Hwarang, also known as Hwarang Corps, and Flowering Knights, were an elite warrior group of male youth in
Silla
Silla or Shilla (57 BCE – 935 CE) ( , Old Korean: Syera, Old Japanese: Siraki2) was a Korean kingdom located on the southern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula. Silla, along with Baekje and Goguryeo, formed the Three Kingdoms of K ...
, an ancient kingdom of the
Korean Peninsula
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...
that lasted until the 10th century. There were educational institutions as well as social clubs where members gathered for all aspects of study, originally for arts and culture as well as religious teachings stemming mainly from
Korean Buddhism
Korean Buddhism is distinguished from other forms of Buddhism by its attempt to resolve what its early practitioners saw as inconsistencies within the Mahayana Buddhist traditions that they received from foreign countries. To address this, the ...
. Chinese sources referred only to the physical beauty of the "Flower Youths". The history of the hwarang was not widely known until after the
National Liberation Day of Korea
The National Liberation Day of Korea is a holiday celebrated annually on 15 August in both South and North Korea. It commemorates Victory over Japan Day, when the United States and the Soviet Union liberated Korea from 35 years of Japanese ...
in 1945, after which the hwarang became elevated to a symbolic importance.
The Hwarang were also referred to as ''Hyangdo'' ("fragrant ones" or "fragrant disciples" – 향도; 香徒), the word hwarang and its colloquial derivatives being used for everything from playboy to
shaman
Shamanism is a religious practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with what they believe to be a spirit world through altered states of consciousness, such as trance. The goal of this is usually to direct spirits or spiritu ...
or husband of a female shaman. The word remained in common use until the 12th century but with more derogatory connotations.
Traditional sources for Hwarang
Information on the Hwarang are mainly found in the historiographical works ''
Samguk Sagi
''Samguk Sagi'' (, ''History of the Three Kingdoms'') is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The ''Samguk Sagi'' is written in Classical Chinese, the written language of the literati of ancient Korea, ...
'' (1145) and ''
Samgungnyusa
''Samguk yusa'' () or ''Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms'' is a collection of legends, folktales and historical accounts relating to the Three Kingdoms of Korea (Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla), as well as to other periods and states before, duri ...
'' (c. 1285), and the partially extant ''
Haedong Goseungjeon {{Infobox Korean name,
hangul=해동고승전,
hanja={{linktext, 海, 東, 高, 僧, 傳,
rr=Haedong goseungjeon,
mr=Haedong kosŭngjŏn
The ''Haedong Goseungjeon'' (translated most commonly as the "Lives of Eminent Korean Monks") was a compila ...
'' (1215), a compilation of biographies of famous monks of the
Three Kingdoms of Korea
Samhan or the Three Kingdoms of Korea () refers to the three kingdoms of Goguryeo (고구려, 高句麗), Baekje (백제, 百濟), and Silla (신라, 新羅). Goguryeo was later known as Goryeo (고려, 高麗), from which the modern name ''Kor ...
.
All three of these works cite primary sources no longer existent, including 1) a memorial stele to Nallang (presumably a Hwarang based upon the suffix ''nang'') by the 9th–10th century Silla scholar
Choe Chiwon
Choe Chiwon (; 857–10th century) was a Korean philosopher and poet of the late medieval Unified Silla period (668-935). He studied for many years in Tang China, passed the Tang imperial examination, and rose to the high office there before r ...
; 2) an early Tang account of Silla titled the ''Xinluo guoji'' by the Tang official Ling Hucheng; and 3) ''
Hwarang Segi
Hwarang segi (lit. ''Annals of Hwarang'' or ''Generations of the Hwarang'') was a historical record of the Hwarang (lit. flower boys but referring to an elite warrior group of male youth) of the Silla kingdom in ancient Korea. It is said to have be ...
'' (, ''Chronicle of the Hwarang'') by
Kim Dae-mun, compiled in the early eighth century. In the late 1980s, an alleged ''Hwarang Segi'' manuscript was discovered in
Gimhae
Gimhae () is a city in South Gyeongsang Province, South Korea. It is the seat of the large Gimhae Kim clan, one of the largest Kim clans in Korea. The Gimhae Kims claim descent from the ancient royal house of Geumgwan Gaya, which was based in Gim ...
,
South Korea
South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK), is a country in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and sharing a Korean Demilitarized Zone, land border with North Korea. Its western border is formed ...
. Scholar Richard McBride regards it as a forgery.
History
Wonhwa
According to the ''Samguk Sagi'' and ''Samgungnyusa'', two groups of women called
Wonhwa
The Wonhwa (original flowers) were a class of female warrior cadets in 6th-century Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. It is not clear to what extent they ever engaged in battle. Created in the reign of King Jinheung, the first group of ...
(, , "original flowers") preceded the Hwarang. The precise nature and activities of the Wonhwa are also unclear, with some scholars positing they may have actually been court beauties or courtesans. However, considering that they were trained in ethics, this may be a later patriarchal reading into the Wonhwa. Women played a much more prominent social role in pre-
Joseon
Joseon (; ; Middle Korean: 됴ᇢ〯션〮 Dyǒw syéon or 됴ᇢ〯션〯 Dyǒw syěon), officially the Great Joseon (; ), was the last dynastic kingdom of Korea, lasting just over 500 years. It was founded by Yi Seong-gye in July 1392 and re ...
Korea, especially in Silla, which had three reigning queens in its history.
Both sources record that during the reign of
Jinheung of Silla
Kim Sammaekjong (526–576; reign 540–576) was the 24th monarch of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea.
He followed King Beopheung (r. 514–540) and was followed by King Jinji (r. 576–579). Jinheung was the nephew / grandson of K ...
, groups of beautiful girls were chosen and taught filial and fraternal piety, loyalty, and sincerity (no firm date is given for this, and some scholars express doubt this even occurred during Jinheung‘s reign). However, the leaders of the two bands of Wonhwa, Nammo (南毛) and Junjeong (俊貞), grew jealous of one another. When Junjeong murdered her rival, the Wonhwa were disbanded.
No doubt the details of this origin story are most likely based on myth and legend, despite the facts surrounding the foundation of the sect being true, as supported by various documented sources. First note that the term ''wonhwa'' is composed of won 源, "source", and undoubtedly refers to the founders of the sect, while hwa 花, "flower", is a euphemism for someone who has spent a great deal of time or money in the pursuit of something, i.e. a devotee. In the case of the Wonhwa, devotion to
philosophy
Philosophy (from , ) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. Some ...
and
the arts
The arts are a very wide range of human practices of creative expression, storytelling and cultural participation. They encompass multiple diverse and plural modes of thinking, doing and being, in an extremely broad range of media. Both ...
. Furthermore, while the names ''nammo'' and ''junjeong'' could have been appellations adopted by these two ladies for use in
court
A court is any person or institution, often as a government institution, with the authority to adjudicate legal disputes between parties and carry out the administration of justice in civil, criminal, and administrative matters in accordance ...
, one cannot overlook the obvious descriptions they portray. ''Nammo'' hints at one who is careless yet lucky, or perhaps someone who is innately insightful and therefore lackadaisical about further erudition. ''Junjeung'' clearly indicates a person who is talented and virtuous, despite the fact that she was the one who succumbed to homicidal tendencies. It would be logical to assume that if someone had to work hard, maybe even struggle with attaining certain goals, that envy might consume them if their counterpart, especially if viewed more as a rival, seemed to reach the same objectives with substantially less effort.
Origins of the Hwarang
Although some historians believe that the Hwarang played a big part in the unification of the Three Kingdoms, some historians are unclear about the role that the Hwarang played in the unification; An excerpt about Sadaham in the Samguk Sagi . According to the ''Samguk Yusa'', the Silla king, "concerned about the strengthening of the country ... again issued a decree and chose boys from good families who were of good morals and renamed them ''hwarang''." The actual word used in this chronicle is ''hwanang'' (花娘), meaning "flower girls". This suggests that the Hwarang were not originally military in character, as the Wonhwa were not soldiers.
![Hwarang](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Hwarang.jpg)
The youths who were chosen by the Silla Kingdom became the knights and warriors for the Silla Dynasty within the age of the
Three Kingdoms of Korea
Samhan or the Three Kingdoms of Korea () refers to the three kingdoms of Goguryeo (고구려, 高句麗), Baekje (백제, 百濟), and Silla (신라, 新羅). Goguryeo was later known as Goryeo (고려, 高麗), from which the modern name ''Kor ...
. A close relationship did exist between the Hwarang and
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
because Buddhism was accepted as a state religion by the royalty and aristocrats within the Silla Kingdom. The Buddhist monks were often mentors for the Hwarang in both physical and spiritual ways. The Hwarang would seek the teachings of these Buddhist monks because they knew that the martial arts practiced by these Buddhist monks were a source through which they could strengthen themselves for greater success in the future and for the benefit of the Silla Kingdom. The monks would train themselves in physical fitness exercises through self-defense techniques, countering the weakening effects of long-term meditation and enabling them to protect themselves from bandits and robbers who tried to steal the donations and charities that were collected by the monks on their pilgrimages. Both the Buddhist monks and the Hwarang would go on journeys to famous mountains to heighten their training and would seek encounters with supernatural beings for protection and the success of the Silla Kingdom.
Won Gwang Beop Sa (圓光法士) was a Buddhist monk who was asked by the Hwarang to teach them ways to develop ambition, bravery, and honor, in order to protect the Silla Kingdom from the other kingdoms inhabiting the peninsula. Won Gwang trained these youths in three areas:
# Self-defense capabilities
# Self-confidence
# Self-control
![Dam yeom rip bon wang hee do, from Gugong Bowuguan China, 6th century](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Dam_yeom_rip_bon_wang_hee_do%2C_from_Gugong_Bowuguan_China%2C_6th_century.jpg)
Won Gwang taught the youths of the Hwarang to become warriors who could defend their beliefs with martial arts, to be confident in their actions, and to control themselves and their surroundings. Won Gwang gave to these Hwarang teachings in
gwonbeop
''Gwonbeop'' (권법무) is a system of unarmed methods in Korean martial arts which was developed during the Joseon era (15th to 19th centuries). It is the Korean rendition of the Chinese ''quan fa'' (拳法).
Early history
Destruction of the Ko ...
(martial methods or skills) that combined the secret Buddhist monk's physical and mental exercises. Won Gwang also proposed 5 principles or guidelines that were later called the ''Five Precepts for Secular Life'' (Se Sok O Gye; 세속오계; 世俗五戒) which became a list of ethics that the Hwarang could embrace (this is why he is commonly known as ''Beop Sa'' or "lawgiver"):
# Show allegiance to one’s sovereign. (''sa·gun·i·chung''; 사군이충; 事君以忠)
# Treat one's parents with respect and devotion. (''sa·chin·i·hyo''; 사친이효; 事親以孝)
# Exhibit trust and sincerity amongst friends. (''gyo·u·i·sin''; 교우이신; 交友以信)
# Never retreat in battle. (''im·jeon·mu·toe''; 임전무퇴; 臨戰無退)
# Exercise discretion when taking a life. (''sal·saeng·yu·taek''; 살생유택; 殺生有擇)
These commandments and teachings of Won Gwang were followed by the Hwarang to protect the Silla Kingdom from rival kingdoms and helped unify the nation of Ancient Korea until the fall of the Silla Kingdom.
In 520,
King Beopheung had instituted Sino-Korean style reforms and formalized the
golpum (bone rank) system. In 527, Silla formally adopted Buddhism as a state religion. The establishment of Hwarang took place in the context of tightening central state control, a complement to the ''golpum'' system and a symbol of harmony and compromise between the king and the aristocracy.
Evolution
With the consolidation and expansion of Silla and intensification of military rivalries among the
Three Kingdoms
The Three Kingdoms () from 220 to 280 AD was the tripartite division of China among the dynastic states of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu. The Three Kingdoms period was preceded by the Han dynasty#Eastern Han, Eastern Han dynasty and wa ...
in the 6th century, the Silla court took a more active interest in the Hwarang. Hwarang groups were usually led by a youth of aristocratic standing, and the state appointed a high-ranking official to oversee the organization.
The Hwarang in the later 6th and 7th centuries trained in horsemanship, swordsmanship, archery, javelin and stone throwing, polo, and ladder-climbing. By the seventh century the organization had grown greatly in prestige and numbered several hundred bands.
The ''Samguk Sagi'', compiled by the general and official
Gim Busik
Kim Bu-sik, or Gim Busik (; 1075–1151) was a statesman, general, Confucian scholar and writer during Korea's Goryeo period. He was a scion of the Silla royalty and a member of the Gyeongju Kim clan. Later he was the supreme chancellor from 1136 ...
, emphasizes the military exploits of certain Hwarang, while the ''Samgungnyusa'' emphasizes the group's Buddhist activities. The biographies section of the ''Samguk Sagi'' describes young Hwarang who distinguished themselves in the struggles against the
Gaya confederacy
Gaya (, ) was a Korean confederacy of territorial polities in the Nakdong River basin of southern Korea, growing out of the Byeonhan confederacy of the Samhan period.
The traditional period used by historians for Gaya chronology is AD 42–53 ...
and later
Baekje
Baekje or Paekche (, ) was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BC to 660 AD. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla.
Baekje was founded by Onjo, the third son of Goguryeo's founder Jum ...
and
Goguryeo
Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most ...
. According to the ''Hwarang Segi'', as cited in the ''Samguk Sagi'' and ''Haedong Goseungjeon'', “...able ministers and loyal subjects are chosen from them, and good generals and brave soldiers are born therefrom.”
The Hwarang were greatly influenced by
Buddhist
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
,
Confucian
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a Religious Confucianism, religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, ...
, and
Daoist
Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the ''Tao'' ...
ideals. A Chinese official recorded, "They
illachoose fair sons from noble families and deck them out with cosmetics and fine clothes and call them Hwarang. The people all revere and serve them."
Disbandment
After establishing a
Unified Silla
Unified Silla, or Late Silla (, ), is the name often applied to the Korean kingdom of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, after 668 CE. In the 7th century, a Silla–Tang alliance conquered Baekje and the southern part of Goguryeo in the ...
, the
Silla-Tang War, and reestablishing relations with the
Tang Dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
, the Hwarang lost much of their influence and prestige during peacetime. This group was reduced to a social club for Silla's elite through various names. They would eventually disappear after the fall of Silla, but they lasted through the
Koryŏ Dynasty until they officially disbanded at the beginning of the
Joseon
Joseon (; ; Middle Korean: 됴ᇢ〯션〮 Dyǒw syéon or 됴ᇢ〯션〯 Dyǒw syěon), officially the Great Joseon (; ), was the last dynastic kingdom of Korea, lasting just over 500 years. It was founded by Yi Seong-gye in July 1392 and re ...
Dynasty.
Hierarchy
* 원화 – Wonhwa: Royal Female Patron (源花) (disbanded)
* 풍월주 – Pungwolju: Head of the Hwarang (風月主)
* 국선 – Gukseon: Chief Officer of a Hwarang group (國仙)
* 원상화 – Wonsanghwa: First Officer in charge of martial arts training (原上花)
* 상선- Sangseon: Training officers for the Hwarang (上仙)
* 화랑도– Hwarang: Members of the Hwarang groups and leaders of the Nangdo (花郞)
* 낭도 – Nangdo: Followers of the Hwarang (郎徒)
Historians have problems figuring out the leadership hierarchy within the Hwarang as they piece together different historical materials. For instance, historians thought the Pungwolju was a government position administering the Hwarang groups, a Hwarang leader, or a previous system within the Hwarang. Historians also dispute the Gukseon as Hwarang leaders appointed by the king or the Hwarang groups elect their members to lead their groups. Some historians believed the Pungwolju and Gukseon ranks might be synonymous with each other, and they both served as Hwarang leaders.
Five commandments
Two youths, Gwisan (귀산,貴山) and Chwihang (취항, 取項), approached the Silla monk
Won Gwang
Won Gwang (541~630?), also known as Won Gwang Beop Sa (圓光法士) meaning "Won Gwang Teacher of the Law", was the name of a renowned Buddhist monk, scholar, and teacher of the Silla kingdom during the reign of King Jinpyeong.
His layname was S ...
(원광, 圓光) seeking spiritual guidance and teaching, saying, “We are ignorant and without knowledge. Please give us a maxim which will serve to instruct us for the rest of our lives.”
Won Gwang, who had gained fame for his period of study in
Sui China, replied by composing the ''
Sesok-ogye
The Se Sok O-Gye, or just O-Gye, is the moral code of the hwarang formulated by Buddhist monk Won Gwang consisting of five rules:
*''Loyalty to the country'' (originally: Fealty to the king)
*''Respect and obey one's parents'' (i. ...
'' ("Five Commandments for Secular Life"; 세속 오계; 世俗五戒). These have since been attributed as a guiding ethos for the Hwarang:
#Loyalty to one's lord (''sagun ichung''; 사군이충; 事君以忠; 나라에 충성하고)
#Love and respect your parents (''sachin ihyo''; 사친이효; 事親以孝; 부모님께 효도하고)
#Trust among friends (''gyo-u isin''; 교우이신; 交友以信; 믿음으로 벗을 사귀고)
#Never retreat in battle (''imjeon mutwae''; 임전무퇴; 臨戰無退; 싸움에 나가서는 물러서지 않으며)
#Never take a life without a just cause (''salsaeng yutaek''; 살생유택; 殺生有擇; 살아있는 것을 함부로 죽이지 않는다)
The ''Samguk Yusa'' also records that Hwarang members learned the Five Cardinal Confucian Virtues, the Six Arts, the Three Scholarly Occupations, and the Six Ways of Government Service (五常六藝 三師六正).
Famous Hwarang
*
Kim Yu-sin
Gim Yu-sin (sometimes romanized Kim Yu-shin, Gim Yu-sin, or Gim Yu-shin) (595 – 18 August 673) was a Korean military general and politician in 7th-century Silla. He led the unification of the Korean Peninsula by Silla under the reign of King ...
(김유신)
*
Kim Alcheon (김알천)
*
Gim Won-sul
Gim Won-sul (김원술, 金元述, before 660-675?), also known as Kim Won-sul was a second son of the Silla General Gim Yu-sin, and served under Silla's 30th ruler, King Munmu, and played a major role in defending the kingdom against Tang China's ...
(김원술)
*
Kim Gwanchang (김관창)
Other uses
![Hwarang Medal](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Hwarang_Medal.png)
Following the fall of Silla, the term ''hwarang'' survived and changed in meaning again. In Choe Sejin (최세진)'s 1527 book ''Hunmong jahoe'' (훈몽자회), the term ''hwarang'' is even referred to as a male prostitute. Today, Hwarang is often used in the names of various schools, organizations and companies.
* The
Taekwondo
''Taekwondo'', ''Tae Kwon Do'' or ''Taekwon-Do'' (; ko, 태권도/跆拳道 ) is a Korean form of martial arts involving punching and kicking techniques, with emphasis on head-height kicks, spinning jump kicks, and fast kicking techniques. T ...
pattern
Hwa-Rang as well as several traditional forms are named in honor of the Hwarang.
* A South Korean cigarette brand issued to the armed forces was called "Hwarang".
*
Hwa Rang Do
Hwa Rang Do, also known as "The Way of the Flowering Knights" () is a comprehensive Korean martial art that was developed in the 1960s by Joo Bang Lee and his brother Joo Sang Lee. Hwa Rang Do as a martial art has multiple areas of focus includ ...
is a modern Korean martial art that is inspired by the ancient Hwarang warriors and their legacy.
* In the
fighting game
A fighting game, also known as a versus fighting game, is a video game genre, genre of video game that involves combat between two or more players. Fighting game combat often features mechanics such as Blocking (martial arts), blocking, grappli ...
series ''
Tekken
is a Japanese Media mix, media franchise centered on a series of fighting game, fighting video and arcade games developed and published by Bandai Namco Entertainment (formerly Namco). The franchise also includes film and print adaptations.
The ...
'', a playable character named
Hwoarang
is a fictional character from the ''Tekken'' fighting game series released by Namco Bandai Games. Hwoarang first appeared in ''Tekken 3'' and he has returned in all subsequent games. He is the Taekwondo student of Baek Doo San, and entered the th ...
is present in the game, and fights with the
Tae Kwon Do
''Taekwondo'', ''Tae Kwon Do'' or ''Taekwon-Do'' (; ko, 태권도/跆拳道 ) is a Korean martial arts, Korean form of martial arts involving punching and kicking techniques, with emphasis on head-height kicks, spinning jump kicks, and fast k ...
fighting style.
* Grandmaster Ho Sik Pak named his martial arts federation the "Hwa Rang World Tang Soo Do Federation" in honor of the Hwarang.
* Silla"新羅 花郎徒" 興武大王·將軍 金庾信 Kim Yu-sin 後孫 a scion of a royal stock kim chul 實戰戰鬪護身術 創始者"Hosinsool.
In popular culture
*''
Hwarang: The Poet Warrior Youth'' (KBS2, 2016-2017)
*''
Queen Seondeok
Queen Seondeok of Silla ( ko, 선덕여왕 ; 595~610 – 17 February 647/January 8, Lunar Calendar) reigned as Queen Regnant of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, from 632 to 647. She was Silla's twenty-seventh ruler, and its first re ...
'' (MBC, 2009)
See also
*
History of Korea
The Lower Paleolithic era in the Korean Peninsula and Manchuria began roughly half a million years ago.
Christopher J. Norton, "The Current State of Korean Paleoanthropology", (2000), ''Journal of Human Evolution'', 38: 803–825.
The earlies ...
*
Wonhwa
The Wonhwa (original flowers) were a class of female warrior cadets in 6th-century Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. It is not clear to what extent they ever engaged in battle. Created in the reign of King Jinheung, the first group of ...
*
Namsadang
The ''namsadang'' () is a Korean itinerant troupe which consists of male performers who present various performing arts such as acrobatics, singing, dancing and playing like a circus.
It is said that ''namsadang'' was spontaneously formed before ...
*
Knight
A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a head of state (including the Pope) or representative for service to the monarch, the church or the country, especially in a military capacity. Knighthood finds origins in the Gr ...
*
Samurai
were the hereditary military nobility and officer caste of medieval and early-modern Japan from the late 12th century until their abolition in 1876. They were the well-paid retainers of the '' daimyo'' (the great feudal landholders). They h ...
*
Shinsengumi
The was a special police force organized by the (military government) during Japan's Bakumatsu period (late Tokugawa shogunate) in 1863. It was active until 1869. It was founded to protect the shogunate representatives in Kyoto at a time when ...
*
Shi (class)
The four occupations () or "four categories of the people" ()Hansson, pp. 20-21Brook, 72. was an job, occupation International Standard Classification of Occupations, classification used in History of China, ancient China by either Confucianism, C ...
*
Kheshig Kheshig ( Mongolian: Khishig, Keshik, Khishigten for "favored", "blessed") were the imperial guard for Mongol royalty in the Mongol Empire, particularly for rulers like Genghis Khan and his wife Börte. Their primary purpose was to act as bodyguards ...
Notes
References
*Hong, Fang. and Gwang Ok. "Martial Arts in Asia: History, Culture, and Politics", Routledge, 2018.
*
*Ikeuchi Hiroshi. "Shiragi no karō ni tsuite." ''Tōyō-gakuhō'' 24.1 (1936), pp. 1–34
*Joe, Wanna J. and Hongkyu A. Choe. ''Traditional Korea, A Cultural History.'' Seoul: Hollym, 1997.
*Lee, Ki-dong. "The Silla Society and Hwarang Corps." ''Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities'', 65 (June 1987 ):1-16
*Lee, Peter H. (trans.) ''Lives of Eminent Korean Monks: The Haedong Kosŭng Chŏn'' (by Gakhun). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969.
*McBride, Richard D., II. "The ''Hwarang segi'' Manuscripts: An In-Progress Colonial Period Fiction." ''Korea Journal'', vol. 45, no. 3 (Autumn 2005):230-26
*McBride, Richard D., II. "Silla Buddhism and the ''Hwarang''." ''Korean Studies'' 34 (2010): 54-89.
*Mohan, Pankaj N. “Maitreya Cult in Early Shilla: Focusing on Hwarang in Maitreya-Dynasty.” ''Seoul Journal of Korean Studies'', 14 (2001):149-174.
*Rutt, Richard. "The Flower Boys of Silla (Hwarang), Notes on the Sources." ''Transactions of the Korea Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society'', 38 (October 1961):1-66.
*Tikhonov, Vladimir. "Hwarang Organization: Its Functions and Ethics." ''Korea Journal'', vol. 38, no. 2 (Summer 1998):318-338
*Waley, A. "The Book of Songs" London, 1937.
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*Shin, Chi-Yun. "Glossary of key terms". New York: New York University Press, 2005.
{{Korean martial arts
History of education in Korea
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