![Honda prototype robots Honda Collection Hall](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Honda_prototype_robots_Honda_Collection_Hall.jpg)
A humanoid robot is a
robot
A robot is a machine—especially one programmable by a computer—capable of carrying out a complex series of actions automatically. A robot can be guided by an external control device, or the control may be embedded within. Robots may be c ...
resembling the
human body
The human body is the structure of a Human, human being. It is composed of many different types of Cell (biology), cells that together create Tissue (biology), tissues and subsequently organ systems. They ensure homeostasis and the life, viabi ...
in shape. The design may be for functional purposes, such as interacting with human tools and environments, for experimental purposes, such as the study of
bipedal locomotion
Bipedalism is a form of terrestrial locomotion where an organism moves by means of its two rear limbs or legs. An animal or machine that usually moves in a bipedal manner is known as a biped , meaning 'two feet' (from Latin ''bis'' 'double' ...
, or for other purposes. In general, humanoid robots have a torso, a head, two arms, and two legs, though some humanoid robots may replicate only part of the body, for example, from the waist up. Some humanoid robots also have heads designed to replicate human facial features such as eyes and mouths.
Androids are humanoid robots built to aesthetically resemble humans.
History
The concept of a humanoid robot originated in many different cultures around the world. Some of the earliest accounts of the idea of humanoid
automata
An automaton (; plural: automata or automatons) is a relatively self-operating machine, or control mechanism designed to automatically follow a sequence of operations, or respond to predetermined instructions.Automaton – Definition and More ...
date to the 4th century BCE in Greek mythologies and various religious and philosophical texts from China. Physical prototypes of humanoid automata were later created in the Middle East, Italy, Japan, and France.
Greece
The Greek god of blacksmiths,
Hephaestus
Hephaestus (; eight spellings; grc-gre, Ἥφαιστος, Hḗphaistos) is the Greek god of blacksmiths, metalworking, carpenters, craftsmen, artisans, sculptors, metallurgy, fire (compare, however, with Hestia), and volcanoes.Walter Burk ...
, created several different humanoid automata in various myths. In Homer's ''Iliad,'' Hephaestus created golden handmaidens and imbued them with human-like voices to serve as speaking tools or instruments.
Another Greek myth details how Hephaestus crafted a giant bronze automaton named Talos to protect the island of Crete from invaders.
China
In the 3rd century BCE, a
Taoist
Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the ''Tao'' ...
philosophical text called the ''
Liezi
The ''Liezi'' () is a Taoist text attributed to Lie Yukou, a c. 5th century BC Hundred Schools of Thought philosopher. Although there were references to Lie's ''Liezi'' from the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, a number of Chinese and Western schola ...
'', written by Chinese philosopher
Lie Yukou
Lie Yukou (; ) is considered the author of the Daoist book '' Liezi'', which uses his honorific name Liezi ().
Name
The second Chinese character in Yukou is written ''kou'' "bandit; enemy"; the first is written ''yu'' "imprison", ''yu'' " ...
, detailed the idea of a humanoid automaton. The text includes mention of an engineer named Yan Shi who created a life-size, human-like robot for the fifth king of the Chinese Zhou Dynasty,
King Mu.
The robot was primarily constructed of leather and wood. It was capable of walking, singing, and moving all parts of its body.
Middle East
In the 13th century, a Muslim engineer named
Ismail al-Jazari
Badīʿ az-Zaman Abu l-ʿIzz ibn Ismāʿīl ibn ar-Razāz al-Jazarī (1136–1206, ar, بديع الزمان أَبُ اَلْعِزِ إبْنُ إسْماعِيلِ إبْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري, ) was a polymath: a scholar, ...
designed various humanoid automata. He created a waitress robot that would dispense drinks from a liquid reservoir and appear out of an automatic door to serve them. Another automaton he created was used for hand washing to refill a basin with water after being drained.
Italy
![Leonardo-Robot3](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Leonardo-Robot3.jpg)
In the 1400s,
Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (15 April 14522 May 1519) was an Italian polymath of the High Renaissance who was active as a painter, Drawing, draughtsman, engineer, scientist, theorist, sculptor, and architect. While his fame initially res ...
conceptualized a complex mechanical robot clad in a suit of armor, capable of sitting, standing, and independently moving its arms.
The entire robot was operated by a system of pulleys and cables.
Japan
From the 17th to 19th centuries, the Japanese built humanoid automata called
''karakuri'' puppets. These puppets resembled dolls and were used for entertainment in theatre, homes, and religious festivals.
''Karakuri'' puppets that were used for theater plays were called ''butai karakuri''.
Small ''karakuri puppets'' found in homes, called ''zashiki kurakuri'', were placed on tables to dance, beat drums, or serve drinks.
The puppets used in religious festivals were known as ''Dashi karakuri'', and they served to reenact myths and legends.
France
In the 18th century, French inventor
Jacques de Vaucanson
Jacques de Vaucanson (; February 24, 1709 – November 21, 1782) was a French inventor and artist who built the first all-metal lathe which was very important to the Industrial Revolution. The lathe is known as the mother of machine tools, as i ...
created a significant humanoid automaton called ''The Flute Player''. This wooden, human-sized robot was capable of playing various melodies with the flute. It consisted of a system of bellows, pipes, weights, and other mechanical components to simulate to the muscles necessary to play the flute.
Applications
Humanoid robots are now used as research tools in several scientific areas. Researchers study the human body structure and behavior (biomechanics) to build humanoid robots. On the other side, the attempt to simulate the human body leads to a better understanding of it. Human cognition is a field of study which is focused on how humans learn from sensory information in order to acquire perceptual and motor skills. This knowledge is used to develop computational models of human behavior, and it has been improving over time.
It has been suggested that very advanced robotics will facilitate the enhancement of ordinary humans. See
transhumanism
Transhumanism is a philosophical and intellectual movement which advocates the enhancement of the human condition by developing and making widely available sophisticated technologies that can greatly enhance longevity and cognition.
Transhuma ...
.
Medical and research
Humanoid robots are a valuable resource in the world of medicine and biotechnology, as well as other fields of research such as biomechanics and cognitive science.
Humanoid robots are being used to develop complex prosthetics for individuals with physical disabilities such as missing limbs.
The WABIAN-2 is a new medical humanoid robot created to help patients in the rehabilitation of their lower limbs.
Although the initial aim of humanoid research was to build better
orthosis
Orthotics ( el, Ορθός, translit=ortho, lit=to straighten, to align) is a medical specialty that focuses on the design and application of orthoses, or braces. An is "an externally applied device used to influence the structural and functio ...
and
prosthesis for human beings, knowledge has been transferred between both disciplines. A few examples are powered leg prosthesis for the neuromuscularly impaired, ankle-foot orthosis, biological realistic leg prosthesis, and forearm prosthesis.
Humanoid robots can be used as test subjects for the practice and development of personalized healthcare aids, essentially performing as robotic nurses for demographics such as the elderly.
Humanoids are also suitable for some procedurally-based vocations, such as reception-desk administrators and automotive manufacturing line workers. In essence, since they can use tools and operate equipment and vehicles designed for the human form, humanoids could theoretically perform any task a human being can, so long as they have the proper
software
Software is a set of computer programs and associated documentation and data. This is in contrast to hardware, from which the system is built and which actually performs the work.
At the lowest programming level, executable code consists ...
. However, the complexity of doing so is immense.
Entertainment
Humanoid robots have had a long history in the realm of entertainment, from the conception and ideas in the story of
Prometheus
In Greek mythology, Prometheus (; , , possibly meaning " forethought")Smith"Prometheus". is a Titan god of fire. Prometheus is best known for defying the gods by stealing fire from them and giving it to humanity in the form of technology, kn ...
to the application and physical build of modern animatronics used for theme parks.
Current uses and development of humanoid robots in theme parks are focused on creating stuntronics.
Stuntronics are humanoid robots built for serving as stunt doubles, and are designed to simulate life-like, untethered, dynamic movement.
Several
Disney
The Walt Disney Company, commonly known as Disney (), is an American multinational mass media and entertainment conglomerate headquartered at the Walt Disney Studios complex in Burbank, California. Disney was originally founded on October ...
theme park shows utilize animatronic robots that look, move and speak much like human beings. Although these robots look realistic, they have no cognition or physical autonomy. Various humanoid robots and their possible applications in daily life are featured in an independent documentary film called ''
Plug & Pray
''Plug & Pray'' is a 2010 documentary film about the promise, problems and ethics of artificial intelligence and robotics
Robotics is an interdisciplinary branch of computer science and engineering. Robotics involves design, construction ...
'', which was released in 2010.
Demonstrative
Though many real-world applications for humanoid robots are unexplored, their primary use is to demonstrate up-and-coming technologies.
Modern examples of humanoid robots, such as the Honda Asimo, are revealed to the public in order to demonstrate new technological advancements in motor skills, such as walking, climbing, and playing an instrument.
Other humanoid robots have been developed for household purposes, however excel only in single purpose skills and are far from autonomous.
Humanoid robots, especially those with
artificial intelligence
Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence—perceiving, synthesizing, and inferring information—demonstrated by machines, as opposed to intelligence displayed by animals and humans. Example tasks in which this is done include speech re ...
algorithm
In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm () is a finite sequence of rigorous instructions, typically used to solve a class of specific Computational problem, problems or to perform a computation. Algorithms are used as specificat ...
s, could be useful for future dangerous and/or distant
space exploration
Space exploration is the use of astronomy and space technology to explore outer space. While the exploration of space is carried out mainly by astronomers with telescopes, its physical exploration though is conducted both by robotic spacec ...
missions, without having the need to turn back around again and return to
Earth
Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbor life. While large volumes of water can be found throughout the Solar System, only Earth sustains liquid surface water. About 71% of Earth's surfa ...
once the mission is completed.
Sensors
A
sensor
A sensor is a device that produces an output signal for the purpose of sensing a physical phenomenon.
In the broadest definition, a sensor is a device, module, machine, or subsystem that detects events or changes in its environment and sends ...
is a device that measures some attribute of the world. Being one of the three primitives of robotics (besides planning and control), sensing plays an important role in
robotic paradigms
In robotics, a robotic paradigm is a mental model of how a robot operates. A robotic paradigm can be described by the relationship between the three basic elements of robotics: Sensing, Planning, and Acting. It can also be described by how senso ...
.
Sensors can be classified according to the physical process with which they work or according to the type of measurement information that they give as output. In this case, the second approach was used.
Proprioceptive
Proprioceptive
Proprioception ( ), also referred to as kinaesthesia (or kinesthesia), is the sense of self-movement, force, and body position. It is sometimes described as the "sixth sense".
Proprioception is mediated by proprioceptors, mechanosensory neurons ...
sensors sense the position, orientation, and speed of the humanoid's body and joints, along with other internal values.
In human beings, the otoliths and semi-circular canals (in the inner ear) are used to maintain balance and orientation. Additionally, humans use their own proprioceptive sensors (e.g. touch, muscle extension, limb position) to help with their orientation. Humanoid robots use
accelerometer
An accelerometer is a tool that measures proper acceleration. Proper acceleration is the acceleration (the rate of change of velocity) of a body in its own instantaneous rest frame; this is different from coordinate acceleration, which is accele ...
s to measure the acceleration, from which velocity can be calculated by integration;
tilt sensor
An inclinometer or clinometer is an instrument used for measuring angles of slope, elevation, or depression of an object with respect to gravity's direction. It is also known as a ''tilt indicator'', ''tilt sensor'', ''tilt meter'', ''slope ...
s to measure inclination; force sensors placed in robot's hands and feet to measure contact force with environment; position sensors that indicate the actual position of the robot (from which the velocity can be calculated by derivation); and even speed sensors.
Exteroceptive
Arrays of
tactels can be used to provide data on what has been touched. The
Shadow Hand
A shadow is a dark area where light from a light source is blocked by an opaque object. It occupies all of the three-dimensional volume behind an object with light in front of it. The cross section of a shadow is a two-dimensional silhouette, ...
uses an array of 34 tactels arranged beneath its
polyurethane
Polyurethane (; often abbreviated PUR and PU) refers to a class of polymers composed of organic chemistry, organic units joined by carbamate (urethane) links. In contrast to other common polymers such as polyethylene and polystyrene, polyurethan ...
skin on each finger tip. Tactile sensors also provide information about forces and torques transferred between the robot and other objects.
Vision
Vision, Visions, or The Vision may refer to:
Perception Optical perception
* Visual perception, the sense of sight
* Visual system, the physical mechanism of eyesight
* Computer vision, a field dealing with how computers can be made to gain un ...
refers to processing data from any modality which uses the electromagnetic spectrum to produce an image. In humanoid robots it is used to
recognize objects and determine their properties. Vision sensors work most similarly to the eyes of human beings. Most humanoid robots use
CCD cameras as vision sensors.
Sound sensors allow humanoid robots to hear speech and environmental sounds, akin to the ears of the human being.
Microphone
A microphone, colloquially called a mic or mike (), is a transducer that converts sound into an electrical signal. Microphones are used in many applications such as telephones, hearing aids, public address systems for concert halls and public ...
s are usually used for the robots to convey speech.
Actuators
Actuators are the motors responsible for motion in the robot.
Humanoid robots are constructed in such a way that they mimic the human body. They use actuators that perform like
muscle
Skeletal muscles (commonly referred to as muscles) are organs of the vertebrate muscular system and typically are attached by tendons to bones of a skeleton. The muscle cells of skeletal muscles are much longer than in the other types of muscl ...
s and
joint
A joint or articulation (or articular surface) is the connection made between bones, ossicles, or other hard structures in the body which link an animal's skeletal system into a functional whole.Saladin, Ken. Anatomy & Physiology. 7th ed. McGraw ...
s, though with a different structure.
The actuators of humanoid robots can be either electric,
pneumatic, or
hydraulic
Hydraulics (from Greek: Υδραυλική) is a technology and applied science using engineering, chemistry, and other sciences involving the mechanical properties and use of liquids. At a very basic level, hydraulics is the liquid counte ...
.
It is ideal for these actuators to have high power, low mass, and small dimensions.
Electric
Electric actuators are the most popular types of actuators in humanoid robots.
These actuators are smaller in size, and a single electric actuator may not produce enough power for a human-sized joint.
Therefore, it is common to use multiple electric actuators for a single joint in a humanoid robot.
An example of a humanoid robot using electric actuators is
HRP-2 The Humanoid Robotics Project (HRP) is a project for development of general domestic helper robots, sponsored by Japan's Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) and New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO), spearh ...
.
Hydraulic
Hydraulic actuators produce higher power than electric actuators and pneumatic actuators, and they have the ability to control the torque they produce better than other types of actuators.
However, they can become very bulky in size.
One solution to counter the size issue is
electro-hydrostatic actuators (EHA).
The most popular example of a humanoid robot using hydraulic actuators is the
ATLAS
An atlas is a collection of maps; it is typically a bundle of maps of Earth or of a region of Earth.
Atlases have traditionally been bound into book form, but today many atlases are in multimedia formats. In addition to presenting geographic ...
robot made by
Boston Dynamics
Boston Dynamics is an American engineering and robotics design company founded in 1992 as a Research spin-off, spin-off from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Headquartered in Waltham, Massachusetts, Boston Dynamics has been owned by th ...
.
Pneumatic
Pneumatic actuators operate on the basis of
gas
Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter (the others being solid, liquid, and plasma).
A pure gas may be made up of individual atoms (e.g. a noble gas like neon), elemental molecules made from one type of atom (e.g. oxygen), or ...
compressibility
In thermodynamics and fluid mechanics, the compressibility (also known as the coefficient of compressibility or, if the temperature is held constant, the isothermal compressibility) is a measure of the instantaneous relative volume change of a f ...
.
As they are inflated, they expand along the axis, and as they deflate, they contract. If one end is fixed, the other will move in a linear
trajectory
A trajectory or flight path is the path that an object with mass in motion follows through space as a function of time. In classical mechanics, a trajectory is defined by Hamiltonian mechanics via canonical coordinates; hence, a complete traj ...
. A popular example of a pneumatic actuator is the
Mac Kibben muscle.
Planning and control
Planning in robots is the process of planning out motions and trajectories for the robot to carry out.
Control is the actual execution of these planned motions and trajectories.
In humanoid robots, the planning must carry out biped motions, meaning that robots should plan motions similar to a human.
Since one of the main uses of humanoid robots is to interact with humans, it is important for the planning and control mechanisms of humanoid robots to work in a variety of terrain and environments.
The question of walking biped robots stabilization on the surface is of great importance.
Maintenance of the robot's gravity center over the center of bearing area for providing a stable position can be chosen as a goal of control.
To maintain dynamic balance during the
walk
Walking (also known as ambulation) is one of the main gaits of terrestrial locomotion among legged animals. Walking is typically slower than running and other gaits. Walking is defined by an ' inverted pendulum' gait in which the body vaults ...
, a robot needs information about contact force and its current and desired motion.
The solution to this problem relies on a major concept, the
Zero Moment Point (ZMP).
Another characteristic of humanoid robots is that they move, gather information (using sensors) on the "real world", and interact with it.
They do not stay still like factory manipulators and other robots that work in highly structured environments.
To allow humanoids to move in complex environments, planning and control must focus on self-collision detection,
path planning and
obstacle avoidance In robotics, obstacle avoidance is the task of satisfying some control objective subject to non-intersection or non-collision position constraints. What is critical about obstacle avoidance concept in this area is the growing need of usage of unman ...
.
Humanoid robots do not yet have some features of the human body.
They include structures with variable flexibility, which provide safety (to the robot itself and to the people), and redundancy of movements, i.e. more
degrees of freedom and therefore wide task availability.
Although these characteristics are desirable to humanoid robots, they will bring more complexity and new problems to planning and control. The field of whole-body control deals with these issues and addresses the proper coordination of numerous degrees of freedom, e.g. to realize several control tasks simultaneously while following a given order of priority.
Timeline of developments
In science fiction
A common theme for the depiction of humanoid robots in science fiction pertains to how they can help humans in society or serve as threats to humanity.
This theme essentially questions whether artificial intelligence is a force of good or bad for mankind.
Humanoid robots that are depicted as good for society and benefit humans are
Commander Data in ''
Star Trek
''Star Trek'' is an American science fiction media franchise created by Gene Roddenberry, which began with the eponymous 1960s television series and quickly became a worldwide pop-culture phenomenon. The franchise has expanded into vari ...
'' and
C-3PO
C-3PO () or See-Threepio is a humanoid robot character in the ''Star Wars'' franchise who appears in the original trilogy, the prequel trilogy and the sequel trilogy. Built by Anakin Skywalker, was designed as a protocol droid intended to assis ...
in ''
Star Wars
''Star Wars'' is an American epic film, epic space opera multimedia franchise created by George Lucas, which began with the Star Wars (film), eponymous 1977 film and quickly became a worldwide popular culture, pop-culture Cultural impact of S ...
''.
Opposite portrayals where humanoid robots are shown as scary and threatening to humans are the T-800 in ''
Terminator
Terminator may refer to:
Science and technology
Genetics
* Terminator (genetics), the end of a gene for transcription
* Terminator technology, proposed methods for restricting the use of genetically modified plants by causing second generation s ...
'' and
Megatron
Megatron is a fictional character and the main antagonist of the ''Transformers'' media franchise produced by American toy company Hasbro and Japanese toy company Takara Tomy. Megatron is the cruel and tyrannical leader of the Decepticons, ...
in ''
Transformers
''Transformers'' is a media franchise produced by American toy company Hasbro and Japanese toy company Takara Tomy. It primarily follows the Autobots and the Decepticons, two alien robot factions at war that can transform into other forms, suc ...
.''
Another prominent theme found in science fiction regarding humanoid robots focuses on personhood. Certain films, particularly ''
Blade Runner
''Blade Runner'' is a 1982 science fiction film directed by Ridley Scott, and written by Hampton Fancher and David Peoples. Starring Harrison Ford, Rutger Hauer, Sean Young, and Edward James Olmos, it is an adaptation of Philip K. Dick' ...
'' and ''
Blade Runner 2049'', explore whether or not a constructed, synthetic being should be considered a person. In the films, androids called "
replicant
A replicant is a fictional bioengineered humanoid featured in the 1982 film ''Blade Runner'' and the 2017 sequel ''Blade Runner 2049'' which is physically indistinguishable from an adult human and often possesses superhuman strength and intellig ...
s" are created indistinguishably from human beings, yet they are shunned and do not possess the same rights as humans. This theme incites audience sympathy while also sparking unease at the idea of humanoid robots mimicking humans too closely.
See also
*
Frankenstein complex
In Isaac Asimov's robot novels, Frankenstein complex is a term he coined for the fear of mechanical men.
History
Some of Asimov's science fiction short stories and novels predict that this suspicion will become strongest and most widespread in r ...
*
Personal robot
A personal robot is one whose human interface and design make it useful for individuals. This is by contrast to industrial robots which are generally configured and operated by robotics specialists. A personal robot is one that enables an individ ...
References
Citations
Sources
*Asada, H. and Slotine, J.-J. E. (1986). Robot Analysis and Control. Wiley. .
*Arkin, Ronald C. (1998). Behavior-Based Robotics. MIT Press. .
*Brady, M., Hollerbach, J.M., Johnson, T., Lozano-Perez, T. and Mason, M. (1982), Robot Motion: Planning and Control. MIT Press. .
*Horn, Berthold, K. P. (1986). Robot Vision. MIT Press. .
*Craig, J. J. (1986). Introduction to Robotics: Mechanics and Control. Addison Wesley. .
*Everett, H. R. (1995). Sensors for Mobile Robots: Theory and Application. AK Peters. .
*Kortenkamp, D., Bonasso, R., Murphy, R. (1998). Artificial Intelligence and Mobile Robots. MIT Press. .
*Poole, D., Mackworth, A. and Goebel, R. (1998), Computational Intelligence: A Logical Approach. Oxford University Press. .
*Russell, R. A. (1990). Robot Tactile Sensing. Prentice Hall. .
*Russell, S. J. & Norvig, P. (1995). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach. Prentice-Hall. Prentice Hall. .
Further reading
*Carpenter, J., Davis, J., Erwin‐Stewart, N., Lee. T., Bransford, J. & Vye, N. (2009). Gender representation in humanoid robots for domestic use. International Journal of Social Robotics (special issue). 1 (3), 261‐265. The Netherlands: Springer.
*Carpenter, J., Davis, J., Erwin‐Stewart, N., Lee. T., Bransford, J. & Vye, N. (2008). Invisible machinery in function, not form: User expectations of a domestic humanoid robot. Proceedings of 6th conference on Design and Emotion. Hong Kong, China.
*Williams, Karl P. (2004). Build Your Own Human Robots: 6 Amazing and Affordable Projects. McGraw-Hill/TAB Electronics. . .
External links
Humanoid Robots' jobs in JapanUlrich Hottelet: Albert is not happy - How robots learn to live with people African Times
African or Africans may refer to:
* Anything from or pertaining to the continent of Africa:
** People who are native to Africa, descendants of natives of Africa, or individuals who trace their ancestry to indigenous inhabitants of Africa
*** Ethn ...
, June 2009
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