![Debris-GEO1280](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Debris-GEO1280.jpg)
Human presence in space is about humanity in space, particularly about all anthropogenic presence in space and human activity in space, that is in
outer space
Outer space, commonly shortened to space, is the expanse that exists beyond Earth and its atmosphere and between celestial bodies. Outer space is not completely empty—it is a near-perfect vacuum containing a low density of particles, pred ...
and in a broader sense also on any
extraterrestrial astronomical body
An astronomical object, celestial object, stellar object or heavenly body is a naturally occurring physical entity, association, or structure that exists in the observable universe. In astronomy, the terms ''object'' and ''body'' are often us ...
.
Humans have been present in space either, in the common sense, through their direct presence and activity like
human spaceflight
Human spaceflight (also referred to as manned spaceflight or crewed spaceflight) is spaceflight with a crew or passengers aboard a spacecraft, often with the spacecraft being operated directly by the onboard human crew. Spacecraft can also be ...
, or through mediation of their presence and activity like with
uncrewed spaceflight
Spaceflight (or space flight) is an application of astronautics to fly spacecraft into or through outer space, either with or without humans on board. Most spaceflight is uncrewed and conducted mainly with spacecraft such as satellites in or ...
, making "
telepresence
Telepresence refers to a set of technologies which allow a person to feel as if they were present, to give the appearance or effect of being present via telerobotics, at a place other than their true location.
Telepresence requires that the user ...
" possible.
Human presence in space, particularly through mediation, can take many physical forms from
space debris
Space debris (also known as space junk, space pollution, space waste, space trash, or space garbage) are defunct human-made objects in space—principally in Earth orbit—which no longer serve a useful function. These include derelict spacecr ...
,
uncrewed spacecraft
Unmanned spacecraft or uncrewed spacecraft are spacecraft without people on board, used for robotic spaceflight. Uncrewed spacecraft may have varying levels of autonomy from human input; they may be Remotely operated vehicle, remote control ...
,
artificial satellites
A satellite or artificial satellite is an object intentionally placed into orbit in outer space. Except for passive satellites, most satellites have an electricity generation system for equipment on board, such as solar panels or radioisotope ...
,
space observatories
A space telescope or space observatory is a telescope in outer space used to observe astronomical objects. Suggested by Lyman Spitzer in 1946, the first operational telescopes were the American Orbiting Astronomical Observatory, OAO-2 launched ...
,
crewed spacecraft
This is a list of all crewed spacecraft types that have flown into space, including sub-orbital flights above 80 km, Space Stations that have been visited by at least one crew, and spacecraft currently planned to operate with crew in the f ...
,
art in space, to
s in outer space such as
space station
A space station is a spacecraft capable of supporting a human crew in orbit for an extended period of time, and is therefore a type of space habitat. It lacks major propulsion or landing systems. An orbital station or an orbital space station i ...
s. While human presence in space, particularly its continuation and permanence can be a goal in itself,
human presence can have a range of purposes
and modes from
space exploration
Space exploration is the use of astronomy and space technology to explore outer space. While the exploration of space is carried out mainly by astronomers with telescopes, its physical exploration though is conducted both by robotic spacec ...
,
commercial use of space
Commercial use of space is the provision of goods or services of Commerce, commercial value by using equipment sent into Earth orbit or outer space. This phenomenon – aka Space Economy (or New Space Economy) – is accelerating cross-sector i ...
to
space settlement or even colonization and
militarisation of space
The militarization of space involves the placement and development of weaponry and military technology in outer space. The early exploration of space in the mid-20th century had, in part, a military motivation, as the United States and the Sov ...
. Human presence in space is realized and sustained through the advancement and application of
space science
Space is the boundless three-dimensional extent in which objects and events have relative position and direction. In classical physics, physical space is often conceived in three linear dimensions, although modern physicists usually consider ...
s, particularly
astronautics
Astronautics (or cosmonautics) is the theory and practice of travel beyond Earth's atmosphere into outer space. Spaceflight is one of its main applications and space science its overarching field.
The term ''astronautics'' (originally ''astronaut ...
in the form of
spaceflight
Spaceflight (or space flight) is an application of astronautics to fly spacecraft into or through outer space, either with or without humans on board. Most spaceflight is uncrewed and conducted mainly with spacecraft such as satellites in or ...
and
space infrastructure
Human presence in space is about humanity in space, particularly about all anthropogenic presence in space and human activity in space, that is in outer space and in a broader sense also on any extraterrestrial astronomical body.
Humans have ...
.
Humans have achieved some mediated presence throughout the
Solar System
The Solar SystemCapitalization of the name varies. The International Astronomical Union, the authoritative body regarding astronomical nomenclature, specifies capitalizing the names of all individual astronomical objects but uses mixed "Solar S ...
, but the most extensive presence has been in
orbit around Earth. Humans have sustained direct presence in orbit around Earth since the year 2000 through continuously crewing the
ISS
The International Space Station (ISS) is the largest modular space station currently in low Earth orbit. It is a multinational collaborative project involving five participating space agencies: NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (J ...
, and with few interruptions through crewing the space station
Mir
''Mir'' (russian: Мир, ; ) was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. ''Mir'' was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to&n ...
since the later 1980s.
The increasing and extensive human presence in orbital space around Earth, beside its benefits, has also produced a threat to it by carrying with it
space debris
Space debris (also known as space junk, space pollution, space waste, space trash, or space garbage) are defunct human-made objects in space—principally in Earth orbit—which no longer serve a useful function. These include derelict spacecr ...
, potentially cascading into the so-called
Kessler syndrome
The Kessler syndrome (also called the Kessler effect, collisional cascading, or ablation cascade), proposed by NASA scientist Donald J. Kessler in 1978, is a scenario in which the density of objects in low Earth orbit (LEO) due to space pollut ...
.
This has raised the need for
regulation and mitigation of such to secure a
sustainable access to outer space.
Securing the access to space and human presence in space has been pursued and allowed by the establishment of
space law
Space law is the body of law governing space-related activities, encompassing both international and domestic agreements, rules, and principles. Parameters of space law include space exploration, liability for damage, weapons use, rescue efforts ...
and
space industry
Space industry refers to economic activities related to manufacturing components that go into Earth's orbit or beyond, delivering them to those regions, and related services. Owing to the prominence of the satellite-related activities, some sour ...
, creating a
space infrastructure
Human presence in space is about humanity in space, particularly about all anthropogenic presence in space and human activity in space, that is in outer space and in a broader sense also on any extraterrestrial astronomical body.
Humans have ...
. But sustainability has remained a challenging goal, with the
United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and international security, security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be ...
seeing the need to advance long-term
sustainability of outer space activities in space science and application,
and the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
having it as a crucial goal of its contemporary
space policy
Space policy is the political decision-making process for, and application of, public policy of a state (or association of states) regarding spaceflight and uses of outer space, both for civilian (scientific and commercial) and military purposes. I ...
and
space program
A space program is an organized effort by a government or a company with a goal related to outer space.
Lists of space programs include:
* List of government space agencies
* List of private spaceflight companies
* List of human spaceflight prog ...
.
Terminology
The United States has been using the term "''human presence''" to identify one of the long-term goals of its space program and its international cooperation.
While it traditionally means and is used to name direct human presence, it is also used for mediated presence.
Differentiating human presence in space between direct and mediated human presence, meaning human or non-human presence, such as with
crewed or
uncrewed spacecraft
Unmanned spacecraft or uncrewed spacecraft are spacecraft without people on board, used for robotic spaceflight. Uncrewed spacecraft may have varying levels of autonomy from human input; they may be Remotely operated vehicle, remote control ...
, is rooted in a history of how human presence is to be understood (see
dedicated chapter).
Human, particularly direct, presence in space is sometimes replaced with "boots on the ground"
or equated with
space colonization
Space colonization (also called space settlement or extraterrestrial colonization) is the use of outer space or celestial bodies other than Earth for permanent habitation or as extraterrestrial territory.
The inhabitation and territori ...
. But such terms, particularly
colonization
Colonization, or colonisation, constitutes large-scale population movements wherein migrants maintain strong links with their, or their ancestors', former country – by such links, gain advantage over other inhabitants of the territory. When ...
and even
settlement
Settlement may refer to:
*Human settlement, a community where people live
*Settlement (structural), the distortion or disruption of parts of a building
* Closing (real estate), the final step in executing a real estate transaction
*Settlement (fin ...
has been avoided
and questioned to describe human presence in space, since they employ very particular concepts of
appropriation, with historic baggage, addressing the forms of human presence in a particular and not general way.
Alternatively some have used the term "''humanization of space''",
which differs in focusing on the general development, impact and structure of human presence in space.
On an international level the United Nations uses the phrase of "''outer space activity''" for the activity of its member states in space.
History
Human presence in space, that is in
outer space
Outer space, commonly shortened to space, is the expanse that exists beyond Earth and its atmosphere and between celestial bodies. Outer space is not completely empty—it is a near-perfect vacuum containing a low density of particles, pred ...
, above
Earth's atmosphere
The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, known collectively as air, retained by Earth's gravity that surrounds the planet and forms its planetary atmosphere. The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by creating pressure allowing for ...
, began with the first launches of
artificial object
The term artificial objects is closely associated with man made or not naturally occurring items that have been sent into space. This is a list of lists of artificial objects in space found on Wikipedia.
* :Lists of artificial objects sent into s ...
s into outer space in the mid 20th century.
Since then the activity and presence in outer space has increased to the point where Earth is orbited by a vast number of artificial objects and the far reaches of the Solar System have been visited and explored by a range of space probes. Human presence throughout the Solar System is continued by different contemporary and future missions, most of them mediating human presence through
robotic spaceflight
Spaceflight (or space flight) is an application of astronautics to fly spacecraft into or through outer space, either with or without humans on board. Most spaceflight is uncrewed and conducted mainly with spacecraft such as satellites in or ...
.
First a realized project of the
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen national ...
and followed in competition by the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
, human presence in space is now an increasingly international and
commercial field
Commercial Field is an athletic field located in the Wingate neighborhood of Brooklyn. It was home to the Commercial High School soccer, football, and baseball teams from around 1906. Other schools, such as Boys High, also called Commercial Field ...
.
Representation and participation
Participation and representation of humanity in space is an issue of human access to and presence in space ever since the beginning of
spaceflight
Spaceflight (or space flight) is an application of astronautics to fly spacecraft into or through outer space, either with or without humans on board. Most spaceflight is uncrewed and conducted mainly with spacecraft such as satellites in or ...
.
Different
space agencies
This is a list of government agencies engaged in activities related to outer space and space exploration.
As of 2022, 77 different government space agencies are in existence, 16 of which have launch capabilities. Six government space agencies ...
,
space program
A space program is an organized effort by a government or a company with a goal related to outer space.
Lists of space programs include:
* List of government space agencies
* List of private spaceflight companies
* List of human spaceflight prog ...
s and interest groups such as the
International Astronomical Union
The International Astronomical Union (IAU; french: link=yes, Union astronomique internationale, UAI) is a nongovernmental organisation with the objective of advancing astronomy in all aspects, including promoting astronomical research, outreac ...
have been formed supporting or producing humanity's or a particular human presence in space. Representation has been shaped by the inclusiveness, scope and
varying capabilities of these organizations and programs.
Some rights of non-spacefaring countries to partake in spaceflight have been secured through international
space law
Space law is the body of law governing space-related activities, encompassing both international and domestic agreements, rules, and principles. Parameters of space law include space exploration, liability for damage, weapons use, rescue efforts ...
, declaring space the "
province of all mankind", understanding spaceflight as its resource, though sharing of space for all humanity is still criticized as
imperialist
Imperialism is the state policy, practice, or advocacy of extending power and dominion, especially by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining political and economic control of other areas, often through employing hard power (economic and ...
and lacking,
particularly regarding regulation of private spceflight.
Additionally to international inclusion the
inclusion of women and
people of colour
The term "person of color" ( : people of color or persons of color; abbreviated POC) is primarily used to describe any person who is not considered "white". In its current meaning, the term originated in, and is primarily associated with, the U ...
has also been lacking. To reach a more inclusive spaceflight some organizations like the ''Justspace Alliance''
and
IAU
The International Astronomical Union (IAU; french: link=yes, Union astronomique internationale, UAI) is a nongovernmental organisation with the objective of advancing astronomy in all aspects, including promoting astronomical research, outreach ...
featured ''Inclusive Astronomy'' have been formed in recent years.
Law and governance
Space activity is legally based on the
Outer Space Treaty
russian: link=yes, Договор о космосе es, link=yes, Tratado sobre el espacio ultraterrestre
, long_name = Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moo ...
, the main international treaty. Though there are other international agreements such as the significantly less ratified
Moon Treaty.
The Outer Space Treaty established the basic ramifications for space activity in article one:
"''The exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development, and shall be the province of all mankind.''"
And continued in article two by stating:
"''Outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means.''"
The development of international space law has revolved much around outer space being defined as ''common heritage of mankind''. The ''Magna Carta of Space'' presented by William A. Hyman in 1966 framed outer space explicitly not as ''
terra nullius
''Terra nullius'' (, plural ''terrae nullius'') is a Latin expression meaning " nobody's land".
It was a principle sometimes used in international law to justify claims that territory may be acquired by a state's occupation of it.
:
:
...
'' but as ''
res communis ''Res communis'' is a concept or doctrine. The expression is a Latin term derived from Roman law that preceded today's concepts of the commons and common heritage of mankind. It has relevance in international law and common law.
In the 6th century, ...
'', which subsequently influenced the work of the
United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS).
The
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs and the
International Telecommunication Union
The International Telecommunication Union is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for many matters related to information and communication technologies. It was established on 17 May 1865 as the International Telegraph Unio ...
are international organizations central for facilitating space regulation, such as
space traffic management.
Forms
Signals and radiation
Humans have been producing a range of
radiation
In physics, radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space or through a material medium. This includes:
* ''electromagnetic radiation'', such as radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visi ...
which has reached space unintentionally as well as intentionally, well before any direct human presence in space.
Electromagnetic radiation
In physics, electromagnetic radiation (EMR) consists of waves of the electromagnetic field, electromagnetic (EM) field, which propagate through space and carry momentum and electromagnetic radiant energy. It includes radio waves, microwaves, inf ...
such as light, of humans, has been reaching even stars as far away as the age of the radiation.
Beginning in the 20th century, humans have been sending radiation significantly into space.
Nuclear explosion
A nuclear explosion is an explosion that occurs as a result of the rapid release of energy from a high-speed nuclear reaction. The driving reaction may be nuclear fission or nuclear fusion or a multi-stage cascading combination of the two, t ...
s, especially
high-altitude ones have since at times, starting with 1958, just a year after the first satellite Sputnik was launched, introduced strong and broad radiation from humans into space, producing
electromagnetic pulse
An electromagnetic pulse (EMP), also a transient electromagnetic disturbance (TED), is a brief burst of electromagnetic energy. Depending upon the source, the origin of an EMP can be natural or artificial, and can occur as an electromagnetic fie ...
s and
orbital radiation belts, adding to the explosion's destructive potential on ground and in orbit.
While Earth's and humanities radiation profile is the main material for
space based remote Earth observation, but radiation by human activity from Earth and from space has also been an obstacle for human activities, such as spiritual life
or
astronomy
Astronomy () is a natural science that studies astronomical object, celestial objects and phenomena. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and chronology of the Universe, evolution. Objects of interest ...
through
light pollution
Light pollution is the presence of unwanted, inappropriate, or excessive use of artificial Visible spectrum, lighting. In a descriptive sense, the term ''light pollution'' refers to the effects of any poorly implemented lighting, during the day ...
and
radio spectrum pollution
Radio spectrum pollution is the straying of waves in the Radio frequency, radio and electromagnetic spectrums outside their allocations that cause problems for some activities. It is of particular concern to Radio astronomy, radio astronomers.
...
from Earth and space. In the case of
radio astronomy
Radio astronomy is a subfield of astronomy that studies celestial objects at radio frequencies. The first detection of radio waves from an astronomical object was in 1933, when Karl Jansky at Bell Telephone Laboratories reported radiation coming f ...
radio quiet zones have been kept and sought out, with the
far side of the Moon being most pristine facing away from human made
electromagnetic interference
Electromagnetic interference (EMI), also called radio-frequency interference (RFI) when in the radio frequency spectrum, is a disturbance generated by an external source that affects an electrical circuit by electromagnetic induction, electros ...
.
Space junk and human impact
![LEO-SpaceDebris-Nov2020](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/LEO-SpaceDebris-Nov2020.png)
Space junk as product and form of human presence in space has existed ever since the first orbital spaceflights and comes mostly in the form of space debris in outer space. Space debris has been for example possibly the first human objects to have been present in space beyond Earth, reaching its
escape velocity after being ejected purposefully from an exploded
Aerobee rocket in 1957.
Most space debris is in orbit around Earth, it can stay there for years to centuries if at altitudes from hundreds to thousands of kilometers, before it falls to Earth. Space debris is a hazard since it can hit and damage spacecraft. Having reached considerable amounts around Earth, policies have been put into place to prevent space debris and hazards, such as
international regulation to prevent nuclear hazards in Earth's orbit and the
Registration Convention as part of
space traffic management.
But space junk can also come as result of human activity on astronomical bodies, such as the remains of space missions, like the many
artificial objects left behind on the Moon, and
on other bodies.
Robotic
Human presence in space has been strongly based on the many
robotic spacecraft
A robotic spacecraft is an uncrewed spacecraft, usually under telerobotic control. A robotic spacecraft designed to make scientific research measurements is often called a space probe. Many space missions are more suited to telerobotic rather t ...
, particularly as the many
artificial satellite
A satellite or artificial satellite is an object intentionally placed into orbit in outer space. Except for passive satellites, most satellites have an electricity generation system for equipment on board, such as solar panels or radioisoto ...
s in orbit around Earth.
Many firsts of human presence in space have been achieved by robotic missions. The first artificial object to reach space, above the 100 km altitude
Kármán line
The Kármán line (or von Kármán line ) is an attempt to define a boundary between Earth's atmosphere and outer space, and offers a specific definition set by the Fédération aéronautique internationale (FAI), an international record-keeping ...
, and therefore performing the first
sub-orbital flight
A sub-orbital spaceflight is a spaceflight in which the spacecraft reaches outer space, but its trajectory intersects the atmosphere or surface of the gravitating body from which it was launched, so that it will not complete one orbital re ...
was
MW 18014 in 1944. But the first sustained presence in space was established by the
orbital flight
An orbital spaceflight (or orbital flight) is a spaceflight in which a spacecraft is placed on a trajectory where it could remain in outer space, space for at least one orbit. To do this Geocentric orbit, around the Earth, it must be on a free ...
of
Sputnik
Sputnik 1 (; see § Etymology) was the first artificial Earth satellite. It was launched into an elliptical low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957 as part of the Soviet space program. It sent a radio signal back to Earth for t ...
in 1957. Followed by a rich number of robotic
space probe
A space probe is an artificial satellite that travels through space to collect scientific data. A space probe may orbit Earth; approach the Moon; travel through interplanetary space; flyby, orbit, or land or fly on other planetary bodies; or ent ...
s achieving human presence and exploration throughout the Solar system for the first time.
Human presence at the Moon was established by the
Luna programme, with an
impactor in 1959 (Luna 2),
a lander (Luna 9) as well as an
orbiter in 1966 (Luna 10) and in 1970 with the
first rover (Lunokhod 1) on an extraterrestrial body.
Interplanetary presence was established at Venus by the
Venera program, with a
flyby in 1961 (Venera 1) and
a crash in 1966 (Venera 3).
Presence in the
outer Solar System was achieved by ''
Pioneer 10
''Pioneer 10'' (originally designated Pioneer F) is an American space probe, launched in 1972 and weighing , that completed the first mission to the planet Jupiter. Thereafter, ''Pioneer 10'' became the first of five artificial objects to ach ...
'' in 1972
and continuous presence in
interstellar space by ''
Voyager 1
''Voyager 1'' is a space probe launched by NASA on September 5, 1977, as part of the Voyager program to study the outer Solar System and interstellar space beyond the Sun's heliosphere. Launched 16 days after its twin ''Voyager 2'', ''Voya ...
'' in 2012.
The 1958
Vanguard 1
Vanguard 1 (Harvard designation: 1958-Beta 2, COSPAR ID: 1958-005B ) is an American satellite that was the fourth artificial Earth-orbiting satellite to be successfully launched, following Sputnik 1, Sputnik 2, and Explorer 1. It was launched ...
is the fourth artificial satellite and the oldest spacecraft still in space and orbit around Earth, though inactive.
Presence of non-human life from Earth
![Posta Romana - 1959 - Laika 120 B](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Posta_Romana_-_1959_-_Laika_120_B.jpg)
Since the very beginning of human outer space activities in 1944, and
possibly before that,
life has been present with
microscopic life as
space contaminate and after 1960 as
space research subjects. Prior to crewed spaceflight non-human
animals had been subjects of space research, specifically
bioastronautics
Bioastronautics is a specialty area of biological and astronautical research which encompasses numerous aspects of biological, behavioral, and medical concern governing humans and other living organisms in a space flight environment; and includ ...
and
astrobiology
Astrobiology, and the related field of exobiology, is an interdisciplinary scientific field that studies the origins, early evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe. Astrobiology is the multidisciplinary field that investig ...
, being exposed to ever higher testflights. The first animals (including humans) and
plant seeds in space above the 100 km
Kármán line
The Kármán line (or von Kármán line ) is an attempt to define a boundary between Earth's atmosphere and outer space, and offers a specific definition set by the Fédération aéronautique internationale (FAI), an international record-keeping ...
were
corn
Maize ( ; ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''mays'', from es, maíz after tnq, mahiz), also known as corn (North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. Th ...
seeds
and fruit flies, launched for the first time on 9 July 1946,
with the first fruit flies launched and returned alive in 1947. In 1949
Albert II, became the first
mammal
Mammals () are a group of vertebrate animals constituting the class Mammalia (), characterized by the presence of mammary glands which in females produce milk for feeding (nursing) their young, a neocortex (a region of the brain), fur or ...
and
first primate reaching the 100 km Kármán line, and in 1957 the dog
Laika became the first animal in orbit, with both also becoming the first fatalities of spaceflight and in space, respectively. Animals enduring early, often terminal flights to space paved the way for safe direct human spaceflight.
Plants first grown in 1966 with
Kosmos 110
Kosmos 110 (russian: Космос 110 meaning Kosmos 110) was a Soviet spacecraft launched on 22 February 1966 from the Baikonur Cosmodrome aboard a Voskhod rocket. It carried two dogs, Veterok and Ugolyok.
Mission
The launch of Kosmos 110 ...
and in 1971 on
Salyut 1, with the first producing seeds August 4, 1982 on
Salyut 7
Salyut 7 (russian: Салют-7; en, Salute 7) (a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991. It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last vi ...
.
Plants and growing them in space and places such as the Moon have been important subjects of space research, but also as psychological support and possibly nutrition during continuous crewed presence in space.
Direct human presence in space
![Tracy Caldwell Dyson in Cupola ISS](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Tracy_Caldwell_Dyson_in_Cupola_ISS.jpg)
Direct human presence in space was achieved with
Yuri Gagarin flying a
space capsule
A space capsule is an often-crewed spacecraft that uses a blunt-body reentry capsule to reenter the Earth's atmosphere without wings. Capsules are distinguished from other satellites primarily by the ability to survive reentry and return a payl ...
in 1961 for one orbit around Earth for the first time. While direct human presence in open space, by exiting a spacecraft in a
spacesuit
A space suit or spacesuit is a garment worn to keep a human alive in the harsh environment of outer space, vacuum and temperature extremes. Space suits are often worn inside spacecraft as a safety precaution in case of loss of cabin pressure, ...
, a so-called
extravehicular activity, has been achieved since the first person to do so,
Alexei Leonov
Alexei Arkhipovich Leonov. (30 May 1934 – 11 October 2019) was a Soviet and Russian cosmonaut, Air Force major general, writer, and artist. On 18 March 1965, he became the first person to conduct a spacewalk, exiting the capsule during th ...
, in 1965.
Though
Valentina Tereshkova was in 1963 the first woman in space, women saw no further presence in space until the 1980s and are still underrepresented, e.g. with no women ever being present on the Moon.
An internationalization of direct human presence in space started with the first
space rendezvous
A space rendezvous () is a set of orbital maneuvers during which two spacecraft, one of which is often a space station, arrive at the same orbit and approach to a very close distance (e.g. within visual contact). Rendezvous requires a precise ma ...
of two crews of different
human spaceflight programs, the
Apollo–Soyuz mission in 1975 and at the end of the 1970s with the
Interkosmos program.
Space station
A space station is a spacecraft capable of supporting a human crew in orbit for an extended period of time, and is therefore a type of space habitat. It lacks major propulsion or landing systems. An orbital station or an orbital space station i ...
s have harboured so far the only long-duration direct human presence in space. After the first station
Salyut 1 (1971) and its tragic
Soyuz 11 crew, space stations have been operated consecutively since
Skylab
Skylab was the first United States space station, launched by NASA, occupied for about 24 weeks between May 1973 and February 1974. It was operated by three separate three-astronaut crews: Skylab 2, Skylab 3, and Skylab 4. Major operations in ...
(1973), having allowed a progression of long-duration direct human presence in space. Long-duration direct human presence has been joined by visiting crews since 1977 (
Salyut 6). Consecutive direct human presence in space has been achieved since the
Salyut successor
Mir
''Mir'' (russian: Мир, ; ) was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. ''Mir'' was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to&n ...
by 1987. Uninterrupted direct human presence in space has been achieved since the operational transition from the Mir to the
ISS
The International Space Station (ISS) is the largest modular space station currently in low Earth orbit. It is a multinational collaborative project involving five participating space agencies: NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (J ...
, with its first occupation in 2000.
At times since the first time in 1995 the number of people present in space at the same time has climbed up to 13 or even 16, in 2021, if suborbital flights are included.
The ISS has hosted the most people in space at the same time, reaching 13 for the first time during the eleven day docking of
STS-127
STS-127 ( ISS assembly flight 2J/A) was a NASA Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS). It was the twenty-third flight of . The primary purpose of the STS-127 mission was to deliver and install the final two components of t ...
in 2009.
![STS-131 & Expedition 23 Group Portrait](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/STS-131_%26_Expedition_23_Group_Portrait.jpg)
Beyond Earth the Moon has been the only astronomical object which so far has seen direct human presence through the week long
Apollo missions
The Apollo program was a United States human spaceflight program carried out from 1961 to 1972 by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), which landed the first astronauts on the Moon. The program used the Saturn IB and Saturn ...
between 1968 and 1972, beginning with the first orbit by
Apollo 8
Apollo 8 (December 21–27, 1968) was the first crewed spacecraft to leave low Earth orbit and the first human spaceflight to reach the Moon. The crew orbited the Moon ten times without landing, and then departed safely back to Earth. These ...
in 1968 and with the first landing by
Apollo 11
Apollo 11 (July 16–24, 1969) was the American spaceflight that first landed humans on the Moon. Commander Neil Armstrong and lunar module pilot Buzz Aldrin landed the Apollo Lunar Module ''Eagle'' on July 20, 1969, at 20:17 UTC, an ...
in 1969. The longest extraterrestrial human stay was three days by
Apollo 17
Apollo 17 (December 7–19, 1972) was the final mission of NASA's Apollo program, the most recent time humans have set foot on the Moon or traveled beyond low Earth orbit. Commander Gene Cernan and Lunar Module Pilot Harrison Schmitt walked on ...
.
While most persons who have been to space are
Astronauts
An astronaut (from the Ancient Greek (), meaning 'star', and (), meaning 'sailor') is a person trained, equipped, and deployed by a human spaceflight program to serve as a commander or crew member aboard a spacecraft. Although generally r ...
, professional members of
human spaceflight programs, particularly governmental ones, the few others, starting in the 1980s, have been trained and gone to space as
spaceflight participants, with the first
space tourist staying in space in 2001.
By the end of the 2010s several hundred people from more than
40 countries have gone into space, most of them reaching orbit. 24 people have
traveled beyond low Earth orbit and 12 of them
walked on the Moon.
Space travelers have spent by 2007 over 29,000 person-days (or a cumulative total of over 77 years) in space including over 100 person-days of
spacewalk
Extravehicular activity (EVA) is any activity done by an astronaut in outer space outside a spacecraft. In the absence of a breathable atmosphere of Earth, Earthlike atmosphere, the astronaut is completely reliant on a space suit for environmen ...
s.
Usual durations for individuals to inhabit space on long-duration stays are six months,
with the
longest stays on record being at about a year.
Space infrastructure
A permanent human presence in space depends on an established space infrastructure which harbours, supplies and maintains human presence. Such
infrastructure
Infrastructure is the set of facilities and systems that serve a country, city, or other area, and encompasses the services and facilities necessary for its economy, households and firms to function. Infrastructure is composed of public and priv ...
has originally been Earth
ground-based, but with increased numbers of
satellite
A satellite or artificial satellite is an object intentionally placed into orbit in outer space. Except for passive satellites, most satellites have an electricity generation system for equipment on board, such as solar panels or radioisotope ...
s and long-duration missions beyond the
near side of the Moon space-to-space based infrastructure is being used. First simple interplanetary infrastructures have been created by
space probe
A space probe is an artificial satellite that travels through space to collect scientific data. A space probe may orbit Earth; approach the Moon; travel through interplanetary space; flyby, orbit, or land or fly on other planetary bodies; or ent ...
s particularly when employing a system which combines a
lander
Lander may refer to:
Media and entertainment
* Lander (computer game), ''Lander'' (computer game), computer game published by Psygnosis in 1999
* Lander (game demo), ''Lander'' (game demo), the 3D game demo provided with the Acorn Archimedes co ...
and a relaying
orbiter.
Space station
A space station is a spacecraft capable of supporting a human crew in orbit for an extended period of time, and is therefore a type of space habitat. It lacks major propulsion or landing systems. An orbital station or an orbital space station i ...
s are
space habitats
A space habitat (also called a space settlement, space colony, spacestead, space city, orbital habitat, orbital settlement, orbital colony, orbital stead or orbital city) is a more advanced form of living quarters than a space station or habi ...
which have provided a crucial infrastructure for sustaining a continuous direct human, including non-human, presence in space. Space stations have been continuously present in orbit around Earth from
Skylab
Skylab was the first United States space station, launched by NASA, occupied for about 24 weeks between May 1973 and February 1974. It was operated by three separate three-astronaut crews: Skylab 2, Skylab 3, and Skylab 4. Major operations in ...
in 1973, to the
Salyut stations,
Mir
''Mir'' (russian: Мир, ; ) was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. ''Mir'' was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to&n ...
and eventually
ISS
The International Space Station (ISS) is the largest modular space station currently in low Earth orbit. It is a multinational collaborative project involving five participating space agencies: NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (J ...
.
The planned
Artemis program includes the
Lunar Gateway a future space station around the Moon as a multimission waystation.
Spiritual and artistic
![Fallen Astronaut](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Fallen_Astronaut.jpg)
Human presence has also been expressed through spiritual and artistic installations in outer space or
on the Moon
''On the Moon'' is a 2004 album by jazz pianist, singer, and composer Peter Cincotti. It was released on the Concord Records, Concord label and produced by Phil Ramone.
Track listing
#"St. Louis Blues (song), St. Louis Blues" (W. C. Handy) – ...
.
Apollo 15
Apollo 15 (July 26August 7, 1971) was the ninth crewed mission in the United States' Apollo program and the fourth to Moon landing, land on the Moon. It was the first List of Apollo missions#Alphabetical mission types, J mission, with a ...
Mission Commander
David Scott left for example a Bible on their
Lunar rover during an
extravehicular activity on the Moon. Space has furthermore been the sight of people taking part in religious festivities such as
Christmas on the International Space Station
Christmas on the International Space Station covers the celebration of Christmas on the International Space Station. Christmas is celebrated each year by the International Space Station crew, their families, and ground-staff. Crew are given ti ...
.
Locations
Extraterrestrial bodies
Humanity has reached different types of astronomical bodies, but the longest and most diverse presence (including non-human, e.g. sprouting plants
) has been
on the Moon
''On the Moon'' is a 2004 album by jazz pianist, singer, and composer Peter Cincotti. It was released on the Concord Records, Concord label and produced by Phil Ramone.
Track listing
#"St. Louis Blues (song), St. Louis Blues" (W. C. Handy) – ...
, particularly because it is the first and only extraterrestrial body having been directly visited by humans.
Space probe
A space probe is an artificial satellite that travels through space to collect scientific data. A space probe may orbit Earth; approach the Moon; travel through interplanetary space; flyby, orbit, or land or fly on other planetary bodies; or ent ...
s have been mediating human presence on other astronomical bodies since their
first visits to Venus. Mars has seen a continuous presence
since 1997,
after being
first flown by in 1964 and
landed on in 1971.
A group of missions have been present on Mars
since 2001, including continuous presence by a series of rovers
since 2003.
Beside having reached some
planetary-mass objects (that is
planet
A planet is a large, rounded astronomical body that is neither a star nor its remnant. The best available theory of planet formation is the nebular hypothesis, which posits that an interstellar cloud collapses out of a nebula to create a you ...
s,
dwarf planets or the largest, so-called
planetary-mass moons), humans have also reached, landed and in some cases even returned robotic probes from some
small Solar System bodies, like
asteroid
An asteroid is a minor planet of the inner Solar System. Sizes and shapes of asteroids vary significantly, ranging from 1-meter rocks to a dwarf planet almost 1000 km in diameter; they are rocky, metallic or icy bodies with no atmosphere.
...
s and
comet
A comet is an icy, small Solar System body that, when passing close to the Sun, warms and begins to release gases, a process that is called outgassing. This produces a visible atmosphere or coma, and sometimes also a tail. These phenomena ar ...
s, with a
range of space probes.
The Solar System region near the
Sun's
corona, inside
Mercury
Mercury commonly refers to:
* Mercury (planet), the nearest planet to the Sun
* Mercury (element), a metallic chemical element with the symbol Hg
* Mercury (mythology), a Roman god
Mercury or The Mercury may also refer to:
Companies
* Merc ...
's orbit, with its high
gravitational potential difference from Earth and the subsequent high
delta-v needed to reach it, has only been considerably pierced on highly
elliptic orbits by some
solar probes like
Helios 1 & 2, as well as the more contemporary
Parker Solar Probe. The latter being the closest to reach the Sun, breaking speed records with its very low solar altitudes at
perihelion apsis.
Future direct human presence beyond Earth's orbit is possibly going to be re-introduced if current plans for crewed
research stations to be established
on Mars and
on the Moon
''On the Moon'' is a 2004 album by jazz pianist, singer, and composer Peter Cincotti. It was released on the Concord Records, Concord label and produced by Phil Ramone.
Track listing
#"St. Louis Blues (song), St. Louis Blues" (W. C. Handy) – ...
are continued to be developed.
Particular orbits
Humans have been present beyond
high planetary orbits soon after the first spaceflight.
Human presence in
interplanetary orbits
Interplanetary may refer to:
*Interplanetary space, the space between the planets of the Solar System
*Interplanetary spaceflight, travel between planets
*The interplanetary medium, the material that exists in interplanetary space
*The InterPlanet ...
or
heliocentric orbit
A heliocentric orbit (also called circumsolar orbit) is an orbit around the barycenter of the Solar System, which is usually located within or very near the surface of the Sun. All planets, comets, and asteroids in the Solar System, and the Sun i ...
has been the case with a
range of artificial objects since the beginning of spaceflight.
Humans have also used and occupied
co-orbital configurations,
particularly at different liberation points with
halo orbit
A halo orbit is a periodic, three-dimensional orbit near one of the L1, L2 or L3 Lagrange points in the three-body problem of orbital mechanics. Although a Lagrange point is just a point in empty space, its peculiar characteristic is that it ca ...
s, to harness the benefits of those so called
Lagrange point
In celestial mechanics, the Lagrange points (; also Lagrangian points or libration points) are points of equilibrium for small-mass objects under the influence of two massive orbiting bodies. Mathematically, this involves the solution of th ...
s.
Some interplanetary missions, particularly the ''
Ulysses
Ulysses is one form of the Roman name for Odysseus, a hero in ancient Greek literature.
Ulysses may also refer to:
People
* Ulysses (given name), including a list of people with this name
Places in the United States
* Ulysses, Kansas
* Ulysse ...
'' solar polar probe and considerably ''
Voyager 1
''Voyager 1'' is a space probe launched by NASA on September 5, 1977, as part of the Voyager program to study the outer Solar System and interstellar space beyond the Sun's heliosphere. Launched 16 days after its twin ''Voyager 2'', ''Voya ...
'' and ''
2'', as well as others like ''
Pioneer 10
''Pioneer 10'' (originally designated Pioneer F) is an American space probe, launched in 1972 and weighing , that completed the first mission to the planet Jupiter. Thereafter, ''Pioneer 10'' became the first of five artificial objects to ach ...
'' and ''
11'', have entered trajectories taking them out of the
ecliptic plane
The ecliptic or ecliptic plane is the orbital plane of the Earth around the Sun. From the perspective of an observer on Earth, the Sun's movement around the celestial sphere over the course of a year traces out a path along the ecliptic again ...
.
Outer Solar System
Human presence in the
outer Solar System has been established and continued by sofar nine space probes since the first visit to
Jupiter
Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the List of Solar System objects by size, largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a mass more than two and a half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined, but ...
in 1973 by ''
Pioneer 10
''Pioneer 10'' (originally designated Pioneer F) is an American space probe, launched in 1972 and weighing , that completed the first mission to the planet Jupiter. Thereafter, ''Pioneer 10'' became the first of five artificial objects to ach ...
''.
Jupiter and
Saturn
Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second-largest in the Solar System, after Jupiter. It is a gas giant with an average radius of about nine and a half times that of Earth. It has only one-eighth the average density of Earth; h ...
are the only outer Solar System bodies which have been orbited by probes (Jupiter: ''
Galileo
Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei (15 February 1564 – 8 January 1642) was an Italian astronomer, physicist and engineer, sometimes described as a polymath. Commonly referred to as Galileo, his name was pronounced (, ). He was ...
'' in 1995 and ''
Juno
Juno commonly refers to:
*Juno (mythology), the Roman goddess of marriage and queen of the gods
*Juno (film), ''Juno'' (film), 2007
Juno may also refer to:
Arts, entertainment and media Fictional characters
*Juno, in the film ''Jenny, Juno''
*Ju ...
'' in 2016; Saturn: ''
Cassini–Huygens
''Cassini–Huygens'' ( ), commonly called ''Cassini'', was a space research, space-research mission by NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Italian Space Agency (ASI) to send a space probe to study the planet Saturn and its system, i ...
'' in 2004), with all other outer Solar System probes performing flybys.
The Saturn moon
Titan
Titan most often refers to:
* Titan (moon), the largest moon of Saturn
* Titans, a race of deities in Greek mythology
Titan or Titans may also refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Fictional entities
Fictional locations
* Titan in fiction, fictiona ...
, with its special lunar atmosphere, has so far been the only body in the outer Solar System to be landed on by the ''Cassini–Huygens'' lander ''
Huygens
Huygens (also Huijgens, Huigens, Huijgen/Huygen, or Huigen) is a Dutch patronymic surname, meaning "son of Hugo". Most references to "Huygens" are to the polymath Christiaan Huygens. Notable people with the surname include:
* Jan Huygen (1563– ...
'' in 2005.
Outbound
Several probes have reached Solar
escape velocity, with ''
Voyager 1
''Voyager 1'' is a space probe launched by NASA on September 5, 1977, as part of the Voyager program to study the outer Solar System and interstellar space beyond the Sun's heliosphere. Launched 16 days after its twin ''Voyager 2'', ''Voya ...
'' being the first to cross after 36 years of flight the
heliopause and enter
interstellar space on August 25, 2012, at distance of 121
AU from the Sun.
Living in space
![ISS-43 Birthday of astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/ISS-43_Birthday_of_astronaut_Samantha_Cristoforetti.jpg)
Space, particularly
microgravity
The term micro-g environment (also μg, often referred to by the term microgravity) is more or less synonymous with the terms ''weightlessness'' and ''zero-g'', but emphasising that g-forces are never exactly zero—just very small (on the I ...
, make life different to life on Earth. Mundane needs such as
air, pressure, temperature and light, as well as
movement
Movement may refer to:
Common uses
* Movement (clockwork), the internal mechanism of a timepiece
* Motion, commonly referred to as movement
Arts, entertainment, and media
Literature
* "Movement" (short story), a short story by Nancy Fu ...
,
hygiene and
food intake are confronted with challenges.
Human health is mostly effected by long-duration stays particularly by the prevalent
radiation exposure
Radiation is a moving form of energy, classified into ionizing and non-ionizing type. Ionizing radiation is further categorized into electromagnetic radiation (without matter) and particulate radiation (with matter). Electromagnetic radiation con ...
and the
health effects of microgravity. Human fatalities have been the case due to accidents during spaceflight, particularly at
launch and
reentry. With the last in-flight accident killing humans, the
Columbia accident
The Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' disaster was a fatal accident in the United States space program that occurred on February 1, 2003. During the STS-107 mission, Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' disintegrated as it reentered the atmosphere over Texa ...
in 2003, the sum of in-flight fatalities has risen to 15 astronauts and 4
cosmonauts, in five separate incidents. Over 100 others have died in accidents during activity directly related to spaceflight or testing.
* See
List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents
Bioastronautics
Bioastronautics is a specialty area of biological and astronautical research which encompasses numerous aspects of biological, behavioral, and medical concern governing humans and other living organisms in a space flight environment; and includ ...
,
space medicine
Space medicine is the practice of medicine on astronauts in outer space whereas astronautical hygiene is the application of science and technology to the prevention or control of exposure to the hazards that may cause astronaut ill health. Both ...
,
space technology
Space technology is technology for use in outer space, in travel (''astronautics'') or other activities beyond Earth's atmosphere, for purposes such as spaceflight, space exploration, and Earth observation. Space technology includes space vehicles ...
and
space architecture
Space architecture is the theory and practice of designing and building inhabited environments in outer space. This mission statement for space architecture was developed at the World Space Congress in Houston in 2002 by members of the Technical ...
are fields which are occupied with alleviating the effects of space on humans and non-humans.
Impact, environmental protection and sustainability
Human space activity, and its subsequent presence, can and has been having an impact on space as well as on the capacity to access it. This impact of human space activity and presence, or its potential, has created the need to address its issues regarding
planetary protection,
space debris
Space debris (also known as space junk, space pollution, space waste, space trash, or space garbage) are defunct human-made objects in space—principally in Earth orbit—which no longer serve a useful function. These include derelict spacecr ...
,
nuclear hazards,
radio pollution and
light pollution
Light pollution is the presence of unwanted, inappropriate, or excessive use of artificial Visible spectrum, lighting. In a descriptive sense, the term ''light pollution'' refers to the effects of any poorly implemented lighting, during the day ...
, to the
reusability of launch systems, for space not to become a
sacrifice zone.
Sustainability
Specific definitions of sustainability are difficult to agree on and have varied in the literature and over time. The concept of sustainability can be used to guide decisions at the global, national, and individual levels (e.g. sustainable livi ...
has been a goal of
space law
Space law is the body of law governing space-related activities, encompassing both international and domestic agreements, rules, and principles. Parameters of space law include space exploration, liability for damage, weapons use, rescue efforts ...
,
space technology
Space technology is technology for use in outer space, in travel (''astronautics'') or other activities beyond Earth's atmosphere, for purposes such as spaceflight, space exploration, and Earth observation. Space technology includes space vehicles ...
and
space infrastructure
Human presence in space is about humanity in space, particularly about all anthropogenic presence in space and human activity in space, that is in outer space and in a broader sense also on any extraterrestrial astronomical body.
Humans have ...
, with the
United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and international security, security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be ...
seeing the need to advance long-term sustainability of outer space activities in space science and application,
and the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
having it as a crucial goal of its contemporary
space policy
Space policy is the political decision-making process for, and application of, public policy of a state (or association of states) regarding spaceflight and uses of outer space, both for civilian (scientific and commercial) and military purposes. I ...
and
space program
A space program is an organized effort by a government or a company with a goal related to outer space.
Lists of space programs include:
* List of government space agencies
* List of private spaceflight companies
* List of human spaceflight prog ...
.
Human presence in space is particularly being felt in orbit around Earth. The orbital space around Earth has seen increasing and extensive human presence, beside its benefits it has also produced a threat to it by carrying with it
space debris
Space debris (also known as space junk, space pollution, space waste, space trash, or space garbage) are defunct human-made objects in space—principally in Earth orbit—which no longer serve a useful function. These include derelict spacecr ...
, potentially cascading into the so-called
Kessler syndrome
The Kessler syndrome (also called the Kessler effect, collisional cascading, or ablation cascade), proposed by NASA scientist Donald J. Kessler in 1978, is a scenario in which the density of objects in low Earth orbit (LEO) due to space pollut ...
.
This has raised the need for
regulation and mitigation of such to secure a
sustainable access to outer space.
Study and reception
Individually or as a society humans have engaged since
pre-history
Prehistory, also known as pre-literary history, is the period of human history between the use of the first stone tools by hominins 3.3 million years ago and the beginning of recorded history with the invention of writing systems. The use of ...
in developing their perception of space above the ground, or the
cosmos at large, and developing their place in it.
Social sciences
Social science is one of the branches of science, devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among individuals within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field of sociology, the original "science of soci ...
have been studying such works of people from pre-history to the contemporary with the fields of
archaeoastronomy
Archaeoastronomy (also spelled archeoastronomy) is the interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary study of how people in the past "have understood the phenomena in the sky, how they used these phenomena and what role the sky played in their cultur ...
to
cultural astronomy. With actual human activity and presence in space the need for fields like
astrosociology and
space archaeology have been added.
Human presence observed from space
Earth observation has been one of the first missions of spaceflight, resulting in a dense contemporary presence of
Earth observation satellite
An Earth observation satellite or Earth remote sensing satellite is a satellite used or designed for Earth observation (EO) from orbit, including spy satellites and similar ones intended for non-military uses such as environmental monitoring, me ...
s, having a wealth of uses and benefits for life on Earth.
Viewing human presence from space, particularly by humans directly, has been reported by some astronauts to cause a
cognitive shift
A cognitive shift or shift in cognitive focus is triggered by the brain's response and change due to some external force.
General cause
A cognitive shift can occur when a person undergoes a new experience, such as astronauts experiencing the ove ...
in perception, especially while viewing the Earth from outer space, this effect has been called the
overview effect.
Observation of space from space
Parallel to the above ''overview effect'' the term "ultraview effect" has been introduced for a subjective response of intense awe some astronauts have experienced viewing large "starfields" while in space.
Space observatories
A space telescope or space observatory is a telescope in outer space used to observe astronomical objects. Suggested by Lyman Spitzer in 1946, the first operational telescopes were the American Orbiting Astronomical Observatory, OAO-2 launched ...
like the
Hubble Space Telescope
The Hubble Space Telescope (often referred to as HST or Hubble) is a space telescope that was launched into low Earth orbit in 1990 and remains in operation. It was not the first space telescope, but it is one of the largest and most versa ...
have been present in Earth's orbit, benefiting from advantages from being outside Earth's atmosphere and away from its
radio noise, resulting in less distorted observation results.
Direct and mediated human presence
Related to the long discussion of what human presence constitutes and how it should be lived, the discussion about direct (e.g.
crewed) and mediated (e.g.
uncrewed) human presence, has been decisive for how
space policy
Space policy is the political decision-making process for, and application of, public policy of a state (or association of states) regarding spaceflight and uses of outer space, both for civilian (scientific and commercial) and military purposes. I ...
makers have chosen human presence and its purposes.
The relevance of this issue for space policy has risen with the advancement and resulting possibilities of
telerobotics
Telerobotics is the area of robotics concerned with the control of semi-autonomous robots from a distance, chiefly using television, wireless networks (like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and the Deep Space Network) or tethered connections. It is a combinatio ...
,
to the point where most of the human presence in space has been reallized robotically, leaving direct human presence behind.
Localization in space
The location of human presence has been studied throughout history by astronomy and was significant in order to relate to the heavens, that is to
outer space
Outer space, commonly shortened to space, is the expanse that exists beyond Earth and its atmosphere and between celestial bodies. Outer space is not completely empty—it is a near-perfect vacuum containing a low density of particles, pred ...
and its bodies.
The historic argument between
geocentrism
In astronomy, the geocentric model (also known as geocentrism, often exemplified specifically by the Ptolemaic system) is a superseded description of the Universe with Earth at the center. Under most geocentric models, the Sun, Moon, stars, and ...
and
heliocentrism
Heliocentrism (also known as the Heliocentric model) is the astronomical model in which the Earth and planets revolve around the Sun at the center of the universe. Historically, heliocentrism was opposed to geocentrism, which placed the Earth at ...
is one example about the location of human presence.
Scenarios of and relations to space beyond human presence
Realizations of the
scales of space, have been taken as subject to discuss human and life's existence or relations to
space and time Space and Time or Time and Space, or ''variation'', may refer to:
* ''Space and time'' or ''time and space'' or ''spacetime'', any mathematical model that combines space and time into a single interwoven continuum
* Philosophy of space and time
Sp ...
beyond them, with some understanding humanity's or life's presence as a
singularity or one to be in
isolation, pondering on the
Fermi paradox.
A diverse range of arguments of how to relate to space beyond human presence have been raised, with some seeing space beyond humans as reason to venture out into space and exploring it, some aiming for
contact
Contact may refer to:
Interaction Physical interaction
* Contact (geology), a common geological feature
* Contact lens or contact, a lens placed on the eye
* Contact sport, a sport in which players make contact with other players or objects
* ...
with
extraterrestrial life
Extraterrestrial life, colloquially referred to as alien life, is life that may occur outside Earth and which did not originate on Earth. No extraterrestrial life has yet been conclusively detected, although efforts are underway. Such life might ...
, to arguments for
protection of humanity or life from its possibilities.
Considerations about the ecological integrity
and independence of celestial bodies, counter exploitive understandings of space as dead, particularly in the sense of
terra nullius
''Terra nullius'' (, plural ''terrae nullius'') is a Latin expression meaning " nobody's land".
It was a principle sometimes used in international law to justify claims that territory may be acquired by a state's occupation of it.
:
:
...
, have raised issues such as
rights of nature
Rights of nature or Earth rights is a legal and jurisprudential theory that describes inherent rights as associated with ecosystems and species, similar to the concept of fundamental human rights. The rights of nature concept challenges twentie ...
.
Purposes and uses
Space and human presence in it has been the subject of different agendas.
Human presence in space at its beginnings, was fueled by the
Cold War
The Cold War is a term commonly used to refer to a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc. The term '' cold war'' is used because the ...
and its outgrowing the Space Race. During this time space technology, technological, nationalist, ideological and Militarization of space, military competition were dominant driving factors of
space policy
Space policy is the political decision-making process for, and application of, public policy of a state (or association of states) regarding spaceflight and uses of outer space, both for civilian (scientific and commercial) and military purposes. I ...
and the resulting activity and, particularly direct human, presence in space.
With the waning of the Space Race, concluded by Apollo–Soyuz, cooperation in human spaceflight, focus shifted in the 1970s further to
space exploration
Space exploration is the use of astronomy and space technology to explore outer space. While the exploration of space is carried out mainly by astronomers with telescopes, its physical exploration though is conducted both by robotic spacec ...
and
telerobotics
Telerobotics is the area of robotics concerned with the control of semi-autonomous robots from a distance, chiefly using television, wireless networks (like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and the Deep Space Network) or tethered connections. It is a combinatio ...
, having a range of achievements and technological advances. Space exploration meant by then also an engagement by governments in the search for extraterrestrial life.
Since human activity and presence in space has been producing Benefits of space exploration, spin-off benefits, other than for the above purposes, such as Earth observation satellite, Earth observation and communication satellites for civilian use, international cooperation to advance such benefits of human presence in space grew with time. Particularly for the purpose of continuing benefits of
space infrastructure
Human presence in space is about humanity in space, particularly about all anthropogenic presence in space and human activity in space, that is in outer space and in a broader sense also on any extraterrestrial astronomical body.
Humans have ...
and
space science
Space is the boundless three-dimensional extent in which objects and events have relative position and direction. In classical physics, physical space is often conceived in three linear dimensions, although modern physicists usually consider ...
the United Nations has been pushing for safeguarding Space sustainability, human activity in outer space in a sustainable way.
With the contemporary so-called NewSpace, the aim of commercialization of space has grown along with a narrative of space habitation for the Space and survival, survival of some humans away from and without Earth, which in turn has been critically analyzed and highlighted Space colonization#Colonialism, colonialist purposes for human activity and presence in space.
This has given rise for a deeper engagement in the fields of space environment and space ethics.
Overview of different purposes and uses
* Space exploration#Rationales
** Benefits of space exploration
*** NASA spinoff technologies
** Space research
***
Earth observation
**** Astronomy
***** Space observatory
**** Search for extraterrestrial life (see also First contact (anthropology), first contact)
** Communications satellite, Communication
** Spaceflight/Space transportation
** Commercial use of space
*** Space tourism
*** Space mining (see also Planetary surface#Surface chauvinism and surfacism, Surface chauvinism and surfacism)
*** Space manufacturing
*** Environmental dumping
** Planetary protection
*** Planetary defense
*** Isolationism
* For presence, in itself (see Human outpost space basing)
** Space imperialism
*** Nationalism, National or private potency and Bellum omnium contra omnes, competition (see Space Race)
*** Militarization of space
** Space habitation
*** Emigration from Earth
**** Social integration, Integration or naturalization (see also Naturalization (biology), biological naturalization such as Pantropy)
**** Human migration#Lee, Demographic push (e.g. due to overconsumption)
**** Forced displacement
**** Space and survival
**** Escapism
** Space development as a purpose of progress (see also New Frontier)
*** Expansionism (see also Manifest destiny)
**** Space colonization (see also Settler colonialism, Exceptionalism and Utopianism)
**** Civilizing mission
***** Terraforming (see also Ethics of terraforming)
***** Panspermia
See also
*
**
* Outline of space science
* Outline of space exploration
* Timeline of Solar System exploration
* List of spaceflight records
* Rights of nature
* Anthropogenic metabolism
* Anthroposphere
* Collective consciousness
* Scale (analytical tool)
* Noosphere
* Ecological civilization
* Human impact on the environment
*
* Human ecology
* Technosignature
* Extremophile
References
Further reading
{{Politics of outer space
Space
Outer space
Space exploration