Hindustani, also known as Hindi-Urdu, is the vernacular form of two

standardized Standardization or standardisation is the process of implementing and developing technical standards based on the consensus of different parties that include firms, users, interest groups, standards organizations and governments. Standardization ...

register Register or registration may refer to: Arts entertainment, and media Music * Register (music), the relative "height" or range of a note, melody, part, instrument, etc. * ''Register'', a 2017 album by Travis Miller * Registration (organ), th ...

s used as official languages in

India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...

and

Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 243 million people, and has the world's second-lar ...

, namely

Hindi Hindi ( Devanāgarī: or , ), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: ), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been ...

and

Urdu Urdu (;"Urdu"
'' Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a list of the physiographic regions of the world, physiographical region in United Nations geoscheme for Asia#Southern Asia, Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian O ...

but is mainly based on

Khariboli Kauravi ( hi, कौरवी, ur, ), also known as Khaṛībolī is a set of Western Hindi varieties of Shauraseni Prakrit mainly spoken in Northwestern Uttar Pradesh. Standard Hindi and Urdu are based on Khariboli, specifically on its De ...

of the

Delhi Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India. Straddling the Yamuna river, primarily its western or right bank, Delhi shares borders ...

region. As an Indo-Aryan language, Hindustani has a core base that traces back to

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...

but as a widely-spoken lingua franca, it has a large lexicon of

loanword A loanword (also loan word or loan-word) is a word at least partly assimilated from one language (the donor language) into another language. This is in contrast to cognates, which are words in two or more languages that are similar because t ...

s, acquired through centuries of foreign rule and ethnic diversity. Standard Hindi derives much of its formal and technical vocabulary from Sanskrit while standard Urdu derives much of its formal and technical vocabulary from

Persian Persian may refer to: * People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language ** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples ** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...

and

Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...

. Standard Hindi and Urdu are used primarily in public addresses and radio or TV news, while the everyday spoken language is one of the several varieties of Hindustani, whose vocabulary contains words drawn from

, and

. In addition, spoken Hindustani includes words from

English English usually refers to: * English language * English people English may also refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England ** English national ide ...

and the

Dravidian languages The Dravidian languages (or sometimes Dravidic) are a family of languages spoken by 250 million people, mainly in southern India, north-east Sri Lanka, and south-west Pakistan. Since the colonial era, there have been small but significant ...

, as well as several others. Hindustani developed over several centuries throughout much of the northern subcontinent including the areas that comprise modern-day India, Pakistan, and Nepal. In the same way that the core vocabulary of English evolved from Old English (Anglo-Saxon) but assimilated many words borrowed from French and other languages (whose pronunciations often changed naturally so as to become easier for speakers of English to pronounce), what may be called Hindustani can be said to have evolved from Sanskrit while borrowing many Persian and Arabic words over the years, and changing the pronunciations (and often even the meanings) of these words to make them easier for Hindustani speakers to pronounce. Many Persian words entered the Hindustani lexicon due to the influence of the Mughal rulers of north India, who followed a very Persianised culture and also spoke Persian. Many Arabic words entered Hindustani via Persian, which had previously been assimilated into the Persian language due to the influence of Arabs in the area. The dialect of Persian spoken by the Mughal ruling elite was known as '

Dari Dari (, , ), also known as Dari Persian (, ), is the variety of the Persian language spoken in Afghanistan. Dari is the term officially recognised and promoted since 1964 by the Afghan government for the Persian language,Lazard, G.Darī ...

', which is the dialect of Persian spoken in modern-day

Afghanistan Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,; prs, امارت اسلامی افغانستان is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Referred to as the Heart of Asia, it is bordere ...

. Therefore, Hindustani is the naturally developed common language of north India. This article will deal with the separate categories of Hindustani words and some of the common words found in the Hindustani language.

Categorization

Hindustani words, apart from loans, basically derive from two linguistic categories: * Indo-Aryan (words classified by grammarians as ''

tadbhava (Sanskrit: तद्भव, , lit. "arising from that") is the Sanskrit word for one of three etymological classes defined by native grammarians of Middle Indo-Aryan languages, alongside tatsama and deśi words. at pp. 67-69. A "tadbhava" is a w ...

'', or "inherited"): Sauraseni Prakrit and its '' apabhraṃśa'', or "corrupted", vernaculars at pp. 67-69. * Non-Indo-Aryan (words classified by grammarians as ''deśaja'', or "indigenous"):

Austroasiatic The Austroasiatic languages , , are a large language family in Mainland Southeast Asia and South Asia. These languages are scattered throughout parts of Thailand, Laos, India, Myanmar, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Nepal, and southern China and are th ...

(Munda) languages, as well as Dravidian and

Tibeto-Burman The Tibeto-Burman languages are the non- Sinitic members of the Sino-Tibetan language family, over 400 of which are spoken throughout the Southeast Asian Massif ("Zomia") as well as parts of East Asia and South Asia. Around 60 million people spea ...

languages According to the traditional categorization in Hindi (also found in other Indo-Aryan languages except Urdu) the loanwords are classed as '' tatsam'' ( hi, तत्सम "as it is, same as therein") for Sanskrit loans and ''vides͟hī'' ( hi, विदेशी "foreign, non-native") for non-Sanskrit loans,Masica, p. 65 such as those from Persian or English, respectively contrasting with ''tadbhava'' and ''deśaja'' words. The most common words in Hindustani are tadbhavas.

Examples of derivations

Second person pronouns

In Hindustani, the pronoun ''āp'' (आप ) " neelf", originally used as a third person honorific plural, denotes respect or formality (politeness) and originates from

Prakrit The Prakrits (; sa, prākṛta; psu, 𑀧𑀸𑀉𑀤, ; pka, ) are a group of vernacular Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were used in the Indian subcontinent from around the 3rd century BCE to the 8th century CE. The term Prakrit is usu ...

𑀅𑀧𑁆𑀧𑀸 ''appā'', which derived from

''ātman'', which refers to the higher self or level of consciousness. The pronoun ''tū'' (तू ) and its grammatically plural form ''tum'' (तुम ) (also the second person honorific plural) denote informality, familiarity or intimacy and originate respectively from ''tuhuṃ'' and ''tumma'' from Prakrit 𑀢𑀼𑀁 ''tuṃ'' and its variant 𑀢𑀼𑀫𑀁 ''tumaṃ'', which derived from Sanskrit ''tvam'', nominative singular of युष्मद् ''yuṣmad'' (the base of the second person plural pronoun). In modern usage, ''tū'' is widely used to display a range of attitudes depending on the context, from extreme informality (impoliteness) to extreme intimacy to outright disrespect and even extreme reverence. Usage of ''tū'' in most contexts is considered highly offensive in the formal register except when addressing God as a display of spiritual intimacy. This is very similar to the usage of "

thou The word ''thou'' is a second-person singular pronoun in English. It is now largely archaic, having been replaced in most contexts by the word '' you'', although it remains in use in parts of Northern England and in Scots (). ''Thou'' is the ...

" in archaic English and many other Indo-European languages showing

T–V distinction The T–V distinction is the contextual use of different pronouns that exists in some languages and serves to convey formality or familiarity. Its name comes from the Latin pronouns '' tu'' and '' vos''. The distinction takes a number of forms ...

Present "be" verb

One of the most common words in Hindustani, the copula ''hai'' (है ) and its plural form ''haiṉ'' (हैं ) − present forms of ''honā'' (होना , meaning "to be" and originating from Prakrit 𑀪𑁄𑀤𑀺 ''bhodi'' derived from Sanskrit ''bhavati'' "to happen") − rather originate from the following developments: * Sanskrit ''asti'' ("to be"; root ''as'') evolves into Prakrit 𑀅𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀺 ''atthi'', which further develops into ''ahi'' * ''Ahi'' evolves into

Old Hindi Old Hindi was the earliest stage of the Delhi dialect (Khariboli) of the Hindustani language, and so the ancestor of Modern Hindi and Modern Urdu. It developed from Shauraseni Prakrit and was spoken by the peoples of the Hindi Belt, especially aro ...

''ahai'' (अहै ; pronounced /əɦəɪ/, not /əɦɛː/ as in Hindustani) Shortening of ''ahai'' occurred in Hindustani resulting in ''hai'' probably to fulfill the symmetry of the other grammatical forms of ''honā''. ''Ahai'' can be found in some older works of Hindustani literature and its evidence can also be seen in other closely related Indo-Aryan languages such as Marathi (आहे ''āhe'') or Sindhi (آهي ''āhe'').

Perfective "go" verb

The verb ''jānā'' (जाना , "to go"), which originates from Prakrit 𑀚𑀸𑀤𑀺 ''jādi'' derived from Sanskrit ''yāti'' ("to move"; root ''yā''), however has its perfective form originating from another Prakrit word 𑀕𑀬 ''gaya'' derived from Sanskrit ''gata'', past participle of ''gacchati'' ("to go"; root ''gam'' or ''gacch''), for example, in ''gayā'' (गया , "went, gone").

Some other words

The word ''ājā'' (आजा ) has also been used in

Northern India North India is a loosely defined region consisting of the northern part of India. The dominant geographical features of North India are the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the Himalayas, which demarcate the region from the Tibetan Plateau and Central ...

and Pakistan for "grandfather". It is indeed derived from ''arya'' meaning "sir" in this case. Jain nuns are addressed either as ''Aryika'' or ''Ajji''. The word ''dādā'' (दादा ) also has a similar meaning which varies by region. It is used in some regions for "father", in other regions for "older brother", or even for "grandfather" in other regions. This word is an amalgam of two sources: * Sanskrit ''tāta'' used to address intimate persons which means either "sir" or "dear". * ''Tau'' meaning "father's older brother" is also derived from ''tāta''. The word ''baṛā'' (बड़ा "older, bigger, greater") is derived from the

''vridhha'' through

''vaḍḍha''.

Desi words

The term Desi words is used to describe the component of the lexicon in Indo-Aryan languages which is non-Indo-Aryan in origin, but native to other language families of the Indian subcontinent. Examples of Desi words in Hindustani include: ''loṭā'' (लोटा ) " lota (water vessel)", ''kapās'' (कपास ) "cotton", ''kauṛī'' (कौड़ी ) "

cowrie Cowrie or cowry () is the common name for a group of small to large sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Cypraeidae, the cowries. The term ''porcelain'' derives from the old Italian term for the cowrie shell (''porcellana'') du ...

(shell money)", ''ṭhes'' (ठेस ) "wound, injury", ''jhaṉḍā'' (झंडा ) "flag", ''mukkā'' (मुक्का ) "fist, punch", ''lakṛī'' (लकड़ी ) "wood", ''ṭharrā'' (ठर्रा ) "

tharra Tharra (Hindi: ठर्रा, Urdu: ٹھرا) is a type of Desi daru which is locally, and often illegally, brewed alcoholic drink in the Indian subcontinent, mainly India and Pakistan.

(liquor)", ''čūhā'' (चूहा ) "mouse, rat", ''čūlhā'' (चूल्हा ) "stove, oven", ''pagṛī'' (पगड़ी ) "turban", ''luṉgī'' (लुंगी ) "

lungi The lungi is a type of sarong that originated in the Indian Subcontinent. The Lungi, which usually multicoloured, is a men's skirt usually tied around the lower waist below the navel. it can be worn as casual wear and night wear, in places and ...

(sarong)", ''ghoṭālā'' (घोटाला ) "scam", ''dāṉḍī'' (दांडी ) "salt", ''jholā'' (झोला ) "bag, satchel", ''ṭakkar'' (टक्कर ) "crash, collision, confrontation", ''kākā'' (काका ) "paternal uncle", ''uṭpaṭāṉg/ūṭpaṭāṉg'' (उटपटांग/ऊट-पटांग ) "ludicrous", ''ḍabbā/ḍibbā'' (डब्बा/डिब्बा ) "box, container" and ''jhuggī'' (झुग्गी ) "hut"

Onomatopoeic words

Nouns: ''gaṛbaṛ'' (गड़बड़ ) "disorder, disturbance", ''dhaṛām'' (धड़ाम ) "thud", ''bakbak'' (बक-बक ) "chatter/chitter-chatter", ''khusur pusar'' (खुसुर-पुसर ) "whisper", ''jhilmil'' (झिलमिल ) "shimmer", ''ṭhakṭhak'' (ठक-ठक ) "knock knock", ''khaṭpaṭ'' (खटपट ) "quarrel, disagreement"
Verbs: ''khaṭkhaṭānā'' (खटखटाना ) "to knock", ''gaḍgaḍānā'' (गडगडाना ) "to rumble, to fuss", ''jagmagānā'' (जगमगाना ) "to shine/glitter", ''hinhinānā'' (हिनहिनाना ) "to neigh", ''phusphusānā'' (फुसफुसाना ) "to whisper"
Adjectives and Adverbs: ''čaṭpaṭ'' (चट-पट ) "in a jiffy", ''tharthar'' (थर-थर ) "with jerky motion (characteristic of shaking or trembling)", ''čaṭpaṭā'' (चटपटा ) "dextrous, spicy", ''čipčipā'' (चिपचिपा ) "sticky, slimy", ''čiṛčiṛā'' (चिड़चिड़ा ) "irritable", ''gaṛbaṛiyā'' (गड़बड़िया ) "chaotic, messy"

Loanwords

Due to the language's status as a lingua franca, Hindustani's vocabulary has a large inventory of loanwords, the largest number of which are adopted from Punjabi. Punjabi borrowings often bear sound changes from the parent

and Sanskrit vocabulary which did not occur in Hindustani, particularly the preservation of short vowels in initial syllables and the

gemination In phonetics and phonology, gemination (), or consonant lengthening (from Latin 'doubling', itself from ''gemini'' 'twins'), is an articulation of a consonant for a longer period of time than that of a singleton consonant. It is distinct from s ...

of the following consonant. A certain amount of vocabulary from other South Asian languages, Persian, Arabic, and English has been loaned indirectly into Hindustani through Punjabi. Other Indic languages which exist in a state of

diglossia In linguistics, diglossia () is a situation in which two dialects or languages are used (in fairly strict compartmentalization) by a single language community. In addition to the community's everyday or vernacular language variety (labeled ...

with Hindustani and are prone to mutual borrowing include Rajasthani, the

Western Pahari The Western Pahari languages are a group of Northern Indo-Aryan languages that are spoken in the state of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir and parts of Uttarakhand and Punjab Languages The following lists the languages cla ...

languages,

Haryanvi Haryanvi ( ' or '), also known as Bangru, is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in the state of Haryana in India, and to a lesser extent in Delhi. Haryanvi is considered to be part of the dialect group of Western Hindi, which also includes Kharib ...

, Bhojpuri, Marathi, Nepali, and

Gujarati Gujarati may refer to: * something of, from, or related to Gujarat, a state of India * Gujarati people, the major ethnic group of Gujarat * Gujarati language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by them * Gujarati languages, the Western Indo-Aryan sub ...

. Besides these, common sources of loan words include those manually adopted from Classical Sanskrit,

Classical Persian Persian (), also known by its endonym Farsi (, ', ), is a Western Iranian language belonging to the Iranian branch of the Indo-Iranian subdivision of the Indo-European languages. Persian is a pluricentric language predominantly spoken and u ...

Chagatai Turkic Chagatai (چغتای, ''Čaġatāy''), also known as ''Turki'', Eastern Turkic, or Chagatai Turkic (''Čaġatāy türkīsi''), is an extinct Turkic literary language that was once widely spoken across Central Asia and remained the shared literar ...

Portuguese Portuguese may refer to: * anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Portugal ** Portuguese cuisine, traditional foods ** Portuguese language, a Romance language *** Portuguese dialects, variants of the Portuguese language ** Portu ...

and

, as well as

Mandarin Chinese Mandarin (; ) is a group of Chinese (Sinitic) dialects that are natively spoken across most of northern and southwestern China. The group includes the Beijing dialect, the basis of the phonology of Standard Chinese, the official language ...

and French to a lesser extent.

Classical Sanskrit

Phonetic alterations

Many Classical Sanskrit words which were not learned borrowings underwent phonetic alterations. In the vernacular form, these include the merger of Sanskrit श (śa) and ष (ṣa), ण (ṇa) and न (na) as well as ऋ (r̥) and रि (ri). Other common alterations were ''s͟h'' ʃ/(श ) becoming ''s'' s/(स ), ''v/w'' ʋ/, /w/(व ) becoming ''b'' b/(ब ) and ''y'' j/(य ) becoming ''j'' dʒ/(ज ). Short vowels were also sometimes introduced to break up consonant clusters. Such words in Hindi (and other Indo-Aryan languages except Urdu) are called ''ardhatatsam'' ( hi, अर्धतत्सम "semi-''tatsam''").

Classical Persian

Persian words which were not later artificially added were loaned from Classical Persian, the historical variety of the tenth, eleventh and twelfth centuries, which continued to be used as literary language and lingua franca under the

Persianate A Persianate society is a society that is based on or strongly influenced by the Persian language, culture, literature, art and/or identity. The term "Persianate" is a neologism credited to Marshall Hodgson. In his 1974 book, ''The Venture of I ...

dynasties of the Late Middle Ages and Early Modern Era and is not the same as

Modern Persian New Persian ( fa, فارسی نو), also known as Modern Persian () and Dari (), is the current stage of the Persian language spoken since the 8th to 9th centuries until now in Greater Iran and surroundings. It is conventionally divided into thre ...

(though the

Dari Persian Dari (, , ), also known as Dari Persian (, ), is the variety of the Persian language spoken in Afghanistan. Dari is the term officially recognised and promoted since 1964 by the Afghan government for the Persian language,Lazard, G.Darī ...

is a direct descendant).

Borrowings

Persian loanwords in Hindustani are mainly borrowed nouns and adjectives as well as adverbs and conjunctions and some other parts of speech. From stems: Present: Past: From participles: Present: Past: By adding noun suffix ـِش (''-iš''): By forming composite words with Arabic:

Loaned Verbs

A substantial number of Hindustani verbs have been loaned from Punjabi, however, verb stems originating in less closely related languages are relatively rare. There are a few common verbs formed directly out of Persian stems (or nouns in some cases) listed below.

Arabic

Some of the most commonly used words from Arabic, all entering the language through Persian, include ''vaqt'' (वक़्त ) "time", ''qalam'' (क़लम ) "pen", ''kitāb'' (किताब ) "book", ''qarīb'' (क़रीब ) "near", ''sahīh/sahī'' (सहीह/सही ) "correct, right", ''g͟harīb'' (ग़रीब ) "poor", ''amīr'' (अमीर ) "rich", ''duniyā'' (दुनिया ) "world", ''hisāb'' (हिसाब ) "calculation", ''qudrat'' (क़ुदरत ) "nature", ''nasīb'' (नसीब ) "fate, luck, fortune", ''ajīb'' (अजीब ) "strange, unusual", ''qānūn'' (क़ानून ) "law", ''filhāl'' (फ़िलहाल ) "currently", ''sirf'' (सिर्फ़ ) "only, mere", ''taqrīban'' (तक़रीबन ) "close to, about", ''k͟habar'' (ख़बर ) "news", ''ak͟hbār'' (अख़बार ) "newspaper", ''qilā'' (क़िला ) "fort", ''kursī'' (कुर्सी ) "chair, seat", ''s͟harbat'' (शर्बत ) "drink, beverage", ''muāf/māf'' (मुआफ़/माफ़ ) "forgiven, pardoned", ''zarūrī'' (ज़रूरी ) "necessary", etc.

Chagatai Turkic

There are a very small number of Turkic words in Hindustani, numbering as little as 24 according to some sources, all entering the language through Persian. Other words attributed to Turkish, the most widely spoken Turkic language, are actually words which are common to Hindustani and Turkish but are of non-Turkic origins, mostly Perso-Arabic. Both languages also share mutual loans from English. Most notably, some honorifics and surnames common in Hindustani are Turkic due to the influence of the ethnically Turkic

Mughals The Mughal Empire was an early-modern empire that controlled much of South Asia between the 16th and 19th centuries. Quote: "Although the first two Timurid emperors and many of their noblemen were recent migrants to the subcontinent, the d ...

- these include '' k͟hānam'' (ख़ानम ), ''bājī'' (बाजी ) "sister", and '' begam'' (बेगम ). Common surnames include '' k͟hān'' (ख़ान ), '' čug͟htāʾī'' (चुग़ताई ), '' pās͟hā'' (पाशा ), and '' arsalān'' (अर्सलान ). Common Turkic words used in everyday Hindustani are ''qaiṉčī/qainčī'' (क़ैंची ) "scissors", ''annā'' (अन्ना ) "governess", ''tamg͟hā'' (तमग़ा ) "stamp, medal", and ''čaqmaq'' (चक़मक़ ) "flint".

Mandarin Chinese

There are not many Chinese words that were loaned into Hindustani in spite of geographical proximity.

European languages

Portuguese

A small number of Hindustani words were derived from Portuguese due to interaction with colonists and missionaries. These include the following:

French

A few French loans exist in Hindustani resulting from French colonial settlements in India. Other French words such as ''s͟hemīz'' (शेमीज़ ) "chemise" and ''kūpan'' (कूपन ) "coupon" have entered the language through English.

English

Loanwords from English were borrowed through interaction with the

British East India Company The East India Company (EIC) was an English, and later British, joint-stock company founded in 1600 and dissolved in 1874. It was formed to trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with the East Indies (the Indian subcontinent and South ...

and later British rule. English-language education for the native administrative and richer classes during British rule accelerated the adoption of English vocabulary in Hindustani. Many technical and modern terms were and still are borrowed from English, such as ''ḍākṭar/ḍôkṭar'' (डाक्टर/डॉक्टर ) "doctor", ''ṭaiksī'' (टैक्सी ) "taxi", and ''kilomīṭar'' (किलोमीटर ) "kilometer".

Photo-semantic matching

Some loanwords from English undergo a significant phonetic transformation. This can either be done intentionally, in order to nativize words or to make them sound more or less "English-sounding", or happen naturally. Words often undergo a phonetic change in order to make them easier for native speakers to pronounce while others change due to a lack of English education or incomplete knowledge of English phonetics, where an alternate pronunciation becomes an accepted norm and overtakes the original as the most used pronunciation.

References

Sources

Hindi Language and Literature
a site about

's usage, dialects, and history by Dr. Yashwant K. Malaiya, Professor at Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
Hindi Language Resources
A comprehensive site on the Hindi language built by Yashwant Malaiya
Indian Department of Official Language
* Dua, Hans R. (1994a). Hindustani. In Asher (Ed.) (pp. 1554) * Liberman, Anatoly. (2004). Word Origins ... and How We Know Them: Etymology for Everyone. Delhi: Oxford University Press. . * Rai, Amrit. (1984). ''A house divided: The origin and development of Hindi-Hindustani''. Delhi: Oxford University Press. . * Kuczkiewicz-Fraś, Agnieszka. (2003). "Perso-Arabic Hybrids in Hindi. The Socio-linguistic and Structural Analysis". Delhi: Manohar. . * Kuczkiewicz-Fraś, Agnieszka. (2008). "Perso-Arabic Loanwords in Hindustani. Part I: Dictionary". Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka. . * Kuczkiewicz-Fraś, Agnieszka. (2012). "Perso-Arabic Loanwords in Hindustani. Part II: Linguistic Study". Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka. . {{Urdu topics

Etymology Etymology ()The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998) – p. 633 "Etymology /ˌɛtɪˈmɒlədʒi/ the study of the class in words and the way their meanings have changed throughout time". is the study of the history of the Phonological chan ...

Language histories