kindah may refer to:
Politics and society
*Kinda (tribe), an ancient and medieval Arab tribe
*Kingdom of Kinda, a tribal kingdom in north and central Arabia in –
Places
* Kinda, Idlib, Syria
* Kinda Hundred, a hundred in Sweden
* Ki ...
were on his side during the
Battle of Marj Rahit. Several emirates led by people of Yemeni descent were established in North Africa and
Andalusia
Andalusia (, ; es, Andalucía ) is the southernmost autonomous community in Peninsular Spain. It is the most populous and the second-largest autonomous community in the country. It is officially recognised as a "historical nationality". The ...
. Effective control over entire Yemen was not achieved by the
Umayyad Caliphate.
Imam Abdullah ibn Yahya Al-Kindi was elected in 745 to lead
the Ibāḍī movement in
Hadramawt
Hadhramaut ( ar, حَضْرَمَوْتُ \ حَضْرَمُوتُ, Ḥaḍramawt / Ḥaḍramūt; Hadramautic: 𐩢𐩳𐩧𐩣𐩩, ''Ḥḍrmt'') is a region in South Arabia, comprising eastern Yemen, parts of western Oman and southern Sau ...
and
Oman
Oman ( ; ar, عُمَان ' ), officially the Sultanate of Oman ( ar, سلْطنةُ عُمان ), is an Arabian country located in southwestern Asia. It is situated on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and spans the mouth of t ...
. He expelled the
Umayyad governor from
Sana'a and captured
Mecca and
Medina in 746.
[Andrew Rippin ''The Islamic World'' p. 237 Routledge, 23 October 2013 ] Al-Kindi, known by his nickname ''Talib al-Haq'' (Seeker of truth), established the first
Ibadi state in the history of
Islam but was killed in
Taif in around 749.
Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Ziyad founded the
Ziyadid dynasty
The Ziyadid dynasty () was a Muslim dynasty that ruled western Yemen from 819 until 1018 from the capital city of Zabid. It was the first dynastic regime to wield power over the Yemeni lowland after the introduction of Islam in about 630.
The e ...
in
Tihama around 818; the state stretched from
Haly (In present-day Saudi Arabia) to
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
. They nominally recognized the
Abbasid Caliphate
The Abbasid Caliphate ( or ; ar, الْخِلَافَةُ الْعَبَّاسِيَّة, ') was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib ...
but were in fact ruling independently from their capital in
Zabid
Zabid ( ar, زَبِيد) (also spelled Zabīd, Zabeed and Zebid) is a town with an urban population of around 52,590 people on Yemen's western coastal plain. It is one of the oldest towns in Yemen, and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since ...
.
[Paul Wheatley. (2001). ''The Places Where Men Pray Together: Cities in Islamic Lands, Seventh Through the Tenth Centuries''. p. 128. University of Chicago Press ] The history of this dynasty is obscure; they never exercised control over the highlands and
Hadramawt
Hadhramaut ( ar, حَضْرَمَوْتُ \ حَضْرَمُوتُ, Ḥaḍramawt / Ḥaḍramūt; Hadramautic: 𐩢𐩳𐩧𐩣𐩩, ''Ḥḍrmt'') is a region in South Arabia, comprising eastern Yemen, parts of western Oman and southern Sau ...
, and did not control more than a coastal strip of the Yemen (
Tihama) bordering the
Red Sea. A
Himyarite clan called the
Yufirids
The Yuʿfirids ( ar, بنو يعفر, Banū Yuʿfir) were an Islamic Hemyariite dynasty that held power in the highlands of Yemen from 847 to 997. The name of the family is often incorrectly rendered as "Yafurids". They nominally acknowledged the ...
established their rule over the highlands from
Saada
Saada ( ar, صَعْدَة, translit=Ṣaʿda), a city and ancient capital in the northwest of Yemen, is the capital and largest city of the province of the same name, and the county seat of the county of the same name. The city is located in the ...
to
Taiz
Taiz ( ar, تَعِزّ, Taʿizz) is a city in southwestern Yemen. It is located in the Yemeni Highlands, near the port city of Mocha, Yemen, Mocha on the Red Sea, at an elevation of about above sea level. It is the capital of Taiz Governorate. W ...
, while
Hadramawt
Hadhramaut ( ar, حَضْرَمَوْتُ \ حَضْرَمُوتُ, Ḥaḍramawt / Ḥaḍramūt; Hadramautic: 𐩢𐩳𐩧𐩣𐩩, ''Ḥḍrmt'') is a region in South Arabia, comprising eastern Yemen, parts of western Oman and southern Sau ...
was an
Ibadi stronghold and rejected all allegiance to the Abbasids in
Baghdad
Baghdad (; ar, بَغْدَاد , ) is the capital of Iraq and the second-largest city in the Arab world after Cairo. It is located on the Tigris near the ruins of the ancient city of Babylon and the Sassanid Persian capital of Ctesiphon ...
.
By virtue of its location, the
Ziyadid dynasty
The Ziyadid dynasty () was a Muslim dynasty that ruled western Yemen from 819 until 1018 from the capital city of Zabid. It was the first dynastic regime to wield power over the Yemeni lowland after the introduction of Islam in about 630.
The e ...
of
Zabid
Zabid ( ar, زَبِيد) (also spelled Zabīd, Zabeed and Zebid) is a town with an urban population of around 52,590 people on Yemen's western coastal plain. It is one of the oldest towns in Yemen, and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since ...
developed a special relationship with
Abyssinia. The chief of the
Dahlak islands exported slaves as well as amber and leopard hides to the then ruler of Yemen.
The first
Zaidi imam,
Yahya ibn al-Husayn Yahya may refer to:
* Yahya (name), a common Arabic male given name
* Yahya (Zaragoza), 11th-century ruler of Zaragoza
* John the Baptist in Islam, also known as Yaḥyā ibn Zakarīyā
See also
* Tepe Yahya
Tapeh Yahya () is an archaeological ...
, arrived to Yemen in 893. He was the founder of the
Zaidi imamate in 897. He was a religious cleric and judge who was invited to come to
Saada
Saada ( ar, صَعْدَة, translit=Ṣaʿda), a city and ancient capital in the northwest of Yemen, is the capital and largest city of the province of the same name, and the county seat of the county of the same name. The city is located in the ...
from
Medina to arbitrate tribal disputes. Imam Yahya persuaded local tribesmen to follow his teachings. The sect slowly spread across the highlands, as the tribes of
Hashid
The Hashid ( ar, حاشد; Musnad: 𐩢𐩦𐩵𐩣) is a tribal confederation in Yemen. It is the second or third largest – after Bakil and, depending on sources, Madh'hij and
Bakil
The Bakil ( ar, بكيل, Musnad: 𐩨𐩫𐩺𐩡) federation is the largest tribal federation in Yemen. The tribe consists of more than 10 million men and women they are the sister tribe of Hashid(4 million) whose leader was Abdullah Bin Hussein ...
, later known as ''the twin wings of the imamate'', accepted his authority.
Yahya established his influence in
Saada
Saada ( ar, صَعْدَة, translit=Ṣaʿda), a city and ancient capital in the northwest of Yemen, is the capital and largest city of the province of the same name, and the county seat of the county of the same name. The city is located in the ...
and
Najran
Najran ( ar, نجران '), is a city in southwestern Saudi Arabia near the border with Yemen. It is the capital of Najran Province. Designated as a new town, Najran is one of the fastest-growing cities in the kingdom; its population has risen f ...
; he also tried to capture
Sana'a from the
Yufirids
The Yuʿfirids ( ar, بنو يعفر, Banū Yuʿfir) were an Islamic Hemyariite dynasty that held power in the highlands of Yemen from 847 to 997. The name of the family is often incorrectly rendered as "Yafurids". They nominally acknowledged the ...
in 901, but he failed miserably. In 904, the newly established
Isma'ili followers invaded
Sana'a. The Yufirid emir As'ad ibn Ibrahim retreated to
Al-Jawf, and between 904 and 913, Sana'a was conquered no less than 20 times by Isma'ilis and
Yufirids
The Yuʿfirids ( ar, بنو يعفر, Banū Yuʿfir) were an Islamic Hemyariite dynasty that held power in the highlands of Yemen from 847 to 997. The name of the family is often incorrectly rendered as "Yafurids". They nominally acknowledged the ...
. As'ad ibn Ibrahim regained
Sana'a in 915. The country was in turmoil as
Sana'a became a battlefield for the three dynasties as well as independent tribes.
The
Yufirid emir Abdullah ibn Qahtan attacked and burned
Zabid
Zabid ( ar, زَبِيد) (also spelled Zabīd, Zabeed and Zebid) is a town with an urban population of around 52,590 people on Yemen's western coastal plain. It is one of the oldest towns in Yemen, and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since ...
in 989, severely weakening the
Ziyadid dynasty
The Ziyadid dynasty () was a Muslim dynasty that ruled western Yemen from 819 until 1018 from the capital city of Zabid. It was the first dynastic regime to wield power over the Yemeni lowland after the introduction of Islam in about 630.
The e ...
. The
Ziyadid monarchs lost effective power after 989, or even earlier than that. Meanwhile, a succession of slaves held power in
Zabid
Zabid ( ar, زَبِيد) (also spelled Zabīd, Zabeed and Zebid) is a town with an urban population of around 52,590 people on Yemen's western coastal plain. It is one of the oldest towns in Yemen, and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since ...
and continued to govern in the name of their
masters eventually establishing their own
dynasty around 1022 or 1050 according to different sources. Although they were recognized by the
Abbasid Caliphate
The Abbasid Caliphate ( or ; ar, الْخِلَافَةُ الْعَبَّاسِيَّة, ') was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib ...
in
Baghdad
Baghdad (; ar, بَغْدَاد , ) is the capital of Iraq and the second-largest city in the Arab world after Cairo. It is located on the Tigris near the ruins of the ancient city of Babylon and the Sassanid Persian capital of Ctesiphon ...
, they ruled no more than
Zabid
Zabid ( ar, زَبِيد) (also spelled Zabīd, Zabeed and Zebid) is a town with an urban population of around 52,590 people on Yemen's western coastal plain. It is one of the oldest towns in Yemen, and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since ...
and four districts to its north. The rise of the
Ismaili Shia Sulayhid dynasty
The Sulayhid dynasty ( ar, بَنُو صُلَيْح, Banū Ṣulayḥ, lit=Children of Sulayh) was an Ismaili Shi'ite Arab dynasty established in 1047 by Ali ibn Muhammad al-Sulayhi that ruled most of historical Yemen at its peak. The Sulayh ...
in the Yemeni highlands reduced their history to a series of intrigues.
Sulayhid Dynasty
The
Sulayhid dynasty
The Sulayhid dynasty ( ar, بَنُو صُلَيْح, Banū Ṣulayḥ, lit=Children of Sulayh) was an Ismaili Shi'ite Arab dynasty established in 1047 by Ali ibn Muhammad al-Sulayhi that ruled most of historical Yemen at its peak. The Sulayh ...
was founded in the northern highlands around 1040. At the time, Yemen was ruled by different local dynasties.
In 1060,
Ali ibn Mohammed Al-Sulayhi conquered
Zabid
Zabid ( ar, زَبِيد) (also spelled Zabīd, Zabeed and Zebid) is a town with an urban population of around 52,590 people on Yemen's western coastal plain. It is one of the oldest towns in Yemen, and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since ...
and killed its ruler Al-Najah, founder of the Najahid dynasty, whose sons were forced to flee to
Dahlak.
Hadramawt
Hadhramaut ( ar, حَضْرَمَوْتُ \ حَضْرَمُوتُ, Ḥaḍramawt / Ḥaḍramūt; Hadramautic: 𐩢𐩳𐩧𐩣𐩩, ''Ḥḍrmt'') is a region in South Arabia, comprising eastern Yemen, parts of western Oman and southern Sau ...
fell into Sulayhid hands after their capture of
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
in 1062. By 1063, Ali had subjugated
Greater Yemen
Yemen Region ( ar, إقليم اليمن, Eglîm el-Yemen) also known as South Arabia is a geographic term denoting territories of historic South Arabia which included All lands between the Gulf of Oman in the east and the Red Sea in the west.
I ...
. He then marched toward
Hejaz and occupied
Makkah. Ali was married to
Asma bint Shihab
Asma Bint Shihab al-Sulayhiyya () (died 1087) was the queen and co-ruler of Yemen in co-regency with her cousin and spouse, Ali al-Sulayhi, and later her son Ahmad al-Mukkaram, and daughter-in-law, Arwa al-Sulayhi, from 1047 until 1087. Her full ...
, who governed Yemen with her husband.
[Fatima Mernissi. (1977). ''The Forgotten Queens of Islam'', p. 14. U of Minnesota Press ] The
Khutba
''Khutbah'' ( ar, خطبة ''khuṭbah'', tr, hutbe) serves as the primary formal occasion for public preaching in the Islamic tradition.
Such sermons occur regularly, as prescribed by the teachings of all legal schools. The Islamic tradition ...
during
Friday prayers
In Islam, Friday prayer or Congregational prayer ( ar, صَلَاة ٱلْجُمُعَة, ') is a prayer ('' ṣalāt'') that Muslims hold every Friday, after noon instead of the Zuhr prayer. Muslims ordinarily pray five times each day according ...
was proclaimed in her husband's and her name. No other Arab woman had this honor since the advent of
Islam.
Ali al-Sulayhi
Ali bin Muhammad bin Ali al-Sulayhi () was the founder and sultan of the Sulayhid dynasty in Yemen. He established his kingdom in 1047 and by 1063, the Sulayhids controlled had unified the entire country of Yemen as well as the Muslim holy city o ...
was killed by Najah's sons on his way to
Mecca in 1084. His son
Ahmad al-Mukarram led an army to
Zabid
Zabid ( ar, زَبِيد) (also spelled Zabīd, Zabeed and Zebid) is a town with an urban population of around 52,590 people on Yemen's western coastal plain. It is one of the oldest towns in Yemen, and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since ...
and killed 8,000 of its inhabitants. He later installed the
Zurayids
The Zurayids (بنو زريع, Banū Zuraiʿ), were a Yamite Hamdani dynasty based in Yemen in the time between 1083 and 1174. The centre of its power was Aden. The Zurayids suffered the same fate as the Hamdanid sultans, the Sulaymanids and ...
to govern
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
.
Ahmad al-Mukarram, who had been afflicted with facial paralysis resulting from war injuries, retired in 1087 and handed over power to his wife
Arwa al-Sulayhi
Arwa al-Sulayhi, full name ''Arwā bint Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn Jaʿfar ibn Mūsā aṣ-Ṣulayḥī'' ( ar, أَرْوَى بِنْت أَحْمَد ابْن مُحَمَّد ابْن جَعْفَر ابْن مُوْسَى ٱلصُّلَيْ� ...
.
Queen Arwa moved the seat of the
Sulayhid dynasty
The Sulayhid dynasty ( ar, بَنُو صُلَيْح, Banū Ṣulayḥ, lit=Children of Sulayh) was an Ismaili Shi'ite Arab dynasty established in 1047 by Ali ibn Muhammad al-Sulayhi that ruled most of historical Yemen at its peak. The Sulayh ...
from
Sana'a to
Jibla, a small town in central Yemen near
Ibb
Ibb ( ar, إِبّ, ʾIbb) is a city in Yemen, the capital of Ibb Governorate, located about northeast of Mocha and south of Sana'a.
A market town and administrative centre developed during the Ottoman Empire, it is one of the most importan ...
. Jibla was strategically near the
Sulayhid dynasty
The Sulayhid dynasty ( ar, بَنُو صُلَيْح, Banū Ṣulayḥ, lit=Children of Sulayh) was an Ismaili Shi'ite Arab dynasty established in 1047 by Ali ibn Muhammad al-Sulayhi that ruled most of historical Yemen at its peak. The Sulayh ...
source of wealth, the agricultural central highlands. It was also within easy reach of the southern portion of the country, especially
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
. She sent
Ismaili missionaries to
India where a significant Ismaili community was formed that exists to this day.
[Steven C. Caton. (2013). ''Yemen'', p. 51. ABC-CLIO ] Queen Arwa continued to rule securely until her death in 1138.
Arwa al-Sulayhi
Arwa al-Sulayhi, full name ''Arwā bint Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn Jaʿfar ibn Mūsā aṣ-Ṣulayḥī'' ( ar, أَرْوَى بِنْت أَحْمَد ابْن مُحَمَّد ابْن جَعْفَر ابْن مُوْسَى ٱلصُّلَيْ� ...
is still remembered as a great and much loved sovereign, as attested in Yemeni historiography, literature, and popular lore, where she is referred to as '' Balqis al-sughra '', that is "the junior queen of Sheba". Although the Sulayhids were Ismaili, they never tried to impose their beliefs on the public. Shortly after queen Arwa's death, the country was split between five competing petty dynasties along religious lines. The
Ayyubid dynasty
The Ayyubid dynasty ( ar, الأيوبيون '; ) was the founding dynasty of the medieval Sultan of Egypt, Sultanate of Egypt established by Saladin in 1171, following his abolition of the Fatimid Caliphate, Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt. A Sunni ...
overthrew the
Fatimid caliphate in Egypt. A few years after their rise to power,
Saladin dispatched his brother
Turan Shah
Shams ad-Din Turanshah ibn Ayyub al-Malik al-Mu'azzam Shams ad-Dawla Fakhr ad-Din known simply as Turanshah ( ar, توران شاه بن أيوب) (died 27 June 1180) was the Ayyubid emir (prince) of Yemen (1174–1176), Damascus (1176–1179), Ba ...
to conquer Yemen in 1174.
Zurayid Dynasty
Al-Abbas & al-Mas'ūd sons of Karam Al-Yami from the Hamdan tribe started ruling Aden for the Sulayhids, when Al-Abbas died in 1083. His son Zuray, who gave the dynasty its name, proceeded to rule together with his uncle al-Mas'ūd. They took part in the Sulayhid leader al-Mufaddal's campaign against the
Najahid capital
Zabid
Zabid ( ar, زَبِيد) (also spelled Zabīd, Zabeed and Zebid) is a town with an urban population of around 52,590 people on Yemen's western coastal plain. It is one of the oldest towns in Yemen, and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since ...
and were both killed during the siege (1110). Their respective sons ceased to pay tribute to the Sulayhid queen
Arwa al-Sulayhi
Arwa al-Sulayhi, full name ''Arwā bint Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn Jaʿfar ibn Mūsā aṣ-Ṣulayḥī'' ( ar, أَرْوَى بِنْت أَحْمَد ابْن مُحَمَّد ابْن جَعْفَر ابْن مُوْسَى ٱلصُّلَيْ� ...
. They were worsted by a Sulayhid expedition but queen Arwa agreed to reduce the tribute by half, to 50,000 dinars per year. The Zurayids again failed to pay and were once again forced to yield to the might of the Sulayhids, but this time the annual tribute from the incomes of Aden was reduced to 25,000. Later on they ceased to pay even that since Sulayhid power was on the wane. After 1110 the Zurayids thus led a more than 60 years long independent rule in the city, bolstered by the international trade. The chronicles mention luxury goods such as textiles, perfume and porcelain, coming from places like
North Africa,
Egypt,
Iraq,
Oman
Oman ( ; ar, عُمَان ' ), officially the Sultanate of Oman ( ar, سلْطنةُ عُمان ), is an Arabian country located in southwestern Asia. It is situated on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and spans the mouth of t ...
,
Kirman, and
China. After the demise of queen Arwa al-Sulayhi in 1138, the
Fatimids
The Fatimid Caliphate was an Ismaili Shi'a caliphate extant from the tenth to the twelfth centuries AD. Spanning a large area of North Africa, it ranged from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Red Sea in the east. The Fatimids, a dyn ...
in
Cairo
Cairo ( ; ar, القاهرة, al-Qāhirah, ) is the capital of Egypt and its largest city, home to 10 million people. It is also part of the largest urban agglomeration in Africa, the Arab world and the Middle East: The Greater Cairo metro ...
kept a representation in Aden, adding further prestige to the Zurayids. The Zurayids were sacked by the Ayyubids in 1174.
Ayyubid conquest
Turan Shah
Shams ad-Din Turanshah ibn Ayyub al-Malik al-Mu'azzam Shams ad-Dawla Fakhr ad-Din known simply as Turanshah ( ar, توران شاه بن أيوب) (died 27 June 1180) was the Ayyubid emir (prince) of Yemen (1174–1176), Damascus (1176–1179), Ba ...
conquered
Zabid
Zabid ( ar, زَبِيد) (also spelled Zabīd, Zabeed and Zebid) is a town with an urban population of around 52,590 people on Yemen's western coastal plain. It is one of the oldest towns in Yemen, and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since ...
from the
Mahdids
The Mahdids ( ar, بني مهدي, Banī Mahdī) were a Himyarite dynasty in Yemen who briefly held power in the period between 1159 and 1174.
Conquest of the Tihama
Their name is derived from their first ruler Ali bin Mahdi who was born in T ...
in May 1174, then marched toward
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
in June and captured it from the
Zurayids
The Zurayids (بنو زريع, Banū Zuraiʿ), were a Yamite Hamdani dynasty based in Yemen in the time between 1083 and 1174. The centre of its power was Aden. The Zurayids suffered the same fate as the Hamdanid sultans, the Sulaymanids and ...
. The
Hamdanid sultans
The Yemeni Hamdanids ( ar, الهمدانيون) was a series of three families descended from the Arab Banū Hamdān tribe, who ruled in northern Yemen between 1099 and 1174. They were expelled from power when the Ayyubids conquered Yemen in 117 ...
of
Sana'a resisted the Ayyubid in 1175 and it was not until 1189 that the Ayyubids managed to definitely secure
Sana'a.
[
] The Ayyubid rule was stable in southern and central Yemen where they succeeded in eliminating the mini-states of that region, while Ismaili and Zaidi tribesmen continued to hold out in a number of fortresses.
The Ayyubids failed to capture the Zaydis stronghold in northern Yemen. In 1191, Zaydis of
Shibam Kawkaban
Shibam Kawkaban ( ar, شبام كَوْكَبَان, Shibām Kawkabān)
is a double town in Shibam Kawkaban District, Al Mahwit Governorate, Yemen, located 38 km west-northwest of Sanaa, the national capital. It consists of two distinct adjoini ...
rebelled and killed 700 Ayyubid soldiers. Imam
Abdullah bin Hamza proclaimed the imamate in 1197 and fought
al-Mu'izz Ismail, the Ayyubid Sultan of Yemen. Imam Abdullah was defeated at first but was able to conquer
Sana'a and
Dhamar in 1198
al-Mu'izz Ismail was assassinated in 1202
Abdullah bin Hamza carried on the struggle against the Ayyubid until his death in 1217. After his demise, the Zaidi community was split between two rival imams. The Zaydis were dispersed and a truce was signed with the Ayyubid in 1219.
The Ayyubid army was defeated in
Dhamar in 1226.
Ayyubid Sultan
Mas'ud Yusuf left for Mecca in 1228 never to return.
Other sources suggest that he was forced to leave for
Egypt instead in 1223.
Rasulid Dynasty
The
Rasulid Dynasty
The Rasulids ( ar, بنو رسول, Banū Rasūl) were a Sunni Muslim dynasty who ruled Yemen from 1229 to 1454.
History
Origin of the Rasulids
The Rasulids took their name from al-Amin's nickname "Rasul". The Zaidi Shi'i Imams of Yemen were ...
was established in 1229 by
Umar ibn Rasul. Umar ibn Rasul was appointed deputy governor by the Ayyubids in 1223. When the last Ayyubid ruler left Yemen in 1229, Umar stayed in the country as caretaker. He subsequently declared himself an independent king by assuming the title '' al-Malik Al-Mansur '' (the king assisted by
Allah
Allah (; ar, الله, translit=Allāh, ) is the common Arabic word for God. In the English language, the word generally refers to God in Islam. The word is thought to be derived by contraction from '' al- ilāh'', which means "the god", a ...
).
Umar established the Rasulid dynasty on a firm foundation and expanded its territory to include the area from
Dhofar
The Dhofar Governorate ( ar, مُحَافَظَة ظُفَار, Muḥāfaẓat Ẓufār) is the largest of the 11 Governorates in the Sultanate of Oman in terms of area. It lies in Southern Oman, on the eastern border with Yemen's Al Mahrah Gov ...
to
Mecca Umar first established himself at
Zabid
Zabid ( ar, زَبِيد) (also spelled Zabīd, Zabeed and Zebid) is a town with an urban population of around 52,590 people on Yemen's western coastal plain. It is one of the oldest towns in Yemen, and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since ...
, then moved into the mountainous interior, taking the important highland centre
Sana'a. However, the Rasulid capitals were Zabid and Ta'izz. He was assassinated by his nephew in 1249.
Omar's son Yousef defeated the faction led by his father assassins and crushed several counter-attacks by the Zaydi imams who still held on in the northern highland. It was mainly because of the victories which he scored over his rivals that he assumed the honorific title '' al-Muzaffar '' (the victorious).
After the
fall of Baghdad to the
Mongols in 1258,
al-Muzaffar Yusuf I Al-Muzaffar ( ar, المظفر, "the victorious") may refer to:
* Mu'nis al-Khadim (845/6–933), a eunuch and the leading Abbasid general of the early 10th century
* Abd al-Malik al-Muzaffar (975–1008), prime minister (''hajib'') of the Caliphat ...
appropriated the title of
caliph
A caliphate or khilāfah ( ar, خِلَافَة, ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph (; ar, خَلِيفَة , ), a person considered a political-religious successor to th ...
.
He chose the city of
Ta'izz
Taiz ( ar, تَعِزّ, Taʿizz) is a city in southwestern Yemen. It is located in the Yemeni Highlands, near the port city of Mocha on the Red Sea, at an elevation of about above sea level. It is the capital of Taiz Governorate. With a popula ...
to become the political capital of the kingdom because of its strategic location and proximity to
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
.
Al-Muzaffar Yusuf I died in 1296 having reigned for 47 years.
When the news of his death reached the Zaydi imam
Al-Mutawakkil al-Mutahhar bin Yahya Al-Mutawakkil al-Mutahhar bin Yahya (June 1217 – June 23, 1298) was an imam of the Zaidi state in Yemen whose imamate lasted from 1276 to 1298.
Internal Zaidi rivalries
When the old imam al-Mahdi Ibrahim was defeated and captured by the Ras ...
he commented by saying:
The Rasulid state nurtured Yemen's commercial links with
India and the Far East. They profited greatly by the
Red Sea transit trade via
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
and
Zabid
Zabid ( ar, زَبِيد) (also spelled Zabīd, Zabeed and Zebid) is a town with an urban population of around 52,590 people on Yemen's western coastal plain. It is one of the oldest towns in Yemen, and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since ...
.
The economy also boomed due to the agricultural development programs instituted by the kings who promoted massive cultivation of palms.
It was during this period that coffee became a lucrative cash crop in Yemen. The Rasulid kings enjoyed the support of the population of
Tihama and southern Yemen while they had to buy the loyalty of Yemen's restive northern highland tribes.
The Rasulid sultans built numerous
Madrasas in order to solidify the
Shafi'i school of thought which is still the dominant school of
jurisprudence amongst Yemenis today.
Under their rule,
Ta'izz
Taiz ( ar, تَعِزّ, Taʿizz) is a city in southwestern Yemen. It is located in the Yemeni Highlands, near the port city of Mocha on the Red Sea, at an elevation of about above sea level. It is the capital of Taiz Governorate. With a popula ...
and
Zabid
Zabid ( ar, زَبِيد) (also spelled Zabīd, Zabeed and Zebid) is a town with an urban population of around 52,590 people on Yemen's western coastal plain. It is one of the oldest towns in Yemen, and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since ...
became major international centers of Islamic learning.
The Kings themselves were learned men in their own right who not only had important libraries but who also wrote treatises on a wide array of subjects, ranging from astrology and medicine to agriculture and genealogy.
The dynasty is regarded as the greatest native Yemeni state since the fall of pre-Islamic
Himyarite Kingdom
The Himyarite Kingdom ( ar, مملكة حِمْيَر, Mamlakat Ḥimyar, he, ממלכת חִמְיָר), or Himyar ( ar, حِمْيَر, ''Ḥimyar'', / 𐩹𐩧𐩺𐩵𐩬) (fl. 110 BCE–520s CE), historically referred to as the Homerit ...
. They were, of course, of
Turkic descent but claimed an ancient Yemenite origin to justify their rule. The Rasulids were not the first dynasty to create a fictitious genealogy for political purposes, nor were they doing anything out of the ordinary in the tribal context of Arabia.
[Daniel Martin Varisco. (1993). The Unity of the Rasulid State under al-Malik al-Muzaffar. ''Revue du monde musulman et de la Méditerranée'', volume 67, p. 21] By claiming descent from a solid Yemenite tribe, the Rasulid brought Yemen to a vital sense of unity in an otherwise chaotic regional milieu.
They had a difficult relationship with the
Mamluks of Egypt because the latter considered them a vassal state.
Their competition centered over the
Hejaz and the right to provide
kiswa
Kiswa ( ar, كسوة الكعبة, ''kiswat al-ka'bah'') is the cloth that covers the Kaaba in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. It is draped annually on the 9th day of the month of Dhu al-Hijjah, the day pilgrims leave for the plains of Mount Arafat during ...
of the
Ka'aba
The Kaaba (, ), also spelled Ka'bah or Kabah, sometimes referred to as al-Kaʿbah al-Musharrafah ( ar, ٱلْكَعْبَة ٱلْمُشَرَّفَة, lit=Honored Ka'bah, links=no, translit=al-Kaʿbah al-Musharrafah), is a building at the c ...
in
Mecca.
The dynasty became increasingly threatened by disgruntled family members over the problem of succession, combined by periodic tribal revolts, as they were locked in a war of attrition with the Zaydi imams in the northern highlands.
During the last twelve years of Rasulid rule, the country was torn between several contenders for the kingdom. The weakening of the Rasulids provided an opportunity for the
Banu Taher clan to take over and establish themselves as the new rulers of Yemen in 1454.
Tahirid Dynasty
The
Tahirids were a local clan based in
Rada'a
Rada'a District ( ar, مُدِيْرِيَّة رَدَاع) is a district of the Al Bayda Governorate, Yemen. As of 2003, the district had a population of 56,382 inhabitants. The district's largest city is Rada'a, east of Dhamar, as the crow fl ...
. While they were not as impressive as their predecessors, they were still keen builders. They built schools, mosques and irrigation channels as well as water cisterns and bridges in
Zabid
Zabid ( ar, زَبِيد) (also spelled Zabīd, Zabeed and Zebid) is a town with an urban population of around 52,590 people on Yemen's western coastal plain. It is one of the oldest towns in Yemen, and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since ...
and
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
,
Rada'a
Rada'a District ( ar, مُدِيْرِيَّة رَدَاع) is a district of the Al Bayda Governorate, Yemen. As of 2003, the district had a population of 56,382 inhabitants. The district's largest city is Rada'a, east of Dhamar, as the crow fl ...
, and
Juban. Their best-known monument is the
Amiriya Madrasa
Al-Amiriya () is a 16th-century madrasa (educational institution) located in Rada, Yemen. It is under consideration for inscription as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. in
Rada' which was built in 1504. The Tahiride were too weak either to contain the
Zaydi Imams or to defend themselves against foreign attacks. The
Mamluks of Egypt tried to attach Yemen to
Egypt and the Portuguese, led by
Afonso de Albuquerque, occupied
Socotra and launched an unsuccessful four-day
siege of Aden
The siege of Aden occurred when the Portuguese Governor of India, Afonso de Albuquerque, launched an unsuccessful expedition to capture Aden on 26 March 1513.
Background
Aden was an independent city-state whose strategic location allowed it to ...
in 1513.
The Portuguese posed an immediate threat to the Indian Ocean trade; the
Mamluks of Egypt therefore sent an army under the command of
Hussein Al-Kurdi to fight the intruders. The Mamluk sultan of Egypt sailed to
Zabid
Zabid ( ar, زَبِيد) (also spelled Zabīd, Zabeed and Zebid) is a town with an urban population of around 52,590 people on Yemen's western coastal plain. It is one of the oldest towns in Yemen, and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since ...
in 1515 and began diplomatic talks with
Tahiride Sultan 'Amir bin Abdulwahab for money that would be needed for ''
jihad
Jihad (; ar, جهاد, jihād ) is an Arabic word which literally means "striving" or "struggling", especially with a praiseworthy aim. In an Islamic context, it can refer to almost any effort to make personal and social life conform with G ...
'' against the Portuguese. Instead of confronting the Portuguese, the
Mamluks, who were running out of food and water, landed their fleet on the Yemen coastline and started to harass
Tihama villagers for what they needed.
[Steven C. Caton ''Yemen'' p. 59 ABC-CLIO, 2013 ] Realizing how rich the
Tahiride realm was, they decided to conquer it.
The Mamluk army with the support of forces loyal to
Zaydi
Zaydism (''h'') is a unique branch of Shia Islam that emerged in the eighth century following Zayd ibn Ali‘s unsuccessful rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate. In contrast to other Shia Muslims of Twelver Shi'ism and Isma'ilism, Zaydi ...
Imam
Al-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din Al-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din (25 February 1473 – 27 March 1555) was an imam of the Zaidi state in Yemen. His period as imam covered the period from 1506 to 1555, though his political power ended in about 1547.
Construction of a new Zaidi re ...
conquered the entire realm of the
Tahiride but failed to capture
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
in 1517. The Mamluk victory turned out to be short-lived. The
Ottoman Empire conquered
Egypt, hanging the last Mamluk Sultan in
Cairo
Cairo ( ; ar, القاهرة, al-Qāhirah, ) is the capital of Egypt and its largest city, home to 10 million people. It is also part of the largest urban agglomeration in Africa, the Arab world and the Middle East: The Greater Cairo metro ...
.
It was not until 1538 that the
Ottomans decided to conquer Yemen. The
Zaydi
Zaydism (''h'') is a unique branch of Shia Islam that emerged in the eighth century following Zayd ibn Ali‘s unsuccessful rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate. In contrast to other Shia Muslims of Twelver Shi'ism and Isma'ilism, Zaydi ...
Highland tribes emerged as national heroes by offering a stiff, vigorous resistance to the
Turkish occupation.
Modern history
The Zaydis and Ottomans
The Ottomans had two fundamental interests to safeguard in Yemen: The Islamic holy cities of
Mecca and
Medina and the trade route with India in spices and textiles, both of which were threatened and the latter virtually eclipsed by the arrival of the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean and the
Red Sea in the early part of the 16th century.
Hadım Suleiman Pasha
Hadım (Eunuch) Suleiman Pasha ( ota, خادم سلیمان پاشا; tr, Hadım Süleyman Paşa; 1467 – September 1547) was an Ottoman statesman and military commander. He served as the viceroy of Ottoman Egypt in 1525–1535 and 1537 ...
, the Ottoman governor of
Egypt, was ordered to command a fleet of 90 ships to conquer Yemen. The country was in a state of incessant anarchy and discord as Hadım Suleiman Pasha described it by saying:
Imam
al-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din Al-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din (25 February 1473 – 27 March 1555) was an imam of the Zaidi state in Yemen. His period as imam covered the period from 1506 to 1555, though his political power ended in about 1547.
Construction of a new Zaidi re ...
ruled over the northern highlands including
Sana'a while
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
was held by the last
Tahiride Sultan 'Amir ibn Dauod. Hadım Suleiman Pasha stormed
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
in 1538, killing its ruler and extended Ottoman's authority to include
Zabid
Zabid ( ar, زَبِيد) (also spelled Zabīd, Zabeed and Zebid) is a town with an urban population of around 52,590 people on Yemen's western coastal plain. It is one of the oldest towns in Yemen, and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since ...
in 1539 and eventually
Tihama in its entirety.
Zabid
Zabid ( ar, زَبِيد) (also spelled Zabīd, Zabeed and Zebid) is a town with an urban population of around 52,590 people on Yemen's western coastal plain. It is one of the oldest towns in Yemen, and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since ...
became the administrative headquarters of
Yemen Eyalet
The Yemen Eyalet ( ar, إيالة اليمن; ota, ایالت یمن, Eyālet-i Yemen) was an eyalet (province) of the Ottoman Empire. Although formally an integral part of the empire, the far-flung province was notoriously difficult to administe ...
. The Ottoman governors did not exercise much control over the highlands; they held sway mainly in the southern coastal region, particularly around
Zabid
Zabid ( ar, زَبِيد) (also spelled Zabīd, Zabeed and Zebid) is a town with an urban population of around 52,590 people on Yemen's western coastal plain. It is one of the oldest towns in Yemen, and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since ...
,
Mocha and
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
. Out of 80,000 soldiers sent to Yemen from
Egypt between 1539 – 1547, only 7,000 survived.
The Ottoman accountant-general in
Egypt remarks:
The Ottoman sent yet another expeditionary force to
Zabid
Zabid ( ar, زَبِيد) (also spelled Zabīd, Zabeed and Zebid) is a town with an urban population of around 52,590 people on Yemen's western coastal plain. It is one of the oldest towns in Yemen, and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since ...
in 1547 while Imam
al-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din Al-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din (25 February 1473 – 27 March 1555) was an imam of the Zaidi state in Yemen. His period as imam covered the period from 1506 to 1555, though his political power ended in about 1547.
Construction of a new Zaidi re ...
was ruling the highlands independently. Imam al-Mutawakkil Yahya chose his son Ali to succeed him, a decision that infuriated his other son
al-Mutahhar ibn Yahya.
Al-Mutahhar
Al-Mutahhar bin Yahya Sharaf ad-Din (January 3, 1503 – November 9, 1572) was an imam of the Zaidi state of Yemen who ruled from 1547 to 1572. His era marked the temporary end of an autonomous Yemeni polity in the highlands.
The coming of th ...
was lame and therefore not qualified for the Imamate.
He urged Oais Pasha, the Ottoman colonial governor in
Zabid
Zabid ( ar, زَبِيد) (also spelled Zabīd, Zabeed and Zebid) is a town with an urban population of around 52,590 people on Yemen's western coastal plain. It is one of the oldest towns in Yemen, and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since ...
, to attack his father. Indeed, Ottoman troops supported by tribal forces loyal to Imam
al-Mutahhar
Al-Mutahhar bin Yahya Sharaf ad-Din (January 3, 1503 – November 9, 1572) was an imam of the Zaidi state of Yemen who ruled from 1547 to 1572. His era marked the temporary end of an autonomous Yemeni polity in the highlands.
The coming of th ...
stormed
Ta'izz
Taiz ( ar, تَعِزّ, Taʿizz) is a city in southwestern Yemen. It is located in the Yemeni Highlands, near the port city of Mocha on the Red Sea, at an elevation of about above sea level. It is the capital of Taiz Governorate. With a popula ...
and marched north toward
Sana'a in August 1547. The Turks officially made Imam
al-Mutahhar
Al-Mutahhar bin Yahya Sharaf ad-Din (January 3, 1503 – November 9, 1572) was an imam of the Zaidi state of Yemen who ruled from 1547 to 1572. His era marked the temporary end of an autonomous Yemeni polity in the highlands.
The coming of th ...
a
Sanjak-bey with authority over
'Amran
ʿAmrān ( ar, عمران; Old South Arabian: 𐩲𐩣𐩧𐩬 ''ʿmrn'') is a small city in western central Yemen. It is the capital of the 'Amran Governorate, and was formerly in the Sana'a Governorate. It is located by road northwest of the ...
. Imam
al-Mutahhar
Al-Mutahhar bin Yahya Sharaf ad-Din (January 3, 1503 – November 9, 1572) was an imam of the Zaidi state of Yemen who ruled from 1547 to 1572. His era marked the temporary end of an autonomous Yemeni polity in the highlands.
The coming of th ...
assassinated the Ottoman colonial governor and recaptured
Sana'a but the Ottomans led by
Özdemir Pasha
Özdemir Pasha (died 1561, Sana, Yemen Eyalet) was a Mamluk general for the Ottoman Empire, of Kumyk descent.''Mustafa Müftüoğlu.'' Yalan söyleyen tarih utansın!--. — Çile Yayınevi, 1981. — 384 с. He joined Hadım Süleyman Pasha's c ...
, forced
al-Mutahhar
Al-Mutahhar bin Yahya Sharaf ad-Din (January 3, 1503 – November 9, 1572) was an imam of the Zaidi state of Yemen who ruled from 1547 to 1572. His era marked the temporary end of an autonomous Yemeni polity in the highlands.
The coming of th ...
to retreat to his fortress in
Thula
Thula ( ar, ثُلَاء, Thulāʾ) or Thila ( ar, ثِلَاء, Thilāʾ) is a town in west-central Yemen. It is located in the 'Amran Governorate.
Thula is one of five towns in Yemen on the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List. Dating to the ...
.
Özdemir Pasha
Özdemir Pasha (died 1561, Sana, Yemen Eyalet) was a Mamluk general for the Ottoman Empire, of Kumyk descent.''Mustafa Müftüoğlu.'' Yalan söyleyen tarih utansın!--. — Çile Yayınevi, 1981. — 384 с. He joined Hadım Süleyman Pasha's c ...
effectively put Yemen under Ottoman rule between 1552 and 1560. He garrisoned the main cities, built new fortresses and rendered secure the main routes.
Özdemir died in
Sana'a in 1561 to be succeeded by
Mahmud Pasha.
Mahmud Pasha was described by other Ottoman officials as corrupt and unscrupulous governor, he used his authority to take over a number of castles some of which belonged to the former
Rasulid Kings.
Mahmud Pasha killed a
Sunni scholar from
Ibb
Ibb ( ar, إِبّ, ʾIbb) is a city in Yemen, the capital of Ibb Governorate, located about northeast of Mocha and south of Sana'a.
A market town and administrative centre developed during the Ottoman Empire, it is one of the most importan ...
.
The Ottoman historian claimed that this incident was celebrated by the
Zaydi Shia
Zaydism (''h'') is a unique branch of Shia Islam that emerged in the eighth century following Zayd ibn Ali‘s unsuccessful rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate. In contrast to other Shia Muslims of Twelver Shi'ism and Isma'ilism, Zaydis, a ...
community in the northern highlands.
Disregarding the delicate balance of power in Yemen by acting tactlessly, he alienated different groups within Yemeni society, causing them to forget their rivalries and unite against the Turks.
Mahmud Pasha was displaced by Ridvan Pasha in 1564. By 1565, Yemen was split into two provinces: the highlands under the command of Ridvan Pasha and
Tihama under Murad Pasha. Imam
al-Mutahhar
Al-Mutahhar bin Yahya Sharaf ad-Din (January 3, 1503 – November 9, 1572) was an imam of the Zaidi state of Yemen who ruled from 1547 to 1572. His era marked the temporary end of an autonomous Yemeni polity in the highlands.
The coming of th ...
launched a propaganda campaign in which he claimed contact with
prophet Mohammed in a dream advising him to wage ''
jihad
Jihad (; ar, جهاد, jihād ) is an Arabic word which literally means "striving" or "struggling", especially with a praiseworthy aim. In an Islamic context, it can refer to almost any effort to make personal and social life conform with G ...
'' against the Ottomans.
Al-Mutahhar
Al-Mutahhar bin Yahya Sharaf ad-Din (January 3, 1503 – November 9, 1572) was an imam of the Zaidi state of Yemen who ruled from 1547 to 1572. His era marked the temporary end of an autonomous Yemeni polity in the highlands.
The coming of th ...
led the tribes to capture
Sana'a from Ridvan Pasha in 1567. When Murad tried to relieve
Sana'a, highland tribesmen ambushed his unit and slaughtered all of them.
Over 80 battles were fought, the last decisive encounter took place in
Dhamar around 1568 in which Murad Pasha was beheaded and had his head sent to
al-Mutahhar
Al-Mutahhar bin Yahya Sharaf ad-Din (January 3, 1503 – November 9, 1572) was an imam of the Zaidi state of Yemen who ruled from 1547 to 1572. His era marked the temporary end of an autonomous Yemeni polity in the highlands.
The coming of th ...
in
Sana'a.
By 1568, only
Zabid
Zabid ( ar, زَبِيد) (also spelled Zabīd, Zabeed and Zebid) is a town with an urban population of around 52,590 people on Yemen's western coastal plain. It is one of the oldest towns in Yemen, and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since ...
remained under the possession of the Turks.
Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha
Lala Mustafa Pasha ( – 7 August 1580), also known by the additional epithet ''Kara'', was an Ottoman Bosnian general and Grand Vizier from the Sanjak of Bosnia.
Life
He was born around 1500, near the Glasinac in Sokolac Plateau in Bosnia to ...
, the Ottoman governor of
Syria, was ordered by
Selim II
Selim II (Ottoman Turkish: سليم ثانى ''Selīm-i sānī'', tr, II. Selim; 28 May 1524 – 15 December 1574), also known as Selim the Blond ( tr, Sarı Selim) or Selim the Drunk ( tr, Sarhoş Selim), was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire f ...
to suppress the Yemeni rebels,
the Turkish army in
Egypt was reluctant to go to Yemen however.
Mustafa Pasha sent a letter with two Turkish
shawishes hoping to persuade
al-Mutahhar
Al-Mutahhar bin Yahya Sharaf ad-Din (January 3, 1503 – November 9, 1572) was an imam of the Zaidi state of Yemen who ruled from 1547 to 1572. His era marked the temporary end of an autonomous Yemeni polity in the highlands.
The coming of th ...
to give an apology and say that he did not promote any act of aggression against the Ottoman army, and claim that the '' ignorant Arabians '' according to the Turks, acted on their own. Imam
al-Mutahhar
Al-Mutahhar bin Yahya Sharaf ad-Din (January 3, 1503 – November 9, 1572) was an imam of the Zaidi state of Yemen who ruled from 1547 to 1572. His era marked the temporary end of an autonomous Yemeni polity in the highlands.
The coming of th ...
refused the Ottoman offer.
Mustafa Pasha sent an expeditionary force under the command of Uthman Pasha, the expeditionary force was defeated with great casualties. Sultan
Selim II
Selim II (Ottoman Turkish: سليم ثانى ''Selīm-i sānī'', tr, II. Selim; 28 May 1524 – 15 December 1574), also known as Selim the Blond ( tr, Sarı Selim) or Selim the Drunk ( tr, Sarhoş Selim), was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire f ...
was infuriated by
Mustafa's hesitation to go Yemen, he executed a number of
sanjak-beys in Egypt and ordered
Sinan Pasha to lead the entire Turkish army in
Egypt to reconquer Yemen.
Sinan Pasha was a prominent Ottoman General of
Albanian origin.
In 1570, he reconquered
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
,
Ta'izz
Taiz ( ar, تَعِزّ, Taʿizz) is a city in southwestern Yemen. It is located in the Yemeni Highlands, near the port city of Mocha on the Red Sea, at an elevation of about above sea level. It is the capital of Taiz Governorate. With a popula ...
, and
Ibb
Ibb ( ar, إِبّ, ʾIbb) is a city in Yemen, the capital of Ibb Governorate, located about northeast of Mocha and south of Sana'a.
A market town and administrative centre developed during the Ottoman Empire, it is one of the most importan ...
, and he besieged
Shibam Kawkaban
Shibam Kawkaban ( ar, شبام كَوْكَبَان, Shibām Kawkabān)
is a double town in Shibam Kawkaban District, Al Mahwit Governorate, Yemen, located 38 km west-northwest of Sanaa, the national capital. It consists of two distinct adjoini ...
for 7 months until a truce was reached. Imam
al-Mutahhar
Al-Mutahhar bin Yahya Sharaf ad-Din (January 3, 1503 – November 9, 1572) was an imam of the Zaidi state of Yemen who ruled from 1547 to 1572. His era marked the temporary end of an autonomous Yemeni polity in the highlands.
The coming of th ...
was pushed back but could not be entirely overcome. After
al-Mutahhar
Al-Mutahhar bin Yahya Sharaf ad-Din (January 3, 1503 – November 9, 1572) was an imam of the Zaidi state of Yemen who ruled from 1547 to 1572. His era marked the temporary end of an autonomous Yemeni polity in the highlands.
The coming of th ...
's demise in 1572, the Zaydi community was not united under an imam; the Turks took advantage of their disparity and conquered
Sana'a,
Sa'dah
Saada ( ar, صَعْدَة, translit=Ṣaʿda), a city and ancient capital in the northwest of Yemen, is the capital and largest city of the province of the same name, and the county seat of the county of the same name. The city is located in the ...
and
Najran
Najran ( ar, نجران '), is a city in southwestern Saudi Arabia near the border with Yemen. It is the capital of Najran Province. Designated as a new town, Najran is one of the fastest-growing cities in the kingdom; its population has risen f ...
in 1583.
Imam
al-Nasir Hassan was arrested in 1585 and exiled to
Constantinople, thereby putting an end to the Yemeni rebellion.
The
Zaydi
Zaydism (''h'') is a unique branch of Shia Islam that emerged in the eighth century following Zayd ibn Ali‘s unsuccessful rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate. In contrast to other Shia Muslims of Twelver Shi'ism and Isma'ilism, Zaydi ...
tribesmen in the northern highlands, particularly those of
Hashid
The Hashid ( ar, حاشد; Musnad: 𐩢𐩦𐩵𐩣) is a tribal confederation in Yemen. It is the second or third largest – after Bakil and, depending on sources, Madh'hij and
Bakil
The Bakil ( ar, بكيل, Musnad: 𐩨𐩫𐩺𐩡) federation is the largest tribal federation in Yemen. The tribe consists of more than 10 million men and women they are the sister tribe of Hashid(4 million) whose leader was Abdullah Bin Hussein ...
, were a constant irritant to Turkish rule in
Arabia
The Arabian Peninsula, (; ar, شِبْهُ الْجَزِيرَةِ الْعَرَبِيَّة, , "Arabian Peninsula" or , , "Island of the Arabs") or Arabia, is a peninsula of Western Asia, situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian Plat ...
. Justifying their presence in Yemen as a triumph for Islam, the Ottomans accused the
Zaydi
Zaydism (''h'') is a unique branch of Shia Islam that emerged in the eighth century following Zayd ibn Ali‘s unsuccessful rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate. In contrast to other Shia Muslims of Twelver Shi'ism and Isma'ilism, Zaydi ...
s of being
infidels. Hassan Pasha was appointed governor of
Yemen, which enjoyed a period of relative peace from 1585 to 1597. Pupils of
al-Mansur al-Qasim
Al-Mansur al-Qasim (November 13, 1559 – February 19, 1620), with the cognomen ''al-Kabir'' (the Great), was an Imam of Yemen, who commenced the struggle to liberate Yemen from the Ottoman occupiers. He was the founder of a Zaidi kingdom that en ...
suggested that he claim the immamate and fight the Turks. He declined at first but was infuriated by the promotion of the
Hanafi school of
jurisprudence at the expense of
Zaydi Islam. He proclaimed the Imamate in September 1597, which was the same year the Ottoman authorities inaugurated
al-Bakiriyya Mosque
Bakiriyya Mosque is a mosque constructed in Sana'a around 1596–97 by the Ottoman governor of Yemen, Hasan Pasha. The mosque fell into disrepair after the Ottomans were driving out of Yemen in 1626 but was fully restored when the Ottomans ...
.
By 1608, Imam
al-Mansur
Abū Jaʿfar ʿAbd Allāh ibn Muḥammad al-Manṣūr (; ar, أبو جعفر عبد الله بن محمد المنصور; 95 AH – 158 AH/714 CE – 6 October 775 CE) usually known simply as by his laqab Al-Manṣūr (المنصور) w ...
(the victorious) regained control over the highlands and signed a 10-year truce with the Ottomans. When Imam al-Mansur al-Qasim died in 1620 his son
Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad
Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad (1582 – September 1644) was an Imam of Yemen (1620–1644), son of Al-Mansur al-Qasim. He managed to expel the Ottoman Turks entirely from the Yemenite lands, thus confirming an independent Zaidi state.
Succeeding to the im ...
succeeded him and confirmed the truce with the Ottomans. In 1627, the Ottomans lost
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
and
Lahej
Lahij or Lahej ( ar, لحج, Laḥj, links=no), also called al-Hawtah, is a city and an area located between Ta'izz and Aden in Yemen. From the 18th to the 20th century, its rulers were of the Abdali branch of the Al-Sallami tribe who trace t ...
. 'Abdin Pasha was ordered to suppress the rebels but failed and had to retreat to
Mocha.
After
Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad
Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad (1582 – September 1644) was an Imam of Yemen (1620–1644), son of Al-Mansur al-Qasim. He managed to expel the Ottoman Turks entirely from the Yemenite lands, thus confirming an independent Zaidi state.
Succeeding to the im ...
expelled the Ottomans from
Sana'a in 1628, only
Zabid
Zabid ( ar, زَبِيد) (also spelled Zabīd, Zabeed and Zebid) is a town with an urban population of around 52,590 people on Yemen's western coastal plain. It is one of the oldest towns in Yemen, and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since ...
and
Mocha remained under Ottoman possession.
Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad
Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad (1582 – September 1644) was an Imam of Yemen (1620–1644), son of Al-Mansur al-Qasim. He managed to expel the Ottoman Turks entirely from the Yemenite lands, thus confirming an independent Zaidi state.
Succeeding to the im ...
captured
Zabid
Zabid ( ar, زَبِيد) (also spelled Zabīd, Zabeed and Zebid) is a town with an urban population of around 52,590 people on Yemen's western coastal plain. It is one of the oldest towns in Yemen, and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since ...
in 1634 and allowed the Ottomans to leave
Mocha peacefully. The reasons behind
Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad
Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad (1582 – September 1644) was an Imam of Yemen (1620–1644), son of Al-Mansur al-Qasim. He managed to expel the Ottoman Turks entirely from the Yemenite lands, thus confirming an independent Zaidi state.
Succeeding to the im ...
's success were the tribes' possession of firearms and the fact that they were unified behind him.
In 1632,
Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad
Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad (1582 – September 1644) was an Imam of Yemen (1620–1644), son of Al-Mansur al-Qasim. He managed to expel the Ottoman Turks entirely from the Yemenite lands, thus confirming an independent Zaidi state.
Succeeding to the im ...
sent an expeditionary force of 1000 men to conquer
Mecca.
The army entered the city in triumph and killed its governor.
The Ottomans were not ready to lose
Mecca after Yemen, so they sent an army from
Egypt to fight the Yemenites.
Seeing that the Turkish army was too numerous to overcome, the Yemeni army retreated to a valley outside
Mecca.
Ottoman troops attacked the Yemenis by hiding at the wells that supplied them with water. This plan proceeded successfully, causing the Yemenis over 200 casualties, most from thirst.
The tribesmen eventually surrendered and returned to Yemen.
Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad
Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad (1582 – September 1644) was an Imam of Yemen (1620–1644), son of Al-Mansur al-Qasim. He managed to expel the Ottoman Turks entirely from the Yemenite lands, thus confirming an independent Zaidi state.
Succeeding to the im ...
died in 1644. He was succeeded by
Al-Mutawakkil Isma'il
Al-Mutawakkil Isma'il (c. 1610 – 15 August 1676) was an Imam of Yemen who ruled the country from 1644 until 1676. He was a son of Al-Mansur al-Qasim. His rule saw the biggest territorial expansion of the Zaidiyyah imamate in Greater Yemen.
Ear ...
, another son of
al-Mansur al-Qasim
Al-Mansur al-Qasim (November 13, 1559 – February 19, 1620), with the cognomen ''al-Kabir'' (the Great), was an Imam of Yemen, who commenced the struggle to liberate Yemen from the Ottoman occupiers. He was the founder of a Zaidi kingdom that en ...
, who conquered Yemen in its entirety, from
Asir
The ʿAsir Region ( ar, عَسِيرٌ, ʿAsīr, lit=difficult) is a region of Saudi Arabia located in the southwest of the country that is named after the ʿAsīr tribe. It has an area of and an estimated population of 2,211,875 (2017). It is ...
in the north to
Dhofar
The Dhofar Governorate ( ar, مُحَافَظَة ظُفَار, Muḥāfaẓat Ẓufār) is the largest of the 11 Governorates in the Sultanate of Oman in terms of area. It lies in Southern Oman, on the eastern border with Yemen's Al Mahrah Gov ...
in the east. During his reign and that of his successor,
Al-Mahdi Ahmad
Al-Mahdi Ahmad (1633 – July 10, 1681) was an Imam of Yemen, who ruled in 1676–1681. He belonged to the Qasimid family that was descended from Muhammad.
Struggle for the imamate
Ahmad was a son of al-Hasan bin al-Qasim (d. 1639), a bro ...
(1676–1681), the Imamate implemented some of the harshest discriminatory laws (Ar. ''ghiyar'') against the Jews of Yemen, which culminated in the
expulsion of all Jews to a hot and arid region in the
Tihama coastal plain. The ''Qasimid'' state was the strongest
Zaydi
Zaydism (''h'') is a unique branch of Shia Islam that emerged in the eighth century following Zayd ibn Ali‘s unsuccessful rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate. In contrast to other Shia Muslims of Twelver Shi'ism and Isma'ilism, Zaydi ...
state to ever exist.
During that period, Yemen was the sole Coffee producer in the world. The country established diplomatic relations with the
Safavid dynasty of
Persia, the Ottomans of
Hejaz, the
Mughal Empire in India and Ethiopia. The
Fasilides of Ethiopia
Fasilides ( Ge'ez: ፋሲልደስ; ''Fāsīladas''; 20 November 1603 – 18 October 1667), also known as Fasil, Basilide, or Basilides (as in the works of Edward Gibbon), was Emperor of Ethiopia from 1632 to his death on 18 October 1667, and a m ...
sent three diplomatic missions to Yemen, but the relations did not develop into a political alliance as
Fasilides had hoped, due to the rise of powerful feudalists in the country. In the first half of the 18th century, the Europeans broke Yemen's monopoly on coffee by smuggling out coffee trees and cultivating them in their own colonies in the East Indies, East Africa, the West Indies and Latin America. The imammate did not follow a cohesive mechanism for succession, and family quarrels and tribal insubordination led to the political decline of the Qasimi dynasty in the 18th century. In 1728 or 1731 the chief representative of
Lahej
Lahij or Lahej ( ar, لحج, Laḥj, links=no), also called al-Hawtah, is a city and an area located between Ta'izz and Aden in Yemen. From the 18th to the 20th century, its rulers were of the Abdali branch of the Al-Sallami tribe who trace t ...
declared himself an independent
Sultan in defiance of the Qasimid Dynasty and conquered
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
thus establishing the
Sultanate of Lahej. The rising power of the fervently Islamist
Wahhabi movement on the Arabian Peninsula cost the Zaidi state its coastal possessions after 1803. The imam was able to regain them temporarily in 1818, but new intervention by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt in 1833 again wrested the coast from the ruler in Sana'a. After 1835 the imamate changed hands with great frequency and some imams were assassinated. After 1849 the Zaidi polity descended into chaos that lasted for decades.
Great Britain and the nine regions
The British were looking for a coal depot to service their steamers en route to
India. It took 700 tons of coal for a round-trip from
Suez to
Bombay
Mumbai (, ; also known as Bombay — the official name until 1995) is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra and the ''de facto'' financial centre of India. According to the United Nations, as of 2018, Mumbai is the second- ...
.
East India Company officials decided on Aden. London tried to reach an agreement with the Zaydi imam of
Sana'a permitting them a foothold in
Mocha; and when unable to secure their position, they extracted a similar agreement from the
Sultan of Lahej, enabling them to consolidate a position in
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
.
An incident played into British hands when, while passing
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
for trading purposes, one of their sailing ships sank and Arab tribesmen boarded it and plundered its contents. The
British India government dispatched a warship under the command of Captain Stafford Bettesworth Haines to demand compensation.
Haines bombarded Aden from his warship in January 1839. The ruler of
Lahej
Lahij or Lahej ( ar, لحج, Laḥj, links=no), also called al-Hawtah, is a city and an area located between Ta'izz and Aden in Yemen. From the 18th to the 20th century, its rulers were of the Abdali branch of the Al-Sallami tribe who trace t ...
, who was in Aden at the time, ordered his guards to defend the port, but they failed in the face of overwhelming military and naval power. The British managed to occupy
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
and agreed to compensate the sultan with an annual payment of 6000
riyals.
The British evicted the
Sultan of Lahej from
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
and forced him to accept their "protection".
In November 1839, 5000 tribesmen tried to retake the town but were repulsed and 200 were killed. The British realized that Aden's prosperity depended on their relations with the neighboring tribes, which required that they rest on a firm and satisfactory basis.
The British government concluded "protection and friendship" treaties with nine tribes surrounding Aden, whereas they would remain independent from British interference in their affairs as long as they do not conclude treaties with foreigners (non-Arab colonial powers).
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
was declared a
free zone in 1850. With emigrants from
India, East Africa and Southeast Asia, Aden grew into a "world city". In 1850, only 980 Arabs were registered as original inhabitants of the city. The English presence in Aden put them at odds with the Ottomans. The Turks asserted to the British that they held sovereignty over the whole of
Arabia
The Arabian Peninsula, (; ar, شِبْهُ الْجَزِيرَةِ الْعَرَبِيَّة, , "Arabian Peninsula" or , , "Island of the Arabs") or Arabia, is a peninsula of Western Asia, situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian Plat ...
, including Yemen as successor of
Mohammed
Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد; 570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monoth ...
and the chief of the universal
Caliphate
A caliphate or khilāfah ( ar, خِلَافَة, ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph (; ar, خَلِيفَة , ), a person considered a political-religious successor to th ...
.
Ottoman return
The Ottomans were concerned about the British expansion from
India to the
Red Sea and
Arabia
The Arabian Peninsula, (; ar, شِبْهُ الْجَزِيرَةِ الْعَرَبِيَّة, , "Arabian Peninsula" or , , "Island of the Arabs") or Arabia, is a peninsula of Western Asia, situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian Plat ...
. They returned to the
Tihama in 1849 after an absence of two centuries.
Rivalries and disturbances continued among the
Zaydi imams, between them and their deputies, with the
ulema, with the heads of tribes, as well as with those who belonged to other sects. Some citizens of
Sana'a were desperate to return law and order to Yemen and asked the Ottoman Pasha in
Tihama to pacify the country. Yemeni merchants knew that the return of the Ottomans would improve their trade, for the Ottomans would become their customers. An Ottoman expedition force tried to capture
Sana'a but was defeated and had to evacuate the highlands. The opening of the
Suez Canal in 1869 strengthened the Ottomans' decision to remain in Yemen.
In 1872, military forces were dispatched from
Constantinople and moved beyond the Ottoman stronghold in the lowlands (
Tihama) to conquer
Sana'a. By 1873 the Ottomans succeeded in conquering the northern highlands.
Sana'a became the administrative capital of
Yemen Vilayet
ota, ولايت یمن
, common_name = Yemen Vilayet
, subdivision = Vilayet
, nation = the Ottoman Empire
, year_start = 1872
, year_end = 1918
, date_start =
, ...
.
The Ottomans learned from their previous experience and worked on the disempowerment of local lords in the highland regions. They even attempted to secularize the Yemeni society;
Yemenite Jews came to perceive themselves in Yemeni nationalist terms. The Ottomans appeased the tribes by forgiving their rebellious chiefs and appointing them to administrative posts. They introduced a series of reforms to enhance the country's economic welfare. On the other hand, corruption was widespread in the Ottoman administration in Yemen. This stemmed from the fact that only the worst of the officials were appointed because those who could avoid serving in Yemen did so.
The Ottomans had reasserted control over the highlands for temporary duration.
The so-called ''
Tanzimat'' reforms were considered heretic by the
Zaydi
Zaydism (''h'') is a unique branch of Shia Islam that emerged in the eighth century following Zayd ibn Ali‘s unsuccessful rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate. In contrast to other Shia Muslims of Twelver Shi'ism and Isma'ilism, Zaydi ...
tribes. In 1876, the
Hashid
The Hashid ( ar, حاشد; Musnad: 𐩢𐩦𐩵𐩣) is a tribal confederation in Yemen. It is the second or third largest – after Bakil and, depending on sources, Madh'hij and
Bakil
The Bakil ( ar, بكيل, Musnad: 𐩨𐩫𐩺𐩡) federation is the largest tribal federation in Yemen. The tribe consists of more than 10 million men and women they are the sister tribe of Hashid(4 million) whose leader was Abdullah Bin Hussein ...
tribes rebelled against the Ottomans, and the Turks had to appease them with gifts to end the uprising.
The tribal chiefs were difficult to appease and an endless cycle of violence curbed the Ottoman efforts to pacify the land.
Ahmed Izzet Pasha
Ahmad ( ar, أحمد, ʾAḥmad) is an Arabic male given name common in most parts of the Muslim world. Other spellings of the name include Ahmed and Ahmet.
Etymology
The word derives from the root (ḥ-m-d), from the Arabic (), from the ve ...
proposed that the Ottoman army should evacuate the highlands and confined itself to
Tihama and not to be unnecessarily burdened with continuing military operation against the
Zaydi
Zaydism (''h'') is a unique branch of Shia Islam that emerged in the eighth century following Zayd ibn Ali‘s unsuccessful rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate. In contrast to other Shia Muslims of Twelver Shi'ism and Isma'ilism, Zaydi ...
tribes.
The hit-and-run tactics of the northern highlands tribesmen wore out the Ottoman military. They resented the Turkish
Tanzimat and defied all attempts to impose a central government upon them.
The northern tribes united under the leadership of the House of Hamidaddin in 1890. Imam
Yahya Hamidaddin led a rebellion against the Turks in 1904, the rebels disrupted the Ottoman ability to govern. The revolts between 1904 and 1911 were especially damaging to the Ottomans, costing them as much as 10,000 soldier and
£500,000 per year. The Ottomans signed a treaty with imam
Yahya Hamidaddin in 1911. Under the treaty, imam Yahya was recognized as an autonomous leader of the
Zaydi
Zaydism (''h'') is a unique branch of Shia Islam that emerged in the eighth century following Zayd ibn Ali‘s unsuccessful rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate. In contrast to other Shia Muslims of Twelver Shi'ism and Isma'ilism, Zaydi ...
northern highlands. The Ottomans continued to rule
Shafi'i areas in the mid-south until their departure in 1918.
Idrisid Emirate and Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen
Imam
Yahya hamid ed-Din al-Mutawakkil was ruling the northern highlands independently since 1911. After the Ottoman departure in 1918 he sought to recapture the lands of his Qasimid ancestors. He dreamed of
Greater Yemen
Yemen Region ( ar, إقليم اليمن, Eglîm el-Yemen) also known as South Arabia is a geographic term denoting territories of historic South Arabia which included All lands between the Gulf of Oman in the east and the Red Sea in the west.
I ...
stretching from
Asir
The ʿAsir Region ( ar, عَسِيرٌ, ʿAsīr, lit=difficult) is a region of Saudi Arabia located in the southwest of the country that is named after the ʿAsīr tribe. It has an area of and an estimated population of 2,211,875 (2017). It is ...
to
Dhofar
The Dhofar Governorate ( ar, مُحَافَظَة ظُفَار, Muḥāfaẓat Ẓufār) is the largest of the 11 Governorates in the Sultanate of Oman in terms of area. It lies in Southern Oman, on the eastern border with Yemen's Al Mahrah Gov ...
. These schemes brought him into conflict with the de facto rulers in the territories claimed, namely the
Idrisids
The Idrisid dynasty or Idrisids ( ar, الأدارسة ') were an Arab Muslim dynasty from 788 to 974, ruling most of present-day Morocco and parts of present-day western Algeria. Named after the founder, Idris I, the Idrisids were an Alid an ...
,
Ibn Saud and the British government in
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
. The Zaydi imam did not recognize the Anglo-Ottoman border agreement of 1905 on the grounds that it was made between two foreign powers occupying Yemen. The border treaty effectively divided Yemen into "north" and "south". In 1915 the British signed a treaty with the Idrisids guaranteeing their security and independence if they would fight against the Turks. In 1919, Imam Yahya moved southward to liberate the nine British protectorates. The British responded by moving quickly towards
Tihama and occupying
Al Hudaydah
Al-Hudaydah ( ar, الْحُدَيْدَة, al-ḥudayda), also transliterated as Hodeda, Hodeida, Hudaida or Hodeidah, is the fourth-largest city in Yemen and its principal port on the Red Sea.
As of 2004, its population was 402,560 and it is ...
. Then they handed it over to their Idrisi allies. Imam Yahya attacked the southern protectorates again in 1922. The British bombed Yahya's tribal forces using aircraft to which the tribes had no effective counter.
In 1925, Imam Yahya captured Al Hudaydah from the Idrisids.
He continued to follow and attack the Idrisids until
Asir
The ʿAsir Region ( ar, عَسِيرٌ, ʿAsīr, lit=difficult) is a region of Saudi Arabia located in the southwest of the country that is named after the ʿAsīr tribe. It has an area of and an estimated population of 2,211,875 (2017). It is ...
fell under the control of the Imam's forces, forcing the Idrisids to request an agreement that would enable them to administer the region in the name of the Imam.
Imam Yahya refused the offer on the grounds that the Idrisis were of a Moroccan descent. According to Imam Yahya, the Idrisids, along with the British, were nothing but recent intruders and ought to be driven out of Yemen permanently. In 1927, when Imam Yahya's forces were 50 km away from Aden,
Ta'izz
Taiz ( ar, تَعِزّ, Taʿizz) is a city in southwestern Yemen. It is located in the Yemeni Highlands, near the port city of Mocha on the Red Sea, at an elevation of about above sea level. It is the capital of Taiz Governorate. With a popula ...
and
Ibb
Ibb ( ar, إِبّ, ʾIbb) is a city in Yemen, the capital of Ibb Governorate, located about northeast of Mocha and south of Sana'a.
A market town and administrative centre developed during the Ottoman Empire, it is one of the most importan ...
were bombed by the British for five days, and the Imam had to pull back.
Small
Bedouin
The Bedouin, Beduin, or Bedu (; , singular ) are nomadic Arab tribes who have historically inhabited the desert regions in the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, the Levant, and Mesopotamia. The Bedouin originated in the Syrian Desert and Ar ...
forces mainly from the
Madh'hij
Madhḥij ( ar, مَذْحِج) is a large Qahtanite Arab tribal confederation. It is located in south and central Arabia. This confederation participated in the early Muslim conquests and was a major factor in the conquest of the Persian empire ...
confederation of
Marib, attacked
Shabwah
Shabwah ( ar, شَبْوَة, Šabwa) is a governorate (province) of Yemen. Its main town is Ataq.
During the Yemeni Civil War in 2015, the province became a battleground. The battle, known as the Shabwah Campaign, ended on August 15, 2015, a ...
but were bombed by the British and had to retreat.
The
Italian Empire was the first to recognize Imam Yahya as the ''King of Yemen'' in 1926. Furthermore, the Italians in 1926 and 1927 aimed at taking control of the
Farasan Islands. Italy had colonies of its own in the region:
Eritrea and
Somaliland, both of low profitability. There was expectation that increased ties with Yemen would fuel increased trade with the colonies and bring the region into the Italian
sphere of influence. The Kingdom of Yemen at this point had its eye on annexing Aden and Imam Yahya also had aspirations for a
Greater Yemen
Yemen Region ( ar, إقليم اليمن, Eglîm el-Yemen) also known as South Arabia is a geographic term denoting territories of historic South Arabia which included All lands between the Gulf of Oman in the east and the Red Sea in the west.
I ...
, with the possible help from Italy.
This created a great deal of anxiety for the British, who interpreted it as clear recognition of Imam Yahya's claim to sovereignty over
Greater Yemen
Yemen Region ( ar, إقليم اليمن, Eglîm el-Yemen) also known as South Arabia is a geographic term denoting territories of historic South Arabia which included All lands between the Gulf of Oman in the east and the Red Sea in the west.
I ...
which included the
Aden protectorate
The Aden Protectorate ( ar, محمية عدن ') was a British protectorate in South Arabia which evolved in the hinterland of the port of Aden and in the Hadhramaut following the conquest of Aden by the Bombay Presidency of British India ...
and Asir.
The Idrisids turned to
Ibn Saud seeking his protection from Yahya. In 1932, however, the Idrisids broke their accord with Ibn Saud and went back to Imam Yahya seeking help against Ibn Saud himself, who had begun liquidating their authority and expressed his desire to annex those territories into his own Saudi domain.
Imam Yahya demanded the return of all Idrisi dominion.
That same year, a group of
Hejazi liberals fled to Yemen and plotted to expel Ibn Saud from the former Hashemite
Kingdom of Hejaz which was
conquered by the Saudis seven years earlier. Ibn Saud appealed to Britain for aid.
The British government sent arms and airplanes.
The British were anxious that Ibn Saud's financial difficulties may encourage the
Italian Empire to bail him out.
Ibn Saud suppressed the Asiri rebellion in 1933, after which the Idrisids fled to
Sana'a.
Negotiations between the Imam Yahya and Ibn Saud proved fruitless. After a military confrontation, Ibn Saud announced a ceasefire in May 1934.
Imam Yahya agreed to release Saudi hostages and the surrender of the Idrisis to Saudi custody. Imam Yahya ceded the three provinces of
Najran
Najran ( ar, نجران '), is a city in southwestern Saudi Arabia near the border with Yemen. It is the capital of Najran Province. Designated as a new town, Najran is one of the fastest-growing cities in the kingdom; its population has risen f ...
, Asir and
Jazan for 20 years and signed another treaty with the British government in 1934. The Imam recognized the British sovereignty over
Aden protectorate
The Aden Protectorate ( ar, محمية عدن ') was a British protectorate in South Arabia which evolved in the hinterland of the port of Aden and in the Hadhramaut following the conquest of Aden by the Bombay Presidency of British India ...
for 40 years. Yahya submitted to the Saudi and British demands out of fear for Al Hudaydah. According to Bernard Reich, Professor of Political Science and International Affairs at
George Washington University, Yahya could have done better by reorganizing the
Zaidi tribes of the northern highlands as his ancestors did against the Turks and British intruders and turn the lands they captured into another graveyard.
Although the imamate lost Asir, it was able to put down rebel tribes in the north using Iraq-trained Yemeni troops. With the country, now established within clearly defined territory, finally pacified, the urban nationalists began to assert themselves. These nationalists had long practiced non-Zaidi traditions (especially
Shafi'i), and were centered in the coastal province of Tahama, the city of
Ta'izz
Taiz ( ar, تَعِزّ, Taʿizz) is a city in southwestern Yemen. It is located in the Yemeni Highlands, near the port city of Mocha on the Red Sea, at an elevation of about above sea level. It is the capital of Taiz Governorate. With a popula ...
and the British-occupied
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
. Many had been students in Cairo and had acquired connections with the
Muslim Brotherhood
The Society of the Muslim Brothers ( ar, جماعة الإخوان المسلمين'' ''), better known as the Muslim Brotherhood ( ', is a transnational Sunni Islamist organization founded in Egypt by Islamic scholar and schoolteacher Hassan ...
and Algerian nationalists. Muslim Brotherhood operatives in Yemen aligned themselves with the urban opposition and supported Zaidi prince Abdullah bin Ahmad al-Wazir, who joined those actively seeking to overthrow Imam Yahya. On February 17, 1948 the opposition revolted in Sana'a and killed Imam Yahya. Crown prince
Ahmad
Ahmad ( ar, أحمد, ʾAḥmad) is an Arabic male given name common in most parts of the Muslim world. Other spellings of the name include Ahmed and Ahmet.
Etymology
The word derives from the root (ḥ-m-d), from the Arabic (), from the ve ...
was able to rally northern tribes and retake the capital, quelling the revolt after a brief siege on March 12, 1948.
Imam Ahmad reversed the isolationist policies of his father and opened Yemen's economy and society to the outside world. It went as the theocratic and largely medieval Imamate which became the first Arab state to accept Soviet aid. Beginning in 1955 Yemen entered into various treaties of friendship and from 1957 began receiving large amounts of Soviet arms as well as Soviet and Chinese military advisers. When the imam went abroad owing to illness, crown prince
Muhammad al-Badr
, succession = King and Imam of Yemen
, image = Muhammad al-Badr.jpg
, image_size =
, caption = Al-Badr in 1962
, reign = 19 – 26 September 1962
, predecessor = Ahmad bin Yahya
, successor = ''Title abolishe ...
led a pro-Soviet party and communist activity increased. When the Imam returned in 1959, brutal repression ensued and communists were expelled.
In April 1956 Yemen joined a defensive pact with Syria and Egypt, and in February 1958 it federated with the
United Arab Republic. In parallel,
clan violence erupted in Yemen and Aden, claiming hundreds of lives over 1956–60. The defensive pact move was conceived as a defensive measure against republican agitation, which urban nationalists still engaged in from British-occupied Aden. So long as Yemen was federated with the UAR, republicans would be deprived any assistance from Egyptian President
Nasser
Gamal Abdel Nasser Hussein, . (15 January 1918 – 28 September 1970) was an Egyptian politician who served as the second president of Egypt from 1954 until his death in 1970. Nasser led the Egyptian revolution of 1952 and introduced far-re ...
. Although the federation lasted only for three years, crown prince al-Badr continued to portray himself as an
Arab patriot, often railing against "reactionary Arab monarchs."
Two states
Arab nationalism influenced some circles that opposed the lack of modernization efforts in the Mutawakkilite monarchy. This became apparent when Imam
Ahmad bin Yahya
, succession = King and Imam of Yemen
, image = YemenAhmad.jpg
, image_size =
, caption =
, reign = 17 February 1948 – 19 September 1962
, predecessor = Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din
, successor = ...
died in 1962. He was succeeded by his son, but army officers attempted to seize power, sparking the
North Yemen Civil War. The Hamidaddin royalists were supported by Saudi Arabia, Britain, and Jordan (mostly with weapons and financial aid, but also with small military forces), whilst the republicans were backed by Egypt. Egypt provided the republicans with weapons and financial assistance but also sent a large military force to participate in the fighting. Israel covertly supplied weapons to the royalists in order to keep the Egyptian military busy in Yemen and make Nasser less likely to initiate a conflict in Sinai.
After six years of civil war, the republicans were victorious (February 1968) and formed the
Yemen Arab Republic
The Yemen Arab Republic (YAR; ar, الجمهورية العربية اليمنية '), also known simply as North Yemen or Yemen (Sanaʽa), was a country from 1962 to 1990 in the northwestern part of what is now Yemen.The United States extend ...
.
The revolution in the north coincided with the
Aden Emergency
The Aden Emergency, also known as the Radfan Uprising (), was an armed rebellion by NLF and FLOSY during the Cold War against the Federation of South Arabia, a protectorate of the United Kingdom, which now forms part of Yemen.
Partly inspi ...
, which hastened the end of British rule in the south. On 30 November 1967, the state of South Yemen was formed, comprising Aden and the former
Protectorate of South Arabia. This socialist state was later officially known as the
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen and a programme of nationalisation was begun.
Relations between the two Yemeni states fluctuated between peaceful and hostile. The South was supported by the Eastern bloc. The North, however, wasn't able to get the same connections. In 1972, the two states
fought a war. The war was resolved with a ceasefire and negotiations brokered by the
Arab League
The Arab League ( ar, الجامعة العربية, ' ), formally the League of Arab States ( ar, جامعة الدول العربية, '), is a regional organization in the Arab world, which is located in Northern Africa, Western Africa, E ...
, where it was declared that unification would eventually occur. In 1978,
Ali Abdallah Saleh was named as president of the Yemen Arab Republic.
After the war, the North complained about the South's help from foreign countries, which included Saudi Arabia. In 1979,
fighting erupted between the North and the South. There were renewed efforts to unite the two states.
In 1986, thousands died in the South, when a
civil war
A civil war or intrastate war is a war between organized groups within the same state (or country).
The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policie ...
erupted between supporters of former president
Abdul Fattah Ismail
Abd al-Fattah Ismail Ali Al-Jawfi ( ar, عبد الفتاح إسماعيل علي الجوفي , translit=ʿAbd al-Fattāḥ Ismāʿīl; 28 July 1939 – 13 January 1986) was the Marxist ''de facto'' leader of People's Democratic Republic of Yeme ...
and his successor,
Ali Nasser Muhammad
Ali Nasir Muhammad Al-Husani ( ar, علي ناصر محمد الحسني; born 31 December 1939, in Mudiyah, Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen) is the former leader of South Yemen serving as General Secretary of the Yemeni Socialist Party between 198 ...
. Ali Nasser Muhammad fled the country and was later sentenced to death for treason.
Unification
In 1990, the two governments reached a full agreement on the joint governing of Yemen, and the countries were merged on 22 May 1990 with Saleh as President.
The President of South Yemen,
Ali Salim al-Beidh
Ali Salem al-Beidh ( ar, علي سالم البيض, translit=‘Alī Sālim al-Bīḍ; born 10 February 1939) is a Yemeni politician who served as the General Secretary of the Yemeni Socialist Party (YSP) in South Yemen and as Vice President of ...
, became Vice-President.
A unified
parliament was formed and a unity constitution was agreed upon.
In the
1993 parliamentary election, the first held after unification, the
General People's Congress won 122 of 301 seats.
After the
invasion of Kuwait crisis in 1990, Yemen's President opposed military intervention from non-Arab states. As a member of the
United Nations Security Council for 1990 and 1991, Yemen abstained on a number of UNSC resolutions concerning Iraq and Kuwait
and voted against the "use of force resolution". The vote outraged the U.S.
Saudi Arabia expelled 800,000 Yemenis in 1990 and 1991 to punish Yemen for its opposition to the war.
Following food riots in major towns in 1992, a new coalition government made up of the ruling parties from both the former Yemeni states was formed in 1993. However, Vice-President al-Beidh withdrew to
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
in August 1993 and said he would not return to the government until his grievances were addressed. These included northern violence against his
Yemeni Socialist Party, as well as the economic marginalization of the south.
Negotiations to end the political deadlock dragged on into 1994. The government of Prime Minister
Haydar Abu Bakr Al-Attas became ineffective due to political infighting
An accord between northern and southern leaders was signed in
Amman,
Jordan on 20 February 1994, but this could not stop the civil war. During these tensions, both the northern and southern armies (which had never integrated) gathered on their respective frontiers. The May – July
1994 civil war in Yemen
The Yemeni Civil War was a civil war fought between the two Yemeni forces of the pro-union Yemen Arab Republic, northern and the socialist separatist People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, southern Yemeni states and their supporters. The war r ...
resulted in the defeat of the southern armed forces and the flight into exile of many
Yemeni Socialist Party leaders and other southern secessionists. Saudi Arabia actively aided the south during the 1994 civil war.
Saleh became Yemen's first directly elected president in
the 1999 presidential election, winning 96.2% of the vote.
The only other candidate,
Najeeb Qahtan Al-Sha'abi
Najeeb Qahtan al-Shaabi (born 1953 in Sha'ab, Lahj, Yemen – died 24 May 2021 in Aden, Yemen) was a Yemeni politician who was a candidate in the 1999 presidential election in Yemen. He ran as an Independent, despite being a member of the Gener ...
, was the son of
Qahtan Muhammad al-Shaabi
Qahtan Muhammad al-Shaabi ( ar, قحطان محمد الشعبي; 1920 – 7 July 1981) was the first President of the People's Republic of South Yemen. Al-Shaabi's National Liberation Front (NLF) political organisation wrested control of the co ...
, a former President of
South Yemen. Though a member of Saleh's
General People's Congress (GPC) party, Najeeb ran as an independent.
In June 2000, the
Treaty of Jeddah was signed, defining the border with Saudi Arabia.
In October 2000, seventeen U.S. personnel died after a
suicide attack on the U.S. naval vessel ''USS Cole'' in Aden which was subsequently blamed on al-Qaeda. After the
September 11 attacks on the United States, President Saleh assured U.S. President
George W. Bush
George Walker Bush (born July 6, 1946) is an American politician who served as the 43rd president of the United States from 2001 to 2009. A member of the Republican Party, Bush family, and son of the 41st president George H. W. Bush, he ...
that Yemen was a partner in his
War on Terror. In 2001, there was violence surrounding
a referendum which apparently supported extending Saleh's rule and powers.
The
Shia insurgency in Yemen
The Houthi insurgency in Yemen, also known as the Houthi rebellion, the Sa'dah War, or the Sa'dah conflict, was a military rebellion pitting Zaidi Shia Houthis (though the movement also includes Sunnis) against the Yemeni military that began ...
began in June 2004 when dissident cleric
Hussein Badreddin al-Houthi, head of the Zaidi Shia sect, launched an uprising against the Yemeni government. The Yemeni government alleged that the
Houthis
The Houthi movement (; ar, ٱلْحُوثِيُّون ''al-Ḥūthīyūn'' ), officially called Ansar Allah (' ''Partisans of God'' or ''Supporters of God'') and colloquially simply Houthis, is an Islamist political and armed movement that ...
were seeking to overthrow it and to implement Shī'a
religious law. The rebels counter that they are "defending their community against discrimination" and government aggression.
In 2005, at least 36 people were killed in clashes across the country between police and protesters over rising fuel prices.
In the
2006 presidential election, held on 20 September, Saleh won with 77.2% of the vote. His main rival,
Faisal bin Shamlan
Faisal Othman Bin Shamlan (1934 – 1 January 2010) (فيصل عثمان بن شملان) (faiṣal bin šamlān) was a Yemeni intellectual, technocrat, political reformist and public figure. He was a Yemeni member of parliament who had held ...
, received 21.8%.
Saleh was sworn in for another term on 27 September.
A suicide bomber killed eight Spanish tourists and two Yemenis in the
province of Marib in July 2007. There was a series of bomb attacks on police, official, diplomatic, foreign business and tourism targets in 2008. Car bombings outside the U.S. embassy in Sana'a killed 18 people, including six of the assailants in September 2008. In 2008, an opposition rally in Sana'a demanding electoral reform was met with police gunfire.
Al Qaeda
In January 2009, the Saudi and Yemeni al-Qaeda branches merged to form
Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula
Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula ( ar-at, تنظيم القاعدة في جزيرة العرب, Tanẓīm al-Qā‘idah fī Jazīrat al-‘Arab, lit=Organization of the Base in the Arabian Peninsula or , ''Tanẓīm Qā‘idat al-Jihād fī Jaz� ...
(AQAP). Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula is based in Yemen, and many of its members were Saudi nationals who had been released from Guantanamo Bay. Saleh released 176 al-Qaeda suspects on condition of good behaviour, but terrorist activities continued.
The Yemeni army launched a fresh offensive against the Shia insurgents in 2009, assisted by Saudi forces. Tens of thousands of people were displaced by the fighting. A new ceasefire was agreed upon in February 2010. However, by the end of the year, Yemen claimed that 3,000 soldiers had been killed in renewed fighting. The Shia rebels accused Saudi Arabia of providing support to
salafi groups to suppress Zaidism in Yemen. Saleh's government used Al-Qaeda in its wars against the insurgent
Houthis
The Houthi movement (; ar, ٱلْحُوثِيُّون ''al-Ḥūthīyūn'' ), officially called Ansar Allah (' ''Partisans of God'' or ''Supporters of God'') and colloquially simply Houthis, is an Islamist political and armed movement that ...
clan.
Some news reports have suggested that, on orders from U.S. President
Barack Obama
Barack Hussein Obama II ( ; born August 4, 1961) is an American politician who served as the 44th president of the United States from 2009 to 2017. A member of the Democratic Party, Obama was the first African-American president of the U ...
, U.S. warplanes fired
cruise missile
A cruise missile is a guided missile used against terrestrial or naval targets that remains in the atmosphere and flies the major portion of its flight path at approximately constant speed. Cruise missiles are designed to deliver a large warhea ...
s at what officials in Washington claimed were Al Qaeda training camps in the provinces of
Sana'a and
Abyan
Abyan ( ar, أَبْيَن ) is a governorate of Yemen. The Abyan region was historically part of the Fadhli Sultanate. It was a base to the Aden-Abyan Islamic Army militant group. Its capital is the city of Zinjibar. This governorate is no ...
on 17 December 2009. Instead of hitting Al-Qaeda operatives, it hit a village killing 55 civilians.
Officials in Yemen said that the attacks claimed the lives of more than 60 civilians, 28 of them children. Another airstrike was carried out on 24 December.
The U.S. launched a series of drone attacks in Yemen to curb a perceived growing terror threat due to political chaos in Yemen. Since December 2009, U.S. strikes in Yemen have been carried out by the U.S. military with intelligence support from CIA. The drone strikes are protested by human-rights groups who say they kill innocent civilians and that the U.S. military and CIA drone strikes lack sufficient congressional oversight, including the choice of human targets suspected of being threats to America. Controversy over U.S. policy for drone attacks mushroomed after a September 2011 drone strike in Yemen killed Anwar al-Awlaki and
Samir Khan, both U.S. citizens. Another drone strike in October 2011 killed Anwar's teenage son,
Abdulrahman al-Awlaki
Abdulrahman Anwar al-Awlaki (also spelled al-Aulaqi, ar, عبدالرحمن العولقي; August 26, 1995 – October 14, 2011) was a 16-year-old United States citizen who was killed while eating dinner at an outdoor restaurant in Yemen by a d ...
.
In 2010 the Obama administration policy allowed targeting of people whose names are not known. The U.S. government increased military aid to $140 million in 2010. U.S. drone strikes continued after the ousting of President Saleh.
Government instability 2011–present
The Yemeni Crisis began with the
2011–12 revolution against President
Ali Abdullah Saleh
Ali Abdullah Saleh al-Ahmar (, ''ʿAlī ʿAbdullāh Ṣāliḥ al-Aḥmar;'' 21 March 1947There is a dispute as to Saleh's date of birth, some saying that it was on 21 March 1942. See: However, by Saleh's own confession, he was born in 1947 al ...
, who had led
Yemen for more than two decades.
After Saleh left office in early 2012 as part of a mediated agreement between the
Yemeni government
The Cabinet of Yemen refers to the governing body of the internationally recognized Yemen government led by the Chairman of the Presidential Leadership Council Rashad al-Alimi who replaced former President of Yemen Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi on ...
and opposition groups, the government led by Saleh's former vice president,
Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi
Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi ( ar, عبدربه منصور هادي, translit=ʿAbd Rabbih Manṣūr Hādī Yemeni pronunciation: ; born 1 September 1945) is a Yemeni politician and former field marshal of the Yemeni Armed Forces who served as the pres ...
, struggled to unite the fractious political landscape of the country and fend off threats both from
Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula and
Houthi militants that had been waging a protracted
insurgency in the north for years.
In 2014, Houthi fighters
swept into the capital of Sana'a and forced Hadi to negotiate a "unity government" with other political factions. The rebels continued to apply pressure on the weakened government until, after his presidential palace and private residence came under attack from the militant group, Hadi resigned along with his ministers in January 2015. The following month, the Houthis
declared themselves in control of the government, dissolving
Parliament and installing an interim
Revolutionary Committee led by
Mohammed Ali al-Houthi
Mohammed Ali al-Houthi ( ar, محمد علي الحوثي; born 1979) is a Yemeni political figure who is the former President of the Revolutionary Committee or Revolutionary Council, a body formed by Houthi militants and the ''de facto'' Presi ...
, a cousin of Houthi leader
Abdul-Malik al-Houthi
Abdul-Malik Badruldeen al-Houthi ( ar, عبد الملك بدر الدين الحوثي) is a Yemeni politician and religious leader who serves as the leader of the Houthi movement (Ansar Allah), a revolutionary movement principally made up of ...
.
However, Hadi escaped to
Aden
Aden ( ar, عدن ' Yemeni: ) is a city, and since 2015, the temporary capital of Yemen, near the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some east of the strait Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000 people. ...
, where he declared he remains Yemen's legitimate president, proclaimed the country's temporary capital, and called on loyal government officials and members of the military to rally to him.
2011 revolution
The 2011 Yemeni revolution followed other
Arab Spring
The Arab Spring ( ar, الربيع العربي) was a series of anti-government protests, uprisings and armed rebellions that spread across much of the Arab world in the early 2010s. It began in Tunisia in response to corruption and econom ...
mass protests in early 2011. The uprising was initially against unemployment, economic conditions, and corruption, as well as against the government's proposals to modify the
so that Saleh's son could inherit the presidency.
In March 2011, police snipers opened fire on the pro-democracy camp in Sana'a, killing more than 50 people. In May, dozens were killed in clashes between troops and tribal fighters in Sana'a. By this point, Saleh began to lose international support. In October 2011, Yemeni human rights activist
Tawakul Karman
Tawakkol Abdel-Salam Khalid Karman ( ar, توكل عبد السلام خالد كرمان, Tawakkul 'Abd us-Salām Khalid Karmān; also romanized ''Tawakul'', ''Tawakel''; born 7 February 1979) is a Yemeni Nobel Laureate, journalist, politician ...
won the
Nobel Peace Prize and the
UN Security Council condemned the violence and called for a transfer of power. On 23 November 2011, Saleh flew to Riyadh, in neighbouring Saudi Arabia, to sign the
Gulf Co-operation Council
The Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf ( ar, مجلس التعاون لدول العربية الخليج ), also known as the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC; ar, مجلس التعاون الخليجي), is a regional, inter ...
plan for political transition, which he had previously spurned. Upon signing the document, he agreed to legally transfer the office and powers of the presidency to his deputy, Vice President
Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi
Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi ( ar, عبدربه منصور هادي, translit=ʿAbd Rabbih Manṣūr Hādī Yemeni pronunciation: ; born 1 September 1945) is a Yemeni politician and former field marshal of the Yemeni Armed Forces who served as the pres ...
.
Hadi took office for a two-year term upon winning the uncontested presidential elections in February 2012, in which he was the only candidate standing.
A unity government – including a prime minister from the opposition – was formed. Al-Hadi would oversee the drafting of a new constitution, followed by parliamentary and presidential elections in 2014.
2012
Saleh returned in February 2012. In the face of objections from thousands of street protesters, parliament granted him full immunity from prosecution. Saleh's son, General
Ahmed Ali Abdullah Saleh
Ahmed Ali Abdullah Saleh al-Ahmar ( ar, أحمد علي عبد الله صالح الأحمر; born July 25, 1972) is the eldest son of former Yemeni president Ali Abdullah Saleh, and was a commander of approximately 80,000 troops of the Republ ...
continues to exercise a strong hold on sections of the military and security forces.
AQAP claimed responsibility for the February 2012 suicide attack on the presidential palace which killed 26 Republican Guards on the day that President Hadi was sworn in. AQAP was also behind the suicide bombing which killed 96 soldiers in Sana'a three months later. In September 2012, a car bomb attack in Sana'a killed 11 people, a day after a local al-Qaeda leader
Said al-Shihri
Sa'id Ali Jabir Al Khathim Al Shihri (1971–2013) was a Saudi Arabian deputy leader of the terrorist group Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP), and possibly involved in the kidnappings and murders of foreigners in Yemen. Said Ali al-Shihr ...
was reported killed in the south.
By 2012, there has been a "small contingent of U.S. special-operations troops" – in addition to CIA and "unofficially acknowledged" U.S. military presence – in response to increasing terror attacks by AQAP on Yemeni citizens. Many analysts have pointed out the former Yemeni government role in cultivating terrorist activity in the country. Following the election of new president
Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi
Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi ( ar, عبدربه منصور هادي, translit=ʿAbd Rabbih Manṣūr Hādī Yemeni pronunciation: ; born 1 September 1945) is a Yemeni politician and former field marshal of the Yemeni Armed Forces who served as the pres ...
, the Yemeni military was able to push
Ansar al-Sharia Ansar al-Sharia or Ansar al-Shariah is a name used by a collection of radical or militant Islamist groups or militias, in at least eight countries. While they share names and ideology, they lack a unified command structure.
* Ansar al-Sharia (Yeme ...
back and recapture the
Shabwah Governorate
Shabwah ( ar, شَبْوَة, Šabwa) is a governorate (province) of Yemen. Its main town is Ataq.
During the Yemeni Civil War in 2015, the province became a battleground. The battle, known as the Shabwah Campaign, ended on August 15, 2015, a ...
.
Houthi takeover, Civil War and Saudi intervention
In 2014, the
Houthi movement, which had been waging an
insurgency against the Yemeni government since 2004, began a
gradual takeover of Yemen, defeating government forces in the
Battle of Amran and the
Battle of Sana'a (2014)
The Battle of Sanaa in 2014 marked the advance of the Houthis into Sanaa, the capital of Yemen, and heralded the beginning of the armed takeover of the government that unfolded over the following months. Fighting began on 9 September 2014, when ...
. Their advance continued throughout Yemen, prompting the start of the
Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen Saudi may refer to:
* Saudi Arabia
* Saudis, people from Saudi Arabia
* Saudi culture, the culture of Saudi Arabia
* House of Saud
The House of Saud ( ar, آل سُعُود, ʾĀl Suʿūd ) is the ruling royal family of Saudi Arabia. It is ...
. The Houthis attacked Aden on 25 March 2015, beginning the
Battle of Aden (2015)
The Battle of Aden was a battle for the control of Aden, Yemen, between Houthis rebels and Yemen Army forces loyal to Ali Abdullah Saleh on one side, and Yemen Army units loyal to Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi and Southern Movement militias on the oth ...
. Despite Saudi airstrikes, the Houthis managed to take advance into the Tawahi, Khormaksar, and Crater districts. The tide turned on 14 July, when an anti-Houthi counteroffensive managed to trap the Houthis on the peninsula. By 6 August 2015, the Hadi government had captured 75% of Taiz, and the
Lahij insurgency had expelled Houthis from the
Lahij Governorate. Hadi fortunes dissipated on 16 August, when Houthi forces successfully counterattacked and forced the Hadi forces to retreat from Al-Salih Gardens and the Al-Dabab Mountain region. Hadi forces attributed this reverse to a lack of military equipment. In Hadramaut,
Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula
Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula ( ar-at, تنظيم القاعدة في جزيرة العرب, Tanẓīm al-Qā‘idah fī Jazīrat al-‘Arab, lit=Organization of the Base in the Arabian Peninsula or , ''Tanẓīm Qā‘idat al-Jihād fī Jaz� ...
(AQAP) managed to take over Mukalla after winning the
Battle of Mukalla (2015)
The First Battle of Mukalla (2015) was a battle between al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula, local tribesmen, and the Yemen Army for control of the coastal city of Mukalla, Yemen.
The battle
At the end of the March, many Hadi loyal soldiers and fo ...
, and in December 2015 they
took over Zinjibar and Jaar.
2016 saw the Hadi government defeat Houthi forces in the
Battle of Port Midi, and retake Mukalla from AQAP in the
Battle of Mukalla (2016). In January 2017, the
United States carried out the
Raid on Yakla
The Raid on Yakla was a United States/United Arab Emirates military operation carried out on January 29, 2017 in al-Ghayil, a village in the Yakla area of the Al Bayda Governorate of central Yemen, during the Yemeni Civil War (2014–present). A ...
, in a failed attempt to obtain new intelligence regarding AQAP. In December, the Hadi Government began the
Al Hudaydah offensive. In June 2018, the Hadi Government began an attack on the city of Hudaydah itself, starting the
Battle of Al Hudaydah, which is considered the largest battle in the war since the start of the Saudi intervention.
In December 2017, former president and strongman Ali Abdullah Saleh was killed. He was an ally of the Houthis since 2014 until recently.
The war in Yemen also resulted in cholera and famine. (See
Famine in Yemen (2016–present)
Since 2016, a food insecurity crisis has been ongoing in Yemen which began during the Yemeni Civil War.
The UN estimates that the war has caused an estimated 130,000 deaths from indirect causes which include lack of food, health services, and ...
and
2016–18 Yemen cholera outbreak)
After losing the support of the Saudi-led coalition, Yemen's President Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi resigned and Presidential Leadership Council took power in April 2022.
See also
*
History of Asia
*
History of the Middle East
*
List of rulers of Saba and Himyar
This is a list of rulers of Saba and Himyar.
Mukarrib (Mukrab, Karab), a religious title that means "near to God", was used by rulers of Saba' until Karib'il Watar changed his title to ''Malik'' at the time of the kingdom of Saba' and Dhu Rayda ...
*
Imams of Yemen
The Imams of Yemen, later also titled the Kings of Yemen, were religiously consecrated leaders belonging to the Zaidiyyah branch of Shia Islam. They established a blend of religious and temporal-political rule in parts of Yemen from 897. Their i ...
*
List of presidents of Yemen
The president of the Republic of Yemen is the head of state of Yemen. Under the Constitution of Yemen, the president is also the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces and head of the executive branch of the Yemeni government.
As of 7 April 20 ...
*
Politics of Yemen
The Politics of Yemen are in an uncertain state due to the Houthi takeover in Yemen. An armed group known as the Houthis or Ansar Allah seized control of the Northern Yemeni government and announced it would dissolve parliament, as well as inst ...
*
South Arabia
South Arabia () is a historical region that consists of the southern region of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia, mainly centered in what is now the Republic of Yemen, yet it has also historically included Najran, Jizan, Al-Bahah, and 'A ...
*
South Yemen
*
Timeline of Yemeni history
*
Notes
References
*Original text fro
U.S. State Dept. Country Study*(1): DAUM, W. (ed.): ''Yemen. 3000 years of art and civilisation in Arabia Felix''., Innsbruck / Frankfurt am Main / Amsterdam
988
Year 988 ( CMLXXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.
Events
By place
Byzantine Empire
* Fall – Emperor Basil II, supported by a contingent of 6,000 Varangians ...
pp. 53–4.
*
Timeline of Art History of Arabia including Yemen (The Metropolitan Museum of Art). Das Fenster zum Jemen (German)*
*
Further reading
*Alessandro de Maigret. ''Arabia Felix'', translated Rebecca Thompson. London: Stacey International, 2002.
*
Andrey Korotayev''Ancient Yemen''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995
External links
A Dam at Marib*
*
* – excellent site with many pictures.
{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Yemen
History of Yemen,
bn:ইয়েমেন#ইতিহাস