''Heqin'', also known as marriage alliance, refers to the historical practice of Chinese monarchs marrying princesses—usually members of minor branches of the ruling family—to rulers of neighboring states. It was often adopted as an

appeasement Appeasement in an international context is a diplomatic policy of making political, material, or territorial concessions to an aggressive power in order to avoid conflict. The term is most often applied to the foreign policy of the UK governm ...

strategy with an enemy state that was too powerful to defeat on the battlefield. The policy was not always effective. It implied an equal diplomatic status between the two monarchs. As a result, it was controversial and had many critics. Lou Jing (, later granted the imperial surname Liu 劉), the architect of the policy, proposed granting the eldest daughter of

Emperor Gaozu of Han Emperor Gaozu of Han (256 – 1 June 195 BC), born Liu Bang () with courtesy name Ji (季), was the founder and first emperor of the Han dynasty, reigning in 202–195 BC. His temple name was "Taizu" while his posthumous name was Emper ...

to the

Modu Chanyu Modu, Maodun, Modun (, from Old Chinese (220 B.C.E.): *''mouᴴ-tuən'' or *''mək-tuən'', c. 234 – c. 174 BCE) was the son of Touman and the founder of the empire of the Xiongnu. He came to power by ordering his men to kill his father in 209 B ...

of the

Xiongnu The Xiongnu (, ) were a tribal confederation of nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Modu Chanyu, the supreme leader after 20 ...

. His proposal was adopted and implemented with a treaty in 198BC, following the

Battle of Baideng The Battle of Baideng (白登之戰) was a military conflict between Han China and the Xiongnu in 200 BC. Han Dynasty of China invaded the territory of the Xiongnu in 200 BC attempting to subjugate them. However the Xiongnu united their forces unde ...

two years prior.

Wang Zhaojun Wang Qiang (Wang Ch'iang; 王牆, also 王檣 and 王嬙), commonly known by her courtesy name Wang Zhaojun () was known as one of the Four Beauties of ancient China. Born in Baoping Village, Zigui County (in current Hubei Province) in the Western ...

, of the

Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...

, and

Princess Wencheng Princess Wencheng (; ) was a member of a minor branch of the royal clan of the Tang Dynasty who married King Songtsen Gampo of the Tibetan Empire in 641. She is also known by the name Gyasa or "Chinese wife" in Tibet. Some Tibetan historians cons ...

, of the

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...

, are among the most famous heqin princesses. The 20th-century scholar Wang Tonglin praised heqin for facilitating the "melting of races" in China.

Han dynasty

There were a total of fifteen instances of ''heqin'' marriage alliances during the Han dynasty. The Han dynasty sent random unrelated commoner women falsely labeled as "princesses" and members of the Han imperial family multiple times when they were practicing Heqin marriage alliances with the Xiongnu in order to avoid sending the emperor's daughters. *200BC:

marries a Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain

. This is the first recorded incidence of heqin in Chinese history. *192BC:

Emperor Hui of Han Emperor Hui of Han (Liu Ying 劉盈; 210 BC – 26 September 188 BC) was the second emperor of the Chinese Han dynasty. He is also known as Han Huidi (Chinese: 漢惠帝 ''Hàn Huìdì''). He was the second son of Emperor Gaozu (Liu Bang, of th ...

marries another Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain

. *176BC:

Emperor Wen of Han Emperor Wen of Han (; 203/202 – 6 July 157 BCE), born Liu Heng (), was the fifth emperor of the Western Han dynasty in China from 180 to his death in 157 BCE. The son of Emperor Gao and Consort Bo, his reign provided a much needed stability ...

marries a third Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain

. *174BC:

marries a Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain

Laoshang Chanyu Laoshang (; r. 174–161 BCE), whose personal name was Jiyu (), was a Chanyu of the Xiongnu Empire who succeeded his father Modu Chanyu in 174 BCE. Under his reign, the Xiongnu Empire continued to expand against the Yuezhi and the Xiongnu thus ...

. She brings a Yan eunuch named Zhonghang Yue with her to be her tutor. *162BC:

marries another Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain

. *160BC:

marries a Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain

Gunchen Chanyu Junchen (, Old Chinese ( ZS): *''kun-gin''; r. 161–126 BCE) was the son and successor to Laoshang Chanyu. As chanyu of the Xiongnu Empire, Junchen outlived the Han emperors Wen (r. 180–157 BC), Jing (r. 157–141 BC). He died during the ...

. *156BC: Emperor Jing of Han marries another Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain

. *155BC: Emperor Jing of Han marries a third Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain

. *152BC: Emperor Jing of Han marries a fourth Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain

. *140BC:

Emperor Wu of Han Emperor Wu of Han (156 – 29 March 87BC), formally enshrined as Emperor Wu the Filial (), born Liu Che (劉徹) and courtesy name Tong (通), was the seventh emperor of the Han dynasty of ancient China, ruling from 141 to 87 BC. His reign la ...

marries a Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain

. *108BC:

marries

Liu Xijun Sara Liu Xijun (), is a Chinese pop singer who rose to fame through televised singing competitions. Born 30 April 1988 in Shenzhen, Guangdong, she began as a singer by ranking fifth in the fourth season (2009) of a singing contest in China, '' ...

(刘细君 130–101 BC), daughter of Liu Jian (刘建), Prince of Jiangdu (江都王 d. 121 BC), granddaughter of Prince Yi of Jiangdu, to Liejiaomi, King of

Wusun The Wusun (; Eastern Han Chinese *''ʔɑ-suən'' <

Old Chinese

(140 BCE < 436 BCE): *''Ɂâ-sûn'') were an ancient semi-

. *103BC:

marries

Liu Jieyou Princess Jieyou (; 121 BC – 49 BC), born Liu Jieyou (), was a Chinese princess sent to marry the leader of the Wusun kingdom as part of the Western Han Chinese policy of heqin. Biography As the granddaughter of the disgraced Prince Liu Wu (劉 ...

(刘解忧 121–49 BC) to King Junxumi of

Wusun The Wusun (; Eastern Han Chinese *''ʔɑ-suən'' <

Old Chinese

(140 BCE < 436 BCE): *''Ɂâ-sûn'') were an ancient semi-

(Liejiaomi's grandson). After Junxumi's death in 93BC, Princess Jieyou, in accordance with

Wusun The Wusun (; Eastern Han Chinese *''ʔɑ-suən'' <

Old Chinese

(140 BCE < 436 BCE): *''Ɂâ-sûn'') were an ancient semi-

tradition, married his successor (and younger brother), King Wengguimi. After Wengguimi's death in 60BC, Princess Jieyou again remarried his successor King Nimi (son of Junximi and a Xiongnu princess). *33BC:

Emperor Yuan of Han Emperor Yuan of Han (Liu Shi 劉奭; 75 BC – 8 July 33 BC) was an emperor of the Chinese Han dynasty. He reigned from 48 BC to 33 BC. Emperor Yuan promoted Confucianism as the official creed of the Chinese government. He appointed Confucius ...

marries

(王昭君 52 BC – 15), a lady of the imperial harem, to Xiongnu chieftain Huhanye. After Huhanye's death in 31BC, she remarried Huhanye's successor (his son by his first wife and thus her stepson) Fuzhuleiruodi Chanyu.

Xiongnu

The

practiced marriage alliances with Han dynasty officers and officials by marrying off daughters of the

Chanyu Chanyu () or Shanyu (), short for Chengli Gutu Chanyu (), was the title used by the supreme rulers of Inner Asian nomads for eight centuries until superseded by the title "''Khagan''" in 402 CE. The title was most famously used by the ruling L ...

(the Xiongnu ruler) to Han people who joined the Xiongnu and Xiongnu in Han service. The daughter of the

Laoshang Laoshang (; r. 174–161 BCE), whose personal name was Jiyu (), was a Chanyu of the Xiongnu Empire who succeeded his father Modu Chanyu in 174 BCE. Under his reign, the Xiongnu Empire continued to expand against the Yuezhi and the Xiongnu thus ...

(and older sister of

Junchen Junchen (, Old Chinese ( ZS): *''kun-gin''; r. 161–126 BCE) was the son and successor to Laoshang Chanyu. As chanyu of the Xiongnu Empire, Junchen outlived the Han emperors Wen (r. 180–157 BC), Jing (r. 157–141 BC). He died during the r ...

Chanyu and

Yizhixie Yizhixie (; r. 126–114 BC) was the brother of Junchen Chanyu and his successor to the Xiongnu throne. Yizhixie ruled during a time of conflict with the southern Han dynasty under the military expansionist, Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BC ...

Chanyu) was married to the Xiongnu General Zhao Xin, the Marquis of Xi who was serving the Han dynasty. The daughter of the

Qiedihou Qiedihou (; r. 101–96 BCE), whose name was probably Qiedi, was a Chanyu of the Xiongnu Empire, and the successor to Xulihu. His reign was contemporaneous with that of the Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BC). He was the younger brother of Xulihu, ...

Chanyu was married to the Han general

Li Ling Li Ling (, died 74 BC), courtesy name Shaoqing (少卿), was a Chinese military general of the Han Dynasty who served during the reign of Emperor Wu (汉武帝) and later defected to the Xiongnu after being defeated in an expedition in 99 BC. ...

after he surrendered and defected. The

Yenisei Kirghiz The Yenisei Kyrgyz ( otk, 𐰶𐰃𐰺𐰴𐰕:𐰉𐰆𐰑𐰣, Qyrqyz bodun), were an ancient Turkic people who dwelled along the upper Yenisei River in the southern portion of the Minusinsk Depression from the 3rd century BCE to the 13t ...

Khagans claimed descent from Li Ling. Another Han general who defected to the Xiongnu was

Li Guangli Li Guangli (died 88 BC) was a Chinese military general of the Western Han dynasty and a member of the Li family favoured by Emperor Wu of Han. His brother Li Yannian was also close to Emperor Wu. With the suicide of Emperor Wu's crown prince Li ...

who also married a daughter of the

Hulugu Hulugu () was a chanyu of the Xiongnu Empire. He was the son and successor of Qiedihou and reigned from 96 to 85 BC. Hulugu originally did not want to become chanyu but was convinced to take the title by his brother. In the spring of 90 BC, ...

Chanyu. The Han diplomat Su Wu married a Xiongnu woman given by Li Ling when he was arrested and taken captive. The Han explorer

Zhang Qian Zhang Qian (; died c. 114) was a Chinese official and diplomat who served as an imperial envoy to the world outside of China in the late 2nd century BC during the Han dynasty. He was one of the first official diplomats to bring back valuable inf ...

married a Xiongnu woman and had a child with her when he was taken captive by the Xiongnu. The

dispatched Zhang Qian to explore the

Western Regions The Western Regions or Xiyu (Hsi-yü; ) was a historical name specified in the Chinese chronicles between the 3rd century BC to the 8th century AD that referred to the regions west of Yumen Pass, most often Central Asia or sometimes more sp ...

and to form an alliance with the Yuezhi people in order to combat the Xiongnu. During this time Zhang married a Xiongnu wife, who bore him a son, and gained the trust of the Xiongnu leader. The

Yenisei Kyrgyz The Yenisei Kyrgyz ( otk, 𐰶𐰃𐰺𐰴𐰕:𐰉𐰆𐰑𐰣, Qyrqyz bodun), were an ancient Turkic people who dwelled along the upper Yenisei River in the southern portion of the Minusinsk Depression from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th ...

khagan Khagan or Qaghan (Mongolian:; or ''Khagan''; otk, 𐰴𐰍𐰣 ), or , tr, Kağan or ; ug, قاغان, Qaghan, Mongolian Script: ; or ; fa, خاقان ''Khāqān'', alternatively spelled Kağan, Kagan, Khaghan, Kaghan, Khakan, Khakhan ...

s of the

Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate The Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate ( ky, Улуу Кыргыз Дөөлөтү, Uluu Kyrgyz Döölötü; ) was a Turkic empire that existed for about a century between the early 9th and 10th centuries. It ruled over the Yenisei Kyrgyz people, who had bee ...

claimed descent from the Han general

, grandson of the famous general

Li Guang Li Guang (184-119 BC) was a Chinese military general of the Western Han dynasty. Nicknamed "Flying General" by the Xiongnu, he fought primarily in the campaigns against the nomadic Xiongnu tribes to the north of China. He was known to the Xiong ...

. Li Ling was captured by the

and defected in the first century BCE. And since the Tang imperial Li family also claimed descent from Li Guang, the Kirghiz Khagan was therefore recognized as a member of the Tang imperial family. This relationship soothed the relationship when Kyrgyz khagan Are (阿熱) invaded

Uyghur Khaganate The Uyghur Khaganate (also Uyghur Empire or Uighur Khaganate, self defined as Toquz-Oghuz country; otk, 𐱃𐰆𐰴𐰕:𐰆𐰍𐰕:𐰉𐰆𐰑𐰣, Toquz Oγuz budun, Tang-era names, with modern Hanyu Pinyin: or ) was a Turkic empire that e ...

and put Qasar Qaghan to the sword. The news brought to

Chang'an Chang'an (; ) is the traditional name of Xi'an. The site had been settled since Neolithic times, during which the Yangshao culture was established in Banpo, in the city's suburbs. Furthermore, in the northern vicinity of modern Xi'an, Qin Shi ...

by Kyrgyz ambassador Zhuwu Hesu (註吾合素).

Kingdom of Khotan

The Cao family of ethnic Han descent that ruled the

Guiyi Circuit The Guiyi Circuit, also known as the Guiyi Army (, 848–1036 AD), was a Chinese regional military command and later an autonomous regime nominally subordinate to the Tang dynasty, the Five Dynasties, and the Northern Song dynasty. The Guiyi Ci ...

established marriage alliances with the Saka

Kingdom of Khotan The Kingdom of Khotan was an ancient Buddhist Saka kingdom located on the branch of the Silk Road that ran along the southern edge of the Taklamakan Desert in the Tarim Basin (modern Xinjiang, China). The ancient capital was originally sited to ...

, with both the Cao rulers marrying Khotanese princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Khotan rulers. A Khotan princess who was the daughter of the King of Khotan married Cao Yanlu.

Sixteen Kingdoms

During the

Sixteen Kingdoms The Sixteen Kingdoms (), less commonly the Sixteen States, was a chaotic period in Chinese history from AD 304 to 439 when northern China fragmented into a series of short-lived dynastic states. The majority of these states were founded by ...

period, there were a total of six recorded instances of ''heqin'' marriage. ''Heqin'' marriage alliances during the Sixteen Kingdoms period differed from those practiced during the

in two main ways. First, they involved "real" princesses (i.e. daughters of emperors or rulers). Second, unlike during the Han dynasty, when most ''heqin'' marriages were aimed at establishing peace with foreign nations, ''heqin'' marriages during the Sixteen Kingdoms period were made primarily to settle rivalries and maintain a balance of power between the various states in China at the time. *

Fu Jian (337–385) Fu Jian (; 337–385), courtesy name Yonggu () or Wenyu (), formally Emperor Xuanzhao of (Former) Qin (), was an emperor (who, however, used the title "Heavenly King" (''Tian Wang'') during his reign) of the Di-led Chinese Former Qin dynasty, u ...

, Emperor Xuanzhao of Former Qin, married one of his daughters to Yang Ding, ruler of the state of

Chouchi Chouchi (), or Qiuchi (), was a dynastic state of China ruled by the Yang clan of Di ethnicity in modern-day Gansu Province. Its existence spanned both the Sixteen Kingdoms and Northern and Southern dynasties periods, but it is not listed among ...

. *

Fu Deng Fu Deng (; 343–394) was an emperor of the Di-led Chinese Former Qin dynasty. He assumed the throne in 386 after the deaths of Fu Jiān (Emperor Xuanzhao) and Fu Jiān's son Fu Pi (Emperor Aiping), even though he was only a distant relative of t ...

, Emperor Gao of Former Qin, married his younger sister, Princess Dongping (东平公主) to Qifu Gangui, Prince of Western Qi. *441:

Feng Ba Feng Ba (; died 430), courtesy name Wenqi (文起), nickname Qizhifa (乞直伐), formally Emperor Wencheng of (Northern) Yan ((北)燕文成帝), was an emperor (but using the title "Heavenly Prince" (''Tian Wang'')) of the Chinese state Northern ...

, Emperor Wencheng of Northern Yan, married his daughter,

Princess Lelang Princess Lelang () (fl. 411) was a princess of the Northern Yan dynasty and a consort of the Yujiulü Hulü (Aikugai Khagan) of the Rouran Khaganate. She was the daughter of Feng Ba (Emperor Wencheng of Northern Yan). In 411 Yujiulü Hulü, offe ...

(乐浪公主), to Yujiulü Hulü, Khan Aidougai of Rouran. *415:

Yao Xing Yao Xing (; 366–416), courtesy name Zilüe (子略), formally Emperor Wenhuan of (Later) Qin ((後)秦文桓帝), was an emperor of the Qiang-led Chinese Later Qin dynasty. He was the son of the founding emperor Yao Chang (Emperor Wucheng). Fo ...

, Emperor Wenhuan of Later Qin, married his daughter, Princess Xiping (西平公主), to

Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei ((北)魏明元帝) (392 – 24 December 423), Chinese name Tuoba Si (拓拔嗣), Xianbei name Mumo (木末), was an emperor of the Xianbei-led Northern Wei dynasty of China. He was the oldest son of the founding e ...

. Because she was unable to forge a golden statue with her own hands, she was never formally empress, but was nevertheless recognized and respected as Emperor Mingyuan's wife,

Consort Yao Consort Yao (姚夫人, personal name unknown) (died 420), who was initially Princess Xiping (西平公主) of the Qiang-led Later Qin dynasty, posthumously honored as Empress Zhaoai (昭哀皇后, literally "the accomplished and lamentable empres ...

. *

Qifu Chipan Qifu Chipan (; died 428), formally Prince Wenzhao of (Western) Qin ((西)秦文昭王), was a prince of the Xianbei-led Chinese Western Qin dynasty. During his reign, Western Qin reached its prime after he destroyed and seized the territory of th ...

, Prince Wenzhao of Western Qin, married his daughter, Princess Xingping (兴平公主), to Juqu Mengxun, Prince of Northern Liang's son Juqu Xingguo. *433: Juqu Mengxun, Prince of Northern Liang, marries his daughter, Princess Xingping (兴平公主), to

Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei ((北)魏太武帝, 408 – 11 March 452), personal name Tuoba Tao (拓拔燾), Xianbei name Büri(佛貍),佛貍 should actually be pronounced Büri, and meant "wolf" in the Xianbei language, 罗新：《北魏太武 ...

. She became Emperor Taiwu's concubine.

Northern and Southern dynasties

During the

Northern and Southern dynasties The Northern and Southern dynasties () was a period of political division in the history of China that lasted from 420 to 589, following the tumultuous era of the Sixteen Kingdoms and the Eastern Jin dynasty. It is sometimes considered a ...

period, China was divided into many rival states. A complicated system of rivalries and vassalage existed. ''Heqin'' marriage was employed as a method to maintain a balance of power or to solidify alliances between states. During the Northern and Southern dynasties, there were five instances of ''heqin'' marriage. *428:

marries his daughter,

Princess Shiping Princess Shiping (, fl. 428 CE) was a Chinese princess from the house of Northern Wei. She married Helian Chang, emperor of the Xia (Sixteen Kingdoms), Xia Dynasty during the Sixteen Kingdoms period in northern China. She was the daughter of Empe ...

(始平公主), to Helian Chang, Emperor of Xia. *437:

marries his daughter, Princess Wuwei (武威公主), to Juqu Mujian, Prince Ai of Hexi, last ruler of the state of Northern Liang, whence she is known as

Princess Tuoba Princess Tuoba also known by her Dynasty of Northern Wei (386 to 534/535) title Princess Wuwei (武威公主), was the daughter of Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei and who later was a princess of the Chinese/Xiongnu state Northern Liang. Her hu ...

. *

Princess Lanling Princess Le'an (), also Princess Lanling () (fl. 530s), was the consort of the Rouran khagan Yujiulü Anluochen. She was born into the imperial house of the Eastern Wei dynasty and was a descendant of Tuoba Yulü of the Dai dynasty and of Empress ...

(兰陵公主), a princess of the imperial family of Northern Wei, married the

Khagan Khagan or Qaghan (Mongolian:; or ''Khagan''; otk, 𐰴𐰍𐰣 ), or , tr, Kağan or ; ug, قاغان, Qaghan, Mongolian Script: ; or ; fa, خاقان ''Khāqān'', alternatively spelled Kağan, Kagan, Khaghan, Kaghan, Khakan, Khakhan ...

of the Rouran Khaganate,

Yujiulü Anagui Yujiulü Anagui ( Rouran: Anakay; ; pinyin: Yùjiǔlǘ Ānàguī) (?–552) was ruler of the Rouran (520–552) with the title of Chiliantoubingdoufa Khagan (敕連頭兵豆伐可汗). First reign His reign started with troubles. First rebellion ...

. *Princess Qianjin (千金公主), daughter of Yuwen Zhao, Prince of Zhao (赵王宇文招) and a member of the imperial family of

Northern Zhou Zhou (), known in historiography as the Northern Zhou (), was a Xianbei-led dynasty of China that lasted from 557 to 581. One of the Northern dynasties of China's Northern and Southern dynasties period, it succeeded the Western Wei dynasty a ...

, married

Ishbara Ishbara (Old Turkic: 𐰃𐱁𐰉𐰺𐰀; Chinese: 沙缽略 Pinyin: Shābōlüè) — a Turkic name deriving from Sanskrit ''ईश्वर'' (''Īśvara''). The name was carried by different rulers in history: * Ishbara Qaghan, East Gokturk k ...

, Khagan of the

Eastern Turkic Khaganate The Eastern Turkic Khaganate () was a Turkic khaganate formed as a result of the internecine wars in the beginning of the 7th century (AD 581–603) after the First Turkic Khaganate (founded in the 6th century in the Mongolian Plateau by ...

. *582:

Emperor Ming of Western Liang Emperor Ming of (Western) Liang ((西)梁明帝; 542 – 1 July 585), personal name Xiao Kui (蕭巋), courtesy name Renyuan (仁遠), was an emperor of the Chinese Western Liang dynasty. He, like his father Emperor Xuan and his son Emperor J ...

marries his daughter, Princess Xiao, to Yang Guang, Prince of Jin, the second son Emperor Ming's overlord, Emperor Wen of Sui. She is known as Empress Xiao of Sui after his accession to the throne as Emperor Yang of Sui.

Northern Wei

The

Tuoba The Tuoba (reconstructed Middle Chinese pronunciation: *''tʰak-bɛt''), also known as the Taugast or Tabgach ( otk, 𐱃𐰉𐰍𐰲 ''Tabγač''), was a Xianbei clan in Imperial China.Wei Shou. '' Book of Wei''. Vol. 1 During the Sixteen King ...

imperial family of the

Xianbei The Xianbei (; ) were a Proto-Mongolic ancient nomadic people that once resided in the eastern Eurasian steppes in what is today Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Northeastern China. They originated from the Donghu people who splintered into the ...

-led

Northern Wei dynasty Wei (), known in historiography as the Northern Wei (), Tuoba Wei (), Yuan Wei () and Later Wei (), was founded by the Tuoba (Tabgach) clan of the Xianbei. The first of the Northern dynasties, it ruled northern China from 386 to 535 during t ...

started to arrange for ethnic Han elites to marry daughters of the imperial family in the 480s. More than fifty percent of Tuoba Xianbei princesses of the Northern Wei were married to southern Han men from the imperial families and aristocrats from southern China of the

Southern dynasties The Northern and Southern dynasties () was a period of political division in the history of China that lasted from 420 to 589, following the tumultuous era of the Sixteen Kingdoms and the Eastern Jin dynasty. It is sometimes considered as ...

who defected and moved north to join the Northern Wei. Some exiled royalty of Han descent fled from southern China and defected to the Northern Wei. Several daughters of the Xianbei

Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei ((北)魏孝文帝) (October 13, 467 – April 26, 499), personal name né Tuoba Hong (拓拔宏), later Yuan Hong (元宏), was an emperor of the Northern Wei from September 20, 471 to April 26, 499. Under the r ...

were married to ethnic Han elites, the

Liu Song Song, known as Liu Song (), Former Song (前宋) or Song of (the) Southern Dynasty (南朝宋) in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the first of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. ...

royal Liu Hui 刘辉, married Princess Lanling 蘭陵公主 of the Northern Wei,. Princess Huayang 華陽公主 to Sima Fei 司馬朏, a descendant of

Jin dynasty (266–420) The Jin dynasty (; ) or the Jin Empire, sometimes distinguished as the (司馬晉) or the (兩晉), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed from 266 to 420. It was founded by Sima Yan (Emperor Wu), eldest son of Sima Zhao, who had pr ...

royalty, Princess Jinan 濟南公主 to Lu Daoqian 盧道虔, Princess Nanyang 南阳长公主 to

Xiao Baoyin Xiao Baoyin () (487–530), courtesy name Zhiliang (智亮), was an imperial prince of the Chinese Southern Qi dynasty. In 502, as Southern Qi was on the edge of being taken over by the general Xiao Yan, who was preparing by killing the imperial p ...

萧宝夤, a member of Southern Qi royalty.

Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei (, 507–531; r. 528-530), personal name Yuan Ziyou (), courtesy name Yanda (彥達), was an emperor of China of the Xianbei-led Northern Wei dynasty. He was placed on the throne by General Erzhu Rong, who refus ...

's sisters, the Shouyang Princess was wedded to the

Liang dynasty The Liang dynasty (), alternatively known as the Southern Liang () in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the third of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. It was preceded by the South ...

ruler

Emperor Wu of Liang Emperor Wu of Liang () (464 – 12 June 549), personal name Xiao Yan (蕭衍), courtesy name Shuda (叔達), childhood name Lian'er (練兒), was the founding emperor of the Chinese Liang dynasty, during the Northern and Southern dynasties peri ...

's son Xiao Zong 蕭綜. One of

Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei ((北)魏孝武帝) (510 – February 3, 535), personal name Yuan Xiu (元脩 or 元修), courtesy name Xiaoze (孝則), at times known as Emperor Chu (出帝, "the emperor who fled"), was an emperor of the Xianbei-le ...

's sister was married to Zhang Huan, an ethnic Han, according to the

Book of Zhou The ''Book of Zhou'' (''Zhōu Shū'') records the official history of the Xianbei-led Western Wei and Northern Zhou dynasties of China, and ranks among the official Twenty-Four Histories of imperial China. Compiled by the Tang dynasty histori ...

. His name is given as Zhang Xin in the

Book of Northern Qi The ''Book of Northern Qi'' (Chinese: 北齊書, pinyin Běi Qí Shū), was the official history of the Chinese dynasty Northern Qi. It was written by the Tang Dynasty historian Li Baiyao (李百藥) and was completed in 636. It is listed amon ...

and

History of the Northern Dynasties The ''History of the Northern Dynasties'' () is one of the official Chinese historical works in the ''Twenty-Four Histories'' canon. The text contains 100 volumes and covers the period from 386 to 618, the histories of Northern Wei, Western W ...

which mention his marriage to a Xianbei princess of Wei. His personal name was changed due to a

naming taboo A naming taboo is a cultural taboo against speaking or writing the given names of exalted persons, notably in China and within the Chinese cultural sphere. It was enforced by several laws throughout Imperial China, but its cultural and possibly r ...

on the emperor's name. He was the son of Zhang Qiong. When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended Northern Wei received the Jin prince Sima Chuzhi ( 司馬楚之) as a refugee. A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi, giving birth to

Sima Jinlong Sima Jinlong (; after 420-484), courtesy name Rongze (榮則), was a Han–Xianbei prince and general of the Xianbei-led Northern Wei dynasty of China, whose tomb was discovered in the village of Shijia, Datong, Shanxi. Sima Jinlong was of mix ...

. Northern Liang Xiongnu King

Juqu Mujian Juqu Mujian (; before 420 – 447), named Juqu Maoqian (沮渠茂虔) in some sources, formally Prince Ai of Hexi (河西哀王), was a king of the Xiongnu-led Northern Liang dynasty of China—with most Chinese historians considering him the last ...

's daughter married Sima Jinlong.

Rouran

The Rouran Khaganate arranged for one of their princesses, Khagan

's daughter

Princess Ruru Princess Ruru of Northern Qi (蠕蠕公主) (530 CE – 6 May 548 CE) was the consort of Gao Huan, the regent of Eastern Wei, and later of Gao Cheng. She was the daughter of Anagui, the famed khan of the Rourans. Biography She was born in Mobei ...

蠕蠕公主 to be married to the ethnic Han regent

Gao Huan Gao Huan () (496 – 13 February 547), Xianbei name Heliuhun (賀六渾), formally Prince Xianwu of Qi (齊獻武王), later further formally honored by Northern Qi initially as Emperor Xianwu (獻武皇帝), then as Emperor Shenwu (神武皇帝 ...

of the

Eastern Wei Wei (), known in historiography as the Eastern Wei (), was an imperial dynasty of China that followed the disintegration of the Northern Wei dynasty. One of the Northern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties period, the Eastern We ...

Gaochang

The Kingdom of

Gaochang Gaochang (; Old Uyghur: ''Qocho''), also called Khocho, Karakhoja, Qara-hoja, Kara-Khoja or Karahoja (قاراغوجا in Uyghur), was a ruined, ancient oasis city on the northern rim of the inhospitable Taklamakan Desert in present-day Xinj ...

was made out of ethnic

Han Han may refer to: Ethnic groups * Han Chinese, or Han People (): the name for the largest ethnic group in China, which also constitutes the world's largest ethnic group. ** Han Taiwanese (): the name for the ethnic group of the Taiwanese p ...

colonists and ruled by the Han people Qu family, which originated from Gansu. Jincheng commandery (金城 in Lanzhou), district of Yuzhong (榆中) was the home of the Qu Jia. The Qu family was linked by marriage alliances to the Turks, with a Turk being the grandmother of King Qu Boya's.

Sui dynasty

With the establishment of the

Sui dynasty The Sui dynasty (, ) was a short-lived imperial dynasty of China that lasted from 581 to 618. The Sui unified the Northern and Southern dynasties, thus ending the long period of division following the fall of the Western Jin dynasty, and layi ...

in 581, much of

China proper China proper, Inner China, or the Eighteen Provinces is a term used by some Western writers in reference to the "core" regions of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China. This term is used to express a distinction between the "core" regions popu ...

was once again unified under one dynasty. ''Heqin'' marriage during the Sui dynasty therefore returned to its original purpose of trying to appease barbarian tribes surrounding the Sui. There were a total of seven instances of ''heqin'' marriage during the Sui dynasty. *597: Emperor Wen of Sui marries Princess Anyi (安义公主), a Sui "princess", to Yami Qaghan, Khagan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. She was assassinated by Yung Yu- lu in 599 *599: Emperor Wen of Sui marries another Sui princess, Princess Yicheng (义成公主), the daughter of a Sui imperial clansman, to Yami, Khagan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. After his death in 609, Princess Yicheng, in accordance with the Göktürk custom of

levirate marriage Levirate marriage is a type of marriage in which the brother of a deceased man is obliged to marry his brother's widow. Levirate marriage has been practiced by societies with a strong clan structure in which exogamous marriage (i.e. marriage out ...

, remarried to Yami Qaghan's successor and son (by another wife),

Shibi Qaghan Shibi Khagan (r. 609 or 611–619 AD) succeeded Yami Qaghan as the second khagan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. Reign He succeeded Yami Qaghan in 609 or 611. From 613 to 615 he was actively supporting agrarian rebels inside China. Pei Ju ...

. After Shibi Qaghan's death in 619, Princess Yicheng again remarried to Shibi Qaghan's successor and younger brother, Chuluo. After the khagan's death in 621, Princess Yicheng remarried for the fourth and final time to his successor and younger brother,

Illig Qaghan Illig Qaghan (Old Turkic: ; ), born Ashina Duobi (), posthumous name Prince Huang of Guiyi (歸義荒王), was the last qaghan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. Background He was a son of Yami Qaghan and his Tuyuhun wife Poshi (婆施). He was ...

, who revolted against Tang China and was captured and killed in 630 * Emperor Yang of Sui married Princess Xinyi (信义公主), a Sui "princess", to

Heshana Khan Heshana Qaghan or Heshana Khagan ( Chinese: 曷娑那可汗, (Pinyin): hésuōnà kěhàn, ( Wade-Giles): ho-so-na k'o-han, Middle Chinese (Guangyun) or 曷薩那可汗/曷萨那可汗, hésànà kěhàn, ho-sa-na k'o-han; at one point known as C ...

, Khagan of the Western Turkish Khaganate. * Emperor Yang of Sui married his youngest daughter, Princess Huainan (淮南公主), to the new heir, Shibi's eldest son, Tuli. *596: Emperor Wen of Sui marries Princess Guanghua (光化公主), a Sui "princess", to Murong Shifu, khagan of

Tuyuhun Tuyuhun (; LHC: *''tʰɑʔ-jok-guənʔ''; Wade-Giles: ''T'u-yühun''), also known as Henan () and Azha (; ), was a dynastic kingdom established by the nomadic peoples related to the Xianbei in the Qilian Mountains and upper Yellow River valle ...

. After Murong Shifu's assassination in 597, Princess Guanghua remarried Murong Shifu's successor and younger brother,

Murong Fuyun Murong Fuyun () (597–635), regnal name Busabo Khan (), was a ruler of the Xianbei-led dynastic state of Tuyuhun. He first became ruler when his brother Murong Shifu was assassinated in 597, and became one of the longest-ruling monarchs of Tuyuhun ...

. * Emperor Yang of Sui married a Sui "princess" to Qu Boya, ruler of the oasis city of

in the

Taklamakan Desert The Taklimakan or Taklamakan Desert (; zh, s=塔克拉玛干沙漠, p=Tǎkèlāmǎgān Shāmò, Xiao'erjing: , dng, Такәламаган Шамә; ug, تەكلىماكان قۇملۇقى, Täklimakan qumluqi; also spelled Taklimakan and T ...

Tang dynasty

During the

, ''heqin'' marriage alliances were primarily aimed at the

, the

Tibetan Empire The Tibetan Empire (, ; ) was an empire centered on the Tibetan Plateau, formed as a result of imperial expansion under the Yarlung dynasty heralded by its 33rd king, Songtsen Gampo, in the 7th century. The empire further expanded under the 3 ...

, the

Khitans The Khitan people (Khitan small script: ; ) were a historical nomadic people from Northeast Asia who, from the 4th century, inhabited an area corresponding to parts of modern Mongolia, Northeast China and the Russian Far East. As a people desce ...

and the allied

Kumo Xi The Kumo Xi (Xu Elina-Qian, p.296b), also known as the Tatabi, were a Mongolic steppe people located in current Northeast China from 207 CE to 907 CE. After the death of their ancestor Tadun in 207, they were no longer called Wuhuan but joined ...

, the

, and

Nanzhao Nanzhao (, also spelled Nanchao, ) was a dynastic kingdom that flourished in what is now southern China and northern Southeast Asia during the 8th and 9th centuries. It was centered on present-day Yunnan in China. History Origins Nanzh ...

. There were a total of twenty-one instances of ''heqin'' marriage alliances during the Tang dynasty, including: *640:

Emperor Taizong of Tang Emperor Taizong of Tang (28January 59810July 649), previously Prince of Qin, personal name Li Shimin, was the second emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649. He is traditionally regarded as a co-founder of the dynasty ...

marries Princess Honghua (弘化公主) to Murong Nuohebo, Khan of Tuyuhun. *641:

marries

to Emperor

Songtsän Gampo Songtsen Gampo (; 569–649? 650), also Songzan Ganbu (), was the 33rd Tibetan king and founder of the Tibetan Empire, and is traditionally credited with the introduction of Buddhism to Tibet, influenced by his Nepali consort Bhrikuti, of Nepa ...

of Tibet. *642: Emperor Taizong proposed the marriage of his fifteenth daughter, Princess Xinxing (新兴公主), to

Zhenzhu Khan Zhenzhu may refer to: * Zhenzhu Khan (died 645), khagan of Xueyantuo *Zhenzhu Yabgu (died 659), claimant to the throne of Western Turkic Khaganate *Zhenzhu Subdistrict, Zhen'an District, Dandong, Liaoning, China *Zhen Zhu, a variety of the ornament ...

, Khan of Xueyantuo. The heqin was called off. *664:

Emperor Gaozong of Tang Emperor Gaozong of Tang (21 July 628 – 27 December 683), personal name Li Zhi, was the third emperor of the Tang dynasty in China, ruling from 649 to 683; after January 665, he handed power over the empire to his second wife Empress Wu (the f ...

marries Lady Jincheng (金城县主), the third daughter of Li Dao'en, Prince of Guiji (会稽郡王李道恩), to Prince Sudumomo of Tuyuhun (吐谷浑王子苏度摸末). *664: Emperor Gaozong marries Lady Jinming (金明县主), the daughter of a Tang imperial clansman, to Prince Talumomo of Tuyuhun (吐谷浑王子闼卢摸末). *698: A daughter of Qapaghan, Khagan of the Second Eastern Turkic Khaganate marries

Wu Zetian Wu Zetian (17 February 624 – 16 December 705), personal name Wu Zhao, was the ''de facto'' ruler of the Tang dynasty from 665 to 705, ruling first through others and then (from 690) in her own right. From 665 to 690, she was first empres ...

's great-nephew Wu Chengsi, Prince of Huaiyang (淮阳王武延秀). *703: A daughter of Qapaghan Khagan marries Crown Prince Li Dan's eldest son Li Chengqi, Prince of Song. *709: Empress Wu Zetian marries her great-granddaughter Princess Jincheng (金城公主), the daughter of her grandson Li Shouli, Prince of Bin, to Emperor Me Agtsom of Tibet *712: Emperor Ruizong of Tang marries his granddaughter, Princess Jinshan (金山公主), the daughter of his son

Li Chengqi Li Chengqi () (679 – January 5, 742), known as Wu Chengqi () during the reign of his grandmother Wu Zetian and as Li Xian () after 716, formally Emperor Rang (, literally, "the emperor who yielded"), was an imperial prince of the Tang Dynasty ...

, to Qapaghan Khagan *717:

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (; 8 September 685 – 3 May 762), personal name Li Longji, was the seventh emperor of the Tang dynasty in China, reigning from 712 to 756 CE. His reign of 44 years was the longest during the Tang dynasty. In the early ...

marries Princess Yongle (永乐公主), the daughter of Yang Yuansi (杨元嗣) and a daughter of Li Xu, Prince of Dongping (东平王李续, son of Li Shen, Prince of Ji, the seventeenth son of Emperor Taizong), to Li Shihuo (李失活), leader of the Khitans. *717: Princess Jianghe (交河公主), the daughter of Ashina Nahuaidao, 10th Khagan of the Western Turkic Khaganate, marries Sulu Khan, Khagan of Turgesh. *722:

marries Princess Yanjun (燕郡公主) (surname Murong (慕容)), a Tang "princess", to Khitan prince Li Yuyu (李郁于). *726: Emperor Xuanzong marries his niece, Princess Donghua (东华公主, surname Chen 陈), to Khitan prince Li Shaogu (李邵固). *726: Emperor Xuanzong marries Princess Dongguang (东光公主), the daughter of Emperor Xuanzong's first cousin Li Jijiang, Princess Cheng'an (成安公主李季姜 eighth daughter of

Emperor Zhongzong of Tang Emperor Zhongzong of Tang (26 November 656 – 3 July 710), personal name Li Xian, and at other times Li Zhe or Wu Xian, was the fourth Emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, ruling briefly in 684 and again from 705 to 710. During the first pe ...

) and Wei Jie (韦捷), to Li Lusu (李鲁苏), ruler of

. *744: Emperor Xuanzong marries Princess Heyi (和义公主), a daughter of Li Can, Magistrate of Gaocheng (告城县令李参), to Axilan Dagan (阿悉烂达干), King of Ningyuan (宁远国王) in the

Fergana Valley The Fergana Valley (; ; ) in Central Asia lies mainly in eastern Uzbekistan, but also extends into southern Kyrgyzstan and northern Tajikistan. Divided into three republics of the former Soviet Union, the valley is ethnically diverse and in the ...

. *745: Emperor Xuanzong marries his granddaughter, Princess Jingle (静乐公主, daughter of his fifteenth daughter Princess Xincheng 信成公主 and Dugu Ming 独孤明), to Khitan prince Li Huaixiu (李怀秀). *745: Emperor Xuanzong marries Princess Yifang (宜芳公主), daughter of Princess Changning (长宁公主, daughter of

) and Yang Shenjiao (杨慎交), to Khitan prince Li Yanchong (李延宠) *756:

Emperor Suzong of Tang Emperor Suzong of Tang (''yihai'' day, 711 – 16 May 762; r. 756 – 762), personal name Li Heng, né Li Sisheng (), known as Li Jun () from 725 to 736, known as Li Yu () from 736 to 738, known briefly as Li Shao () in 738, was an emperor of t ...

marries his daughter, Princess Ninguo to Bayanchur, Khagan of the Uyghur Khaganate. In exchange, Princess Pijia (毗伽公主), daughter of Bayanchur, marries Li Chengcai ( 李承采), Prince of Dunhuang (敦煌王李承采), son of Li Shouli, Prince of Bin.

Liao, Song, Jin dynasties

Song dynasty

The Khitan-led

Liao dynasty The Liao dynasty (; Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü ...

asked for a Song princess to marry the Liao emperor in the negotiations leading up to the

Chanyuan Treaty The Chanyuan Treaty () was signed between the Northern Song dynasty and the Liao dynasty in 1005, and marked a pivotal point in Chinese history and in the relations between the two dynasties. The treaty laid the foundation for approximately a cent ...

but the Song dynasty refused to give a princess. The Jurchen-led Jin dynasty later rebelled against the Liao dynasty, sacked and destroyed the Liao supreme capital and burned the ancestral tombs of the Liao emperors. The Emperor Tianzuo of Liao was executed by the Jurchens during a polo match. Liao imperial princesses from the

Yelü The Yelü clan ( Khitan: , spelled ''ey.är.uu.eld'', pronounced ''Yäruuld''; ), alternatively rendered as Yila () or Yarud, was a prominent family of ethnic Khitan origin in the history of China. The clan assumed leadership of the Khitan tribal ...

family and Xiao family were also distributed to Jin princes as concubine.

Wanyan Liang Digunai (24 February 1122 – 15 December 1161), also known by his sinicised name Wanyan Liang (完顏亮) and his formal title Prince of Hailing (海陵王, ''Hǎilíng Wáng''), was the fourth emperor of the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty of China. H ...

married the Khitan women Lady Xiao (蕭氏), Consort Chen (宸妃), Lady Yelü (耶律氏), Consort Li (麗妃), Lady Yelü (耶律氏), Consort Rou (柔妃) and Lady Yelü (耶律氏), Zhaoyuan (昭媛). The Jin dynasty then attacked the Northern Song dynasty in the Jingkang incident and seized a large number of the Song imperial family. Song princesses were married off to Jin princes such as

Emperor Xizong of Jin Emperor Xizong of Jin (28 February 1119 – 9 January 1150), personal name Hela, sinicised name Wanyan Dan, was the third emperor of the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty of China. He reigned for about 15 years from 1135 to 1150. During his reign, the Ji ...

. The Song male princes who were captured were given ethnic Khitan women to marry from the Liao dynasty palace by the Jin, who had also defeated and conquered the Liao. The original Han wives of the Song princes were confiscated and replaced with Khitan ones. One of the Emperor Huizong of Song's sons was given a Khitan consort from the Liao palace, and another one of his sons was given a Khitan princess by the Jin at the Jin supreme capital. The Jurchens continued to give new wives to the captured Song royals, the grandsons and sons of the Emperor Huizong of Song after they took away their original ethnic Han wives. The Jin told the Song royals that they were fortunate because the Liao royals were being treated much worse by the Jin than the Song royals, Jin soldiers were given the children of the Emperor Tianzuo of Liao as gifts while the Song emperor was allowed to keep his children while he was in captivity.

Liao dynasty

The

arranged for women from the consort Xiao clan to marry members of the Han 韓 clan of ethnic Han descent, which originated in Jizhou 冀州 before being abducted by the Liao and becoming part of the ethnic Han elites of the Liao. The Geng family of Han descent intermarried with the Khitans and the Han 韓 clan provided two of their women as wives to Geng Yanyi and the second one was the mother of Geng Zhixin. Empress Rende's sister, a member of the Xiao clan, was the mother of Han Chinese General Geng Yanyi.

Han Derang Han Derang (; 941–1011), known for his Khitan name, Yelü Longyun (), Xingning (), or Yaoge () was a Chinese politician. He served as the Prime Minister of Liao Dynasty during the reign of Empress Xiao Chuo. He was a native of Hebei Yutian ...

(Yelü Longyun) was the father of Queen dowager of the State of Chen, who was the wife of General Geng Yanyi and buried with him in his tomb in

Zhaoyang Zhaoyang District () is the only district and the seat of the city of Zhaotong, in the northeast of Yunnan Province, China. It borders the provinces of Guizhou to the southeast and Sichuan to the west. Administrative divisions Zhaoyang County ...

in Liaoning. His wife was also known as "Madame Han". The Geng's tomb is located in Liaoning at Guyingzi in Chaoying.

Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom

The Cao family of ethnic Han descent that ruled the

established marriage alliances with the Uighurs of the Ganzhou Kingdom, with both the Cao rulers marrying Uighur princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Uighur rulers. The Ganzhou Uighur Khagan's daughter was married to Cao Yijin in 916.

Yuan dynasty

The Jin emperor

Wanyan Yongji Wanyan Yongji (died 11 September 1213), childhood name Xingsheng, was the seventh emperor of the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty of China. He reigned for about five years from 1208 until 1213, when he was assassinated by the general Heshilie Zhizhong. ...

's daughter Princess Qiguo was married to

Genghis Khan ''Chinggis Khaan'' ͡ʃʰiŋɡɪs xaːŋbr />Mongol script: ''Chinggis Qa(gh)an/ Chinggis Khagan'' , birth_name = Temüjin , successor = Tolui (as regent)Ögedei Khan , spouse = , issue = , house = Borjigin , ...

in exchange for relieving the Mongol siege upon Zhongdu (Beijing) in the

Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty The Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty, also known as the Mongol–Jin War, was fought between the Mongol Empire and the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty in Manchuria and North China. The war, which started in 1211, lasted over 23 years and ended wi ...

. The

Emperor Gong of Song Emperor Gong of Song (2 November 1271 – 1323), personal name Zhao Xian, was the 16th emperor of the Song dynasty of China and the seventh emperor of the Southern Song dynasty. The sixth son of his predecessor, Emperor Duzong, Zhao Xian ca ...

surrendered to the

Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fifth ...

in 1276 and was married off to an ethnic Mongol princess of the imperial Borjigin family of the Yuan dynasty.

Zhao Xian Emperor Gong of Song (2 November 1271 – 1323), personal name Zhao Xian, was the 16th Emperor of China, emperor of the Song dynasty of China and the seventh emperor of the Southern Song dynasty. The sixth son of his predecessor, Emperor Duz ...

had one son with the Borjigin woman, Zhao Wanpu. Zhao Xian's son Zhao Wanpu was kept alive by the Yuan because of his mother's Borjigin ancestry even after Zhao Xian was ordered killed by the Emperor Yingzong of Yuan. Instead Zhao Wanpu was only moved and exiled. The outbreak of the Song loyalist Red Turban Rebellion in Henan led to a recommendation that Zhao Wanpu should be transferred somewhere else by an Imperial Censor in 1352. The Yuan did not want the ethnic Han rebels to get their hands on Zhao Wanpu so no one was permitted to see him and Zhao Wanpu's family and himself were exiled to Shazhou near the border by the Yuan emperor.

Paul Pelliot Paul Eugène Pelliot (28 May 187826 October 1945) was a French Sinologist and Orientalist best known for his explorations of Central Asia and his discovery of many important Chinese texts such as the Dunhuang manuscripts. Early life and career ...

and

John Andrew Boyle John Andrew Boyle (1916−1978), was a British orientalist and historian. Life and career He was born at Worcester Park, Surrey, England, on 10 March 1916. He graduated with first class honours in German at Birmingham University. He later purs ...

commented on

Rashid-al-Din Hamadani Rashīd al-Dīn Ṭabīb ( fa, رشیدالدین طبیب;‎ 1247–1318; also known as Rashīd al-Dīn Faḍlullāh Hamadānī, fa, links=no, رشیدالدین فضل‌الله همدانی) was a statesman, historian and physician in Ilk ...

's chapter ''The Successors of Genghis Khan'' in his work '' Jami' al-tawarikh'', identified references by Rashid al-Din to Zhao Xian in his book where he mentions a Chinese ruler who was an "emir" and son-in-law to the Qan (Khan) after being removed from his throne by the Mongols and he is also called "Monarch of Song", or "''Suju''" (宋主; Songzhu) in the book. The King of Dali Duan Gong was married to the Borjigin princess Agai, daughter of the Yuan dynasty Prince of Liang,

Basalawarmi Basalawarmi ( xng, ᠪᠠᠵᠠᠯᠠᠸᠠᠷᠮᠠᠢ, , died January 6, 1382), commonly known by his hereditary noble title, the Prince of Liang, was a Yuan dynasty prince and loyalist who fought against the ascendant Ming dynasty in China p ...

. They had a son and a daughter,

Duan Sengnu Duan may refer to: * Duan (surname), a Chinese surname ** Duan dynasty, the ruling dynasty of the Dali Kingdom * Duan tribe, pre-state tribe during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China * Duan language, spoken on the Laotian–Vietnamese border * D ...

. their children were also called Duan Qiangna and Duan Bao. Duan Sengnu raised Duan Bao to take revenge against Basalawarmi for the killing of Duan Gong. A play was made based on these events. According to Yuan documents, the Duan family were originally ethnic Han from Wuwei commandery, Gansu. Other Duan families also originated from Wuwei.

Ming dynasty

The Oirat leader

Esen Taishi Esen ( mn, Эсэн; Mongol script: ; ), (?–1454) was a powerful Oirat taishi and the ''de facto'' ruler of the Northern Yuan dynasty between 12 September 1453 and 1454. He is best known for capturing the Emperor Yingzong of Ming in 1450 in t ...

captured the

Zhengtong Emperor Emperor Yingzong of Ming (; 29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464), personal name Zhu Qizhen (), was the sixth and eighth Emperor of the Ming dynasty. He ascended the throne as the Zhengtong Emperor () in 1435, but was forced to abdicate in ...

of the

Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...

. Esen Taishi tried to force the Zhengtong Emperor to marry Esen's sister in a ''heqin'' marriage and then placing him back in Beijing with his new wife. The emperor rejected the marriage proposal. A Mongol account in the ''

Altan Tobchi The ''Altan Tobchi'', or ''Golden Summary'' (Mongolian script: '; Mongolian Cyrillic: , '), is a 17th-century Mongolian chronicle written by Guush Luvsandanzan. Its full title is ''Herein is contained the Golden Summary of the Principles of S ...

'' said that Zhengtong Emperor had a son with an ethnic Mongol woman he married while he was prisoner. A Mongol girl was given in marriage by the Gün-bilig-mergen Mongol Ordos leader Rinong (Jinong) to the ethnic Han officer of the Datong Army

Wang Duo Wang Duo () (died 884), courtesy name Zhaofan (), formally the Duke of Jin (), was a Chinese politician of the medieval Tang Dynasty, serving as a chancellor during the reigns of Emperor Yizong and Emperor Yizong's son Emperor Xizong. After th ...

's (王鐸) son

Wang San Wang may refer to: Names * Wang (surname) (王), a common Chinese surname * Wāng (汪), a less common Chinese surname * Titles in Chinese nobility * A title in Korean nobility * A title in Mongolian nobility Places * Wang River in Thailand ...

(王三) because Rinong wanted to hold on to Wang San and make him stay with the Mongols. The Ming arrested and executed Wang San in 1544 because Mongol soldiers were being guided by Wang San. Builders, carpenters, officers, and important prisoners such as the Ming Zhengtong Emperor often ethnic received Mongol wives.

Qing dynasty

In the total span of the Qing dynasty, the number of ethnic Mongol grooms of Qing princesses was the largest. More than 58 percent of imperial sons-in-law were Mongols. A total of 32 princesses married Mongols but the majority of these were in the early Qing like Emperor Hong Taiji who married off 12 of his daughters to ethnic Mongol elites, when the Qing needed military support. In the early period of Qing, a large amount of intermarriage between the two groups happened, and the Qing rulers used this tie to gain the military support from the Mongol tribes. The marriage also benefited the Qing dynasty in expanding its empire into the

Mongolian Plateau The Mongolian Plateau is the part of the Central Asian Plateau lying between 37°46′-53°08′N and 87°40′-122°15′E and having an area of approximately . It is bounded by the Greater Hinggan Mountains in the east, the Yin Mountains to ...

and further west into Inner Asia. The marriage between ethnic Manchu princesses and ethnic Mongol princes continued to the end of Qing dynasty, although becoming less prominent after the 18th century due to the decline of the Mongols' political and military influence within the empire and the Qing after 1770 totally ceased marrying princesses off to Northern and Western Mongols, only marrying them off to princes from the southern Mongols who voluntarily surrendered to them before the establishment of the Qing, who numbered 7 tribes and 13 banners since the locations they inhabited were vital to Qing security unlike the steppes of the Northern and Western Mongols since the wars between the Zunghars and Khalkhas was over. During the Qianlong reign in 1751 and Jiaqing reign in 1801, the Qing emperors deliberately issued decrees eliminating Mongols from potential grooms of Qing princesses and started replacing them with majority Manchu grooms. The Qing at this time no longer needed the support of Mongols and started marrying off their daughters to majority Manchu grooms instead of Mongols. Ethnic Han generals who defected to the Qing early on were sometimes married to Qing princesses due to the desperate need of the Qing for military allies at that time and their use of marrying their women off to get them, although this is less frequent than the case where Aisin Giroro women married to ethnic Mongol aristocrats or other Manchu elites. Unlike the marriage between Manchus and southern Mongols that lasted throughout the Qing dynasty, the marriages between Qing princesses and ethnic Han generals ceased before 1750 as Qing rule was consolidated by then. The

Manchu The Manchus (; ) are a Tungusic East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized ethnic minority in China and the people from whom Manchuria derives its name. The Later Jin (1616–1636) and ...

imperial Aisin Gioro clan practiced marriage alliances with Ming generals of Han descent and Mongol princes. Aisin Gioro women were married to ethnic Han generals who defected to the Qing side during the

Transition from Ming to Qing The transition from Ming to Qing, alternatively known as Ming–Qing transition or the Manchu conquest of China, from 1618 to 1683, saw the transition between two major Dynasties in Chinese history, dynasties in Chinese history. It was a decade ...

. The Later Jin leader

Nurhaci Nurhaci (14 May 1559 – 30 September 1626), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizu of Qing (), was a Jurchen chieftain who rose to prominence in the late 16th century in Manchuria. A member of the House of Aisin-Gioro, he reigned ...

married one of his granddaughters, a daughter of

Abatai Abatai (Manchu: ; 27 July 1589 – 10 May 1646) was a Manchu prince and military general of the early Qing dynasty. Although an inconsistent and dissolute malcontent, he nevertheless showed considerable ability as a military leader and a ...

, to the Ming general

Li Yongfang Li Yongfang (; died 1634) was a Chinese general of the Ming dynasty and Qing dynasty known for defecting to the Qing dynasty, due to the Ming dynasty losing the city of Fushun in Liaoning to the Qing. Li Yongfang along with many other Han Chinese ...

, the ancestor of Li Shiyao ( 李侍堯). The offspring of Li received the "Third Class Viscount" () title after he surrendered

Fushun Fushun (, formerly romanised as ''Fouchouen'', using French spelling, also as Fuxi ()) is a prefecture level city in Liaoning province, China, about east of Shenyang, with a total area of , of which is the city proper. Situated on the Hun Rive ...

Liaoning Liaoning () is a coastal province in Northeast China that is the smallest, southernmost, and most populous province in the region. With its capital at Shenyang, it is located on the northern shore of the Yellow Sea, and is the northernmost ...

to the Manchu in 1618. A mass marriage of Han officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by Prince Yoto 岳托 (

Prince Keqin Prince Keqin of the Second Rank (Manchu: ; ''doroi bahame kicembi giyūn wang''), or simply Prince Keqin, was the title of a princely peerage used in China during the Manchu-led Qing dynasty (1644–1912). It was also one of the 12 "iron-cap" pr ...

) and Hong Taiji in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups. Aisin Gioro women were married to the sons of the Han generals Sun Sike ( 孫思克),

Geng Jimao Geng Jimao or Keng Chi-mao (; died 1671) was a Chinese prince and military leader, inheriting the title of "Jingnan Prince" (Jingnan wang ��南王meaning "Prince who pacifies the South") from his father Geng Zhongming, along with his lands, and ...

Shang Kexi Shang Kexi (尚可喜; Shang Ko-hsi; August 25, 1604 – November 12, 1676) was a Chinese general of the Ming and Qing dynasties. His family had migrated to Liaodong in 1576 and his father, Shang Xueli, served in the army guarding the northe ...

, and Wu Sangui. The "Dolo efu" 和碩額駙 rank was given to husbands of Qing princesses.

Geng Zhongming Geng Zhongming (; 1604–1649) was a Chinese military general who lived through the transition from the Ming (1368–1644) to the Qing (1644–1912) dynasty, during which he served both sides. His grandson Geng Jingzhong was one of the Three Fe ...

, a Han bannerman, was awarded the title of Prince Jingnan, and his son

Geng Jingmao Geng may refer to: *Geng (dish) (羹), a thick soup *Geng (surname) (耿), a Chinese surname *Norbert Geng (born 1965), German lawyer and professor *21359 Geng, an asteroid *Gen.G, an esports organisation {{Disambiguation, surname ...

managed to have both his sons

Geng Jingzhong Geng Jingzhong (; died 1682) was a powerful military commander of the early Qing dynasty. He inherited the title of "King/Prince of Jingnan" (靖南王) from his father Geng Jimao, who had inherited it from Jingzhong's grandfather Geng Zhongming. ...

and Geng Zhaozhong 耿昭忠 become court attendants under the Shunzhi Emperor and marry Aisin Gioro women, with Prince

's granddaughter marrying Geng Zhaozhong 耿昭忠 and Haoge's (a son of Hong Taiji) daughter marrying Geng Jingzhong. A daughter 和硕柔嘉公主 of the Manchu Aisin Gioro Prince Yolo 岳樂 (

Prince An Prince An of the First Rank, or simply Prince An, was the title of a princely peerage used in China during the Manchu-led Qing dynasty (1644–1912). As the Prince A peerage was not awarded "iron-cap" status, this meant that each successive bear ...

) was wedded to

Geng Juzhong Geng Juzhong (; 1650 – 1687) was the third son of Geng Jimao and brother of Geng Jingzhong and court member of the Qing dynasty. He was a Third Class Viscount (三等子). Princess Roujia ( 和硕柔嘉公主), the daughter of the Manchu Aisin ...

who was another son of Geng Jingmao. The 4th daughter of Kangxi ( 和硕悫靖公主) was wedded to the son ( 孫承恩) of Sun Sike ( 孫思克), an ethnic Han. Imperial Duke Who Assists the State (宗室輔國公) Aisin Gioro Suyan's (蘇燕) daughter was married to Han Banner general

Nian Gengyao Nian Gengyao (1679 – January 13, 1726), courtesy name Lianggong, was a Chinese military commander of the Qing dynasty. He was born a member of the Han Chinese Bordered Yellow Banner and had extensive military experience on the western frontie ...

. She was Manchu Prince

Ajige Ajige (Manchu:, Mölendroff: ajige; 28 August 1605 – 28 November 1651) was a Manchu prince and military general of the early Qing dynasty. He was born in the Aisin Gioro clan as the 12th son of Nurhaci, the khan of the Later Jin dynasty (the ...

's great-great-granddaughter. Manchu Prince Aisin Gioro

Yuntang Yuntang (17 October 1683 – 22 September 1726), born Yintang, was a Manchu prince of the Qing dynasty. He was the ninth son of the Kangxi Emperor and an ally of his eighth brother Yunsi, who was the main rival to their fourth brother Yinzhen i ...

's fourth daughter married the Han Bannerman Zhao Shiyang (趙世揚) in 1721. Manchu Prince Aisin Gioro

Yunsi Yunsi (29 March 1680 – 5 October 1726), born as Yinsi, was a Manchu prince of the Qing dynasty in China. The eighth son of the Kangxi Emperor, Yunsi was a pivotal figure in the power struggle over the succession to his father's throne. Y ...

's first daughter married the Han Bannerman Sun Wufu (孫五福) in July/August 1724. Manchu Prince Aisin Gioro

Yunzhi, Prince Zhi Yinzhi (12 March 1672 – 7 January 1735), also known as Yunzhi, formally known as Prince Zhi of the Second Rank between 1698 and 1708, was a Manchu prince of the Qing dynasty. Life Yinzhi was born in the Aisin Gioro clan as the fifth son of ...

's second daughter married the Han Bannerman Li Shu'ao (李淑鰲) in September/October 1707 and his fourth daughter married the Han Bannerman Sun Cheng'en (孫承恩) in February/March 1710.

Vietnam

The Lý,

Trần Trần (陳) or Tran is a common Vietnamese surname. More than 10% of all Vietnamese people share this surname. It is derived from the common Chinese surname Chen. History The Tran ruled the Trần dynasty, a golden era in Vietnam, and succe ...

, Hồ dynasties ruled

Dai Viet Dai may refer to: Names * Dai (given name), a Welsh or Japanese masculine given name * Dai (surname) (戴), a Chinese surname Places and regimes * Dai Commandery, a commandery of the state of Zhao and in early imperial China * Dai County, in X ...

(Vietnam) in a succession of heqin alliances.

Lý, Trần, Hồ dynasties

The

Lý dynasty The Lý dynasty ( vi, Nhà Lý, , chữ Nôm: 茹李, chữ Hán: 李朝, Hán Việt: ''Lý triều'') was a Vietnamese dynasty that existed from 1009 to 1225. It was established by Lý Công Uẩn when he overthrew the Early Lê dynasty an ...

married its princesses off to regional rivals to establish alliances with them. The Lý family married one of their princesses (

Lý Chiêu Hoàng Lý Chiêu Hoàng ( vi-hantu, 李昭皇, September 1218 – 1278), personal name Lý Phật Kim (李佛金) later renamed to Lý Thiên Hinh (李天馨), was the ninth and last sovereign of the Lý dynasty, empress of Đại Việt f ...

) to a member of the Trần (Chen 陈) clan,

Trần Thái Tông Trần Thái Tông (17 July 1218 – 5 May 1277), personal name Trần Cảnh or Trần Nhật Cảnh, temple name Thái Tông, was the first emperor of the Trần dynasty, reigned Đại Việt for 33 years (1226–58), being Retired Emperor f ...

. This then enabled the Trần to topple the Lý and establish their own

Trần dynasty The Trần dynasty, (Vietnamese: Nhà Trần, chữ Nôm: 茹陳）also known as the House of Trần, was a Vietnamese dynasty that ruled over the Kingdom of Đại Việt from 1225 to 1400. The dynasty was founded when emperor Trần Thái T ...

. The

Tran dynasty Tran may refer to: Arts, media, and entertainment * "Tran", a novel in the Janissaries series named for a fictional planet * Dr. Tran, an animated miniseries People * Trần (陳), a Vietnamese surname * Tran, member of the Nazi-era comedy duo ...

engaged in a similar practice, marrying Tran princesses to regional allies. Later, the Hồ family, which was also of Chinese origin, established the

Hồ dynasty The Hồ dynasty (Vietnamese: , chữ Nôm: 茹胡； Sino-Vietnamese: ''Hồ triều, chữ Hán:'' 胡朝) was a short-lived Vietnamese dynasty consisting of the reigns of two monarchs, Hồ Quý Ly (胡季犛) in 1400–01 and his second so ...

, taking power after having a Tran princess marry one of their members,

Hồ Quý Ly Hồ Quý Ly ( vi-hantu, 胡季犛, born 1336) ruled Đại Ngu (Vietnam) from 1400 to 1401 as the founding emperor of the short-lived Hồ dynasty. Quý Ly rose from a post as an official served the court of the ruling Trần dynasty and a milit ...

. A Lý princess also married into the Ho family.

Nguyen lords

The Cambodian King

Chey Chettha II Chey Chettha II ( km, ជ័យជេដ្ឋាទី២ , 1576–1628) was a king of Cambodia who reigned from Oudong, about 40 km northwest of modern-day Phnom Penh, from 1618 to 1628. He was the son of King Srei Soriyopear (r. 1603–16 ...

married the Vietnamese

Nguyễn lord Nguyễn () is the most common Vietnamese surname. Outside of Vietnam, the surname is commonly rendered without diacritics as Nguyen. Nguyên (元）is a different word and surname. By some estimates 39 percent of Vietnamese people bear this s ...

Princess Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Vạn, a daughter of Lord

Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên (阮福源; 16 August 1563 – 19 November 1635) was an early Nguyễn lord who ruled the southern Vietnam from the city of Phú Xuân (modern-day Huế) from 1613 to 1635. During his rule, the Nguyễn established a city ...

, in 1618. In return, the king granted the Vietnamese the right to establish settlements in Mô Xoài (now

Bà Rịa Bà Rịa () is a city in Bà Rịa–Vũng Tàu province in the Southeast region of Vietnam. Bà Rịa is split from Vũng Tàu by a river crossed by Cỏ May Bridge. This is the '' de jure'' seat of the province since most of the provincial a ...

), in the region of Prey Nokor—which they colloquially referred to as ''Sài Gòn'', and which later became

Ho Chi Minh City , population_density_km2 = 4,292 , population_density_metro_km2 = 697.2 , population_demonym = Saigonese , blank_name = GRP (Nominal) , blank_info = 2019 , blank1_name = – Total , blank1_ ...

Joseon

After the Qing conquest of Joseon,

Joseon Joseon (; ; Middle Korean: 됴ᇢ〯션〮 Dyǒw syéon or 됴ᇢ〯션〯 Dyǒw syěon), officially the Great Joseon (; ), was the last dynastic kingdom of Korea, lasting just over 500 years. It was founded by Yi Seong-gye in July 1392 and re ...

Korea was forced to give several of their royal princesses as concubines to the Qing regent Prince

Dorgon Dorgon (, ; 17 November 1612 – 31 December 1650), was a Manchu prince and regent of the early Qing dynasty. Born in the House of Aisin-Gioro as the 14th son of Nurhaci (the founder of the Later Jin dynasty, predecessor of the Qing dynast ...

, an ethnic Manchu. In 1650, Dorgon married the Korean

Princess Uisun Princess Uisun (1635–1662; birth name Yi Ae-suk) was a Joseon Royal Family member who became the adopted daughter of Hyojong of Joseon and Queen Inseon, so she could marry the Aisin Gioro prince Dorgon and later, prince Bolo. Biography Backgr ...

(義順). She was a collateral branches of the Korean royal family, and daughter of Yi Gae-yun (李愷胤). Dorgon married two Korean princesses at Lianshan.

References

Citations

Bibliography

* * * * . * {{Types of marriages, state=autocollapse Chinese words and phrases History of the foreign relations of China History of Imperial China Arranged marriage Marriage, unions and partnerships in China

Han dynasty

Xiongnu

Kingdom of Khotan

Sixteen Kingdoms

Northern and Southern dynasties

Northern Wei

Rouran

Gaochang

Sui dynasty

Tang dynasty

Liao, Song, Jin dynasties

Song dynasty

Liao dynasty

Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom

Yuan dynasty

Ming dynasty

Qing dynasty

Vietnam

Lý, Trần, Hồ dynasties

Nguyen lords

Joseon

See also

References

Citations

Bibliography