Hurricane Cristobal was a moderately strong

Atlantic tropical cyclone An Atlantic hurricane, also known as tropical storm or simply hurricane, is a tropical cyclone that forms in the Atlantic Ocean, primarily between the months of June and November. A hurricane differs from a cyclone or typhoon only on the basis of ...

that affected multiple landmasses from Puerto Rico to Iceland in late August and early September 2014. Slow to develop and plagued by unfavorable wind shear for most of its lifetime, the storm formed on August 23 near the

Caicos Islands The Turks and Caicos Islands (abbreviated TCI; and ) are a British Overseas Territory consisting of the larger Caicos Islands and smaller Turks Islands, two groups of tropical islands in the Lucayan Archipelago of the Atlantic Ocean and nor ...

from a long-tracked

tropical wave A tropical wave (also called easterly wave, tropical easterly wave, and African easterly wave), in and around the Atlantic Ocean, is a type of atmospheric trough, an elongated area of relatively low air pressure, oriented north to south, which ...

. Moving generally northward, Cristobal gradually intensified despite a ragged appearance on satellite imagery, and passed midway between Bermuda and North Carolina on August 27. While accelerating toward the northeast the next day, Cristobal achieved its peak strength as a Category 1 hurricane. A colder environment converted Cristobal into an

extratropical cyclone Extratropical cyclones, sometimes called mid-latitude cyclones or wave cyclones, are low-pressure areas which, along with the anticyclones of high-pressure areas, drive the weather over much of the Earth. Extratropical cyclones are capable of ...

on August 29, but it retained much of its strength as it sped across the northern Atlantic and struck Iceland on September 1. Before its classification as a tropical cyclone, the disturbance that would become Cristobal dropped heavy rainfall over Puerto Rico, locally reaching . Widespread flooding and scattered landslides affected the territory, with 19 major rivers exceeding minor flood stage. The system went on to douse the island of

Hispaniola Hispaniola (, also ; es, La Española; Latin and french: Hispaniola; ht, Ispayola; tnq, Ayiti or Quisqueya) is an island in the Caribbean that is part of the Greater Antilles. Hispaniola is the most populous island in the West Indies, and th ...

with torrential rains, leading to at least four drowning deaths in

Haiti Haiti (; ht, Ayiti ; French: ), officially the Republic of Haiti (); ) and formerly known as Hayti, is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea, east of Cuba and Jamaica, and ...

and the Dominican Republic. Floodwaters damaged or destroyed over 800 houses and temporarily isolated 23 communities in the Dominican Republic, while about 640 families were displaced in Haiti. Another person was killed by floodwaters in the Turks and Caicos. The hurricane generated strong surf and dangerous rip currents along the U.S. East Coast, killing two swimmers in Maryland and New Jersey and leading to large numbers of lifeguard rescues. Later, the extratropical remnants of Cristobal buffeted Iceland with heavy rain and gusty winds, causing flooding around the capital city of Reykjavík.

Meteorological history

Hurricane Cristobal originated from a westward-tracking

which emerged from the western coast of Africa on August 14, accompanied for several days by an expanse of clouds. Some cyclonic turning was evident as the disturbance approached the

Leeward Islands french: Îles-Sous-le-Vent , image_name = , image_caption = ''Political'' Leeward Islands. Clockwise: Antigua and Barbuda, Guadeloupe, Saint kitts and Nevis. , image_alt = , locator_map = , location = Caribbean SeaNorth Atlantic Ocean , coor ...

by August 21, but a Hurricane Hunters flight tasked with investigating the system did not reveal a strong circulation at the surface. The system failed to consolidate as it traversed Puerto Rico and

, but on August 23, further reconnaissance data confirmed the formation of a tropical depression just south of the

. The nascent cyclone slowly moved north-northwestward toward a weakness in the

subtropical ridge The horse latitudes are the latitudes about 30 degrees north and south of the Equator. They are characterized by sunny skies, calm winds, and very little precipitation. They are also known as Subtropics, subtropical ridges, or highs. It is a h ...

. Moderate wind shear in the area kept convection over the depression disorganized and

outflow Outflow may refer to: *Capital outflow, the capital leaving a particular economy *Bipolar outflow, in astronomy, two continuous flows of gas from the poles of a star *Outflow (hydrology), the discharge of a lake or other reservoir system * Outflow ...

limited, and the storm only gradually intensified. The depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Cristobal at 06:00 UTC on August 24, while located just north of Mayaguana in the Bahamas, but its structure was vertically tilted and suboptimally broad. Weak steering currents kept Cristobal's forward motion slow and erratic, and the storm remained heavily affected by shear, with most deep convection displaced from the center. On August 25, the system turned toward the north-northeast in response to a mid-level

trough Trough may refer to: In science * Trough (geology), a long depression less steep than a trench * Trough (meteorology), an elongated region of low atmospheric pressure * Trough (physics), the lowest point on a wave * Trough level (medicine), the l ...

to the north. Despite a ragged cloud pattern characterized by an exposed low-level center and a distinct lack of banding features, Cristobal intensified into a

Category 1 hurricane Category 1 can refer to: *Category 1 cable, an electrical standard for communications wiring * Category 1 tropical cyclone, on any of the Tropical cyclone scales * Cat11egory 1 pandemic, on the Pandemic Severity Index, an American influenza pandemi ...

at 00:00 UTC on August 26, as indicated by aircraft observations. The newly upgraded hurricane headed along a general northward path, and for the next couple days, pockets of dry air kept prevented further intensification. Convection fluctuated in intensity and coverage, and early on August 27 the

National Hurricane Center The National Hurricane Center (NHC) is the division of the United States' NOAA/National Weather Service responsible for tracking and predicting tropical weather systems between the Prime Meridian and the 140th meridian west poleward to the 3 ...

remarked that "the satellite presentation resembles a subtropical cyclone". However, later that same day, the hurricane showed signs of increased development while located midway between Bermuda and Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. In particular, its cloud pattern became much more symmetric, and some cloud tops cooled to –70 °C (–95 °F). Around the same time, Cristobal accelerated toward the northeast as it became embedded within the mid-latitude westerlies ahead of an advancing shortwave trough. An area of relatively warm cloud tops at the center of a central dense overcast gave way to an eye feature evident on visible satellite imagery on August 28. Rapidly gaining latitude, Cristobal reached its peak intensity at 18:00 UTC, with winds of 85 mph (140 km/h), roughly due south of Halifax, Nova Scotia. Shortly thereafter, the hurricane began to degrade as it moved over significantly colder waters and began to encounter further dry air, signalling the beginning of its transition to an

. Cristobal's circulation soon began to interact with a frontal boundary, and deep convection became distanced well to the north of the center. Consequently, the hurricane lost its tropical identity by 12:00 UTC on August 29, just north of

44°N The 44th parallel north is a circle of latitude that is 44 degrees north of the Earth's equatorial plane. It crosses Europe, the Mediterranean Sea, Asia, the Pacific Ocean, North America, and the Atlantic Ocean. At this latitude the s ...

. Baroclinic processes preserved much of the extratropical cyclone's intensity, allowing it to maintain hurricane-force winds until August 30. Speeding generally northeastward, the storm slowly weakened over the northern Atlantic, making landfall on Iceland on September 1. Cristobal merged with another storm system north of the country by the next day.

Impact

Antilles

As Cristobal's parent wave moved over Puerto Rico, it engaged with an abnormally moist air mass to produce torrential rains totaling more than . The highest rainfall totals were enhanced by orographic lift over mountainous terrain. A rain gauge near Tibes recorded a peak total of , the majority of which fell on August 24. Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport near

San Juan San Juan, Spanish for Saint John, may refer to: Places Argentina * San Juan Province, Argentina * San Juan, Argentina, the capital of that province * San Juan, Salta, a village in Iruya, Salta Province * San Juan (Buenos Aires Underground), ...

reported of precipitation. In total, 19 rivers reached minor flood stage and five reached moderate flood stage; some of them inundated adjacent roadways and urban areas. The heavy rains triggered multiple landslides, at least one of which forced a family to evacuate. The floods cut electricity to nearly 17,000 customers and left 7,000 without clean drinking water after putting some 18 filtration plants out of service. In some cases, however, the rains proved beneficial, refilling reservoirs after an abnormally dry summer. Only the northwest corner of Puerto Rico escaped hydrological issues. Gusty winds caused minor damage to trees and tree branches in the territory. Moderate to heavy rainfall also affected the

U.S. Virgin Islands The United States Virgin Islands,. Also called the ''American Virgin Islands'' and the ''U.S. Virgin Islands''. officially the Virgin Islands of the United States, are a group of Caribbean islands and an unincorporated and organized territory ...

, amounting to on Saint Thomas and on Saint Croix. The island of Hispaniola also received damaging rains from the slow-moving storm. La Romana, Dominican Republic, recorded of rain in 24 hours on August 23 and 24, the result being destructive flooding. The floods isolated 23 towns from the outside world and damaged or destroyed more than 800 dwellings, especially in eastern and northeastern parts of the nation. Just over 4,100 individuals were forced to leave their homes and seek refuge with friends and family. In Santo Domingo Province, three people required rescue from their stricken car after trying to cross the swollen Isabela River. Two people were killed in the Dominican Republic, one of them after trying to drive across a flooded river in the Hato Mayor Province. In neighboring Haiti, flooding totally destroyed four homes and heavily damaged 28 others, with a total of about 640 families left temporarily homeless. At least two people in the country were swept away by rushing waters, and many others sustained injuries. Shortly after the storm's genesis, tropical storm warnings were issued for the central and southeastern Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands. The advisories were discontinued by August 25. Heavy rain fell over the region, reaching on the island of Providenciales, where one person drowned in the ensuing floods. Floodwaters on

North Caicos North Caicos is the second-largest island in the Turks and Caicos Islands (after Middle Caicos). To the west, the Caicos Cays (the closest is Parrot Cay) link to Providenciales. To the east, it is separated from Middle Caicos by Juniper Hole, a na ...

ran deep, blocking access to some communities. Governor Peter Beckingham reported "extensive damage to peoples' property and possessions" throughout the overseas territory.

Elsewhere

A tropical storm watch was issued for Bermuda on August 25, and ultimately discontinued about three days later. Two cruise ships left Bermuda early to avoid the storm, and another two postponed their scheduled stops there. The threat of the storm, combined with a lack of passengers due to cruise ship diversions, resulted in the suspension of ferry service. Cristobal ultimately passed well to the northwest of the island, producing breezy conditions and heightened surf. The offshore hurricane lashed the

East Coast of the United States The East Coast of the United States, also known as the Eastern Seaboard, the Atlantic Coast, and the Atlantic Seaboard, is the coastline along which the Eastern United States meets the North Atlantic Ocean. The eastern seaboard contains the coa ...

with high swells and rip currents, prompting widespread swimming restrictions and bans. A teenaged male Virginia resident died in a drowning incident at Ocean City, Maryland, less than an hour after lifeguards went off-duty. In a 24-hour period, the Ocean City Beach Patrol rescued about 120 people caught in rip currents. Just off the coast, the rough seas capsized a boat, forcing the Coast Guard to rescue its three occupants. Another young male drowned at Sandy Hook, New Jersey; a wave reportedly knocked him down in shallow water before a rip current pulled the inexperienced swimmer farther out. Dangerous swimming conditions extended north to New England beaches, leading to numerous lifeguard rescues. In southern Iceland, the extratropical remnants of Cristobal produced gusty winds and heavy rainfall, leading to extensive flooding in the capital city of Reykjavík. The fire department there responded to 37 calls for flooded buildings. Reykjavík Airport and Keflavík International Airport recorded wind gusts to and , respectively. The adverse conditions impeded aerial surveillance of the ongoing volcanic eruptions at Bárðarbunga.

References

External links

Hurricane Cristobal advisory archive
from the