Human enhancement (HE) can be described as the natural, artificial, or
technological
Technology is the application of knowledge to reach practical goals in a specifiable and reproducible way. The word ''technology'' may also mean the product of such an endeavor. The use of technology is widely prevalent in medicine, science, ...
alteration of the
human body in order to enhance physical or mental capabilities.
Technologies
Existing technologies
![Gene therapy](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Gene_therapy.jpg)
Three forms of human enhancement currently exist: reproductive, physical, and mental. Reproductive enhancements include embryo selection by preimplantation genetic diagnosis, cytoplasmictransfer, and in vitro-generated gametes. Physical enhancements include cosmetics (
plastic surgery
Plastic surgery is a surgical specialty involving the restoration, reconstruction or alteration of the human body. It can be divided into two main categories: reconstructive surgery and cosmetic surgery. Reconstructive surgery includes cranio ...
&
orthodontics), Drug-induced (doping & performance-enhancing drugs), functional (
prosthetics
In medicine, a prosthesis (plural: prostheses; from grc, πρόσθεσις, prósthesis, addition, application, attachment), or a prosthetic implant, is an artificial device that replaces a missing body part, which may be lost through trau ...
&
powered exoskeleton
A powered exoskeleton, also known as power armor, powered armor, powered suit, cybernetic suit, cybernetic armor, exosuit, hardsuit, exoframe or augmented mobility, is a mobile machine that is wearable over all or part of the human body, pro ...
s), Medical (implants (e.g.
pacemaker) & organ replacements ( e.g. bionic lenses)), and strength training (weights (e.g. barbells) &
dietary supplement)). Examples of mental enhancements are
nootropic
Nootropics ( , or ) (colloquial: smart drugs and cognitive enhancers, similar to adaptogens) are a wide range of natural or synthetic dietary supplement, supplements or drugs and other substances that are claimed to improve cognitive function ...
s,
neurostimulation
Neurostimulation is the purposeful modulation of the nervous system's activity using invasive (e.g. microelectrodes) or non-invasive means (e.g. transcranial magnetic stimulation or transcranial electric stimulation, tES, such as tDCS or trans ...
, and supplements that improve mental functions.
Computers,
mobile phone
A mobile phone, cellular phone, cell phone, cellphone, handphone, hand phone or pocket phone, sometimes shortened to simply mobile, cell, or just phone, is a portable telephone that can make and receive calls over a radio frequency link whi ...
s, and
Internet
The Internet (or internet) is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a '' network of networks'' that consists of private, pub ...
can also be used to enhance cognitive efficiency. Notable efforts in human augmentation are driven by the interconnected
Internet of Things (IoT) devices, including wearable electronics (e.g., augmented reality glasses, smart watches, smart textile), personal drones, on-body and in-body nanonetworks.
Emerging technologies
Many different forms of human enhancing technologies are either on the way or are currently being tested and trialed. A few of these emerging technologies include:
human genetic engineering
Human genetic enhancement or human genetic engineering refers to human enhancement by means of a genetic modification. This could be done in order to cure diseases (gene therapy), prevent the possibility of getting a particular disease (similarly ...
(
gene therapy
Gene therapy is a medical field which focuses on the genetic modification of cells to produce a therapeutic effect or the treatment of disease by repairing or reconstructing defective genetic material. The first attempt at modifying human DN ...
),
neurotechnology
Neurotechnology encompasses any method or electronic device which interfaces with the nervous system to monitor or modulate neural activity.
Common design goals for neurotechnologies include using neural activity readings to control external devi ...
(
neural implants
Brain implants, often referred to as neural implants, are technological devices that connect directly to a biological subject's brain – usually placed on the surface of the brain, or attached to the brain's cortex. A common purpose of modern brai ...
and
brain–computer interface
A brain–computer interface (BCI), sometimes called a brain–machine interface (BMI) or smartbrain, is a direct communication pathway between the brain's electrical activity and an external device, most commonly a computer or robotic limb. B ...
s),
cyberware
Cyberware is a relatively new and unknown field (a proto-science, or more adequately a "proto-technology"). In science fiction circles, however, it is commonly known to mean the hardware or machine parts implanted in the human body and acting as ...
,
strategies for engineered negligible senescence,
nanomedicine
Nanomedicine is the medical application of nanotechnology. Nanomedicine ranges from the medical applications of nanomaterials and biological devices, to nanoelectronic biosensors, and even possible future applications of molecular nanotech ...
, and
3D bioprinting
Three dimensional (3D) bioprinting is the utilization of 3D printing–like techniques to combine cells, growth factors, and/or biomaterials to fabricate biomedical parts, often with the aim of imitating natural tissue characteristics. Generally, 3 ...
.
Speculative technologies
A few hypothetical human enhancement technologies are under speculation, such as:
mind uploading
Mind uploading is a speculative process of whole brain emulation in which a brain scan is used to completely emulate the mental state of the individual in a digital computer. The computer would then run a simulation of the brain's information pr ...
,
exocortex, and
endogenous artificial nutrition
Endogenous substances and processes are those that originate from within a living system such as an organism, tissue, or cell.
In contrast, exogenous substances and processes are those that originate from outside of an organism.
For example, es ...
. Mind uploading is the hypothetical process of "transferring"/"uploading" or copying a conscious mind from a brain to a non-biological substrate by scanning and mapping a biological brain in detail and copying its state into a computer system or another computational device. Exocortex can be defined as a theoretical artificial external information processing system that would augment a brain's biological high-level cognitive processes. Endogenous artificial nutrition can be similar to having a radioisotope generator that resynthesizes glucose (similarly to photosynthesis), amino acids and vitamins from their degradation products, theoretically availing for weeks without food if necessary.
Nootropics
There are many substances that are purported to have promise in augmenting human cognition by various means. These substances are called nootropics and can potentially benefit individuals with cognitive decline and many different disorders, but may also be capable of yielding results in cognitively healthy persons. Generally speaking, nootropics are said to be effective for enhancing focus, learning, memory function, mood, and in some cases, physical brain development. Some examples of these include
Citicoline
Citicoline ( INN), also known as cytidine diphosphate-choline (CDP-Choline) or cytidine 5'-diphosphocholine is an intermediate in the generation of phosphatidylcholine from choline, a common biochemical process in cell membranes. Citicoline is na ...
,
Huperzine A
Huperzine A is a naturally occurring sesquiterpene alkaloid compound found in the firmoss ''Huperzia serrata'' and in varying quantities in other food ''Huperzia'' species, including ''H. elmeri'', ''H. carinat'', and ''H. aqualupian''. Huperz ...
,
Phosphatidylserine
Phosphatidylserine (abbreviated Ptd-L-Ser or PS) is a phospholipid and is a component of the cell membrane. It plays a key role in cell cycle signaling, specifically in relation to apoptosis. It is a key pathway for viruses to enter cells via ap ...
,
Bacopa monnieri
''Bacopa monnieri'' is a perennial, creeping herb native to the wetlands of southern and Eastern India, Australia, Europe, Africa, Asia, and North and South America. It is known by the common names water hyssop, waterhyssop, brahmi, thyme-leafed ...
,
Acetyl-L-carnitine
Acetyl-L-carnitine, ALCAR or ALC, is an acetylated form of L-carnitine. It is naturally produced by the human body, and it is available as a dietary supplement. Acetylcarnitine is broken down in the blood by plasma esterases to carnitine which i ...
,
Uridine monophosphate
Uridine monophosphate (UMP), also known as 5′-uridylic acid (conjugate base uridylate), is a nucleotide that is used as a monomer in RNA. It is an ester of phosphoric acid with the nucleoside uridine. UMP consists of the phosphate group, th ...
,
L-theanine
Theanine , also known as L-γ-glutamylethylamide and ''N''5-ethyl-L-glutamine, is an amino acid analogue of the proteinogenic amino acids L-glutamate and L-glutamine and is found primarily in particular plant and fungal species. It was disco ...
,
Rhodiola rosea
''Rhodiola rosea'' (commonly golden root, rose root, roseroot, Aaron's rod, Arctic root, king's crown, ''lignum rhodium'', orpin rose) is a perennial flowering plant in the family Crassulaceae. It grows naturally in wild Arctic regions of Europe ...
, and
Pycnogenol which are all forms of dietary supplement. There are also nootropic drugs such as the common racetams
Piracetam and Noopept (
Omberacetam
N-Phenylacetyl--prolylglycine ethyl ester is promoted as a nootropic and is a prodrug of cyclic glycine-proline. Other names include the brand name Noopept (russian: link=no, Ноопепт), developmental code GVS-111; proposed INN omberacet ...
)
along with the neuroprotective
Semax
Semax is a drug which is used mostly in Russia and Ukraine for a broad range of conditions but predominantly for its purported nootropic, neuroprotective, and neurorestorative properties. Semax has not been evaluated, approved for use, or market ...
, and N-Acetyl Semax. There are also nootropics related to naturally occurring substances but that are either modified in a lab or are analogs such as
Vinpocetine
Vinpocetine (ethyl apovincaminate) is a synthetic derivative of the vinca alkaloid vincamine, differing by the removal of a hydroxyl group. Vincamine is extracted from either the seeds of '' Voacanga africana'' or the leaves of ''Vinca minor'' ( ...
and
Sulbutiamine. Some authors have explored nootropics as relationship enhancements to help couples maintain bonds over time.
Ethics
Much debate surrounds the topic of human enhancement and the means used to achieve one's enhancement goals. Ethical attitudes toward human enhancement can depend on many factors such as religious affiliation, age, gender, ethnicity, culture of origin, and nationality.
In some circles the expression "human enhancement" is roughly synonymous with
human genetic engineering
Human genetic enhancement or human genetic engineering refers to human enhancement by means of a genetic modification. This could be done in order to cure diseases (gene therapy), prevent the possibility of getting a particular disease (similarly ...
,
but most often it is referred to the general application of the
convergence
Convergence may refer to:
Arts and media Literature
*''Convergence'' (book series), edited by Ruth Nanda Anshen
*Convergence (comics), "Convergence" (comics), two separate story lines published by DC Comics:
**A four-part crossover storyline that ...
of
nanotechnology,
biotechnology
Biotechnology is the integration of natural sciences and engineering sciences in order to achieve the application of organisms, cells, parts thereof and molecular analogues for products and services. The term ''biotechnology'' was first used ...
,
information technology
Information technology (IT) is the use of computers to create, process, store, retrieve, and exchange all kinds of Data (computing), data . and information. IT forms part of information and communications technology (ICT). An information te ...
and
cognitive science (NBIC) to
improve human performance.
Since the 1990s, several academics (such as some of the fellows of the
Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies
The Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies (IEET) is a technoprogressive think tank that seeks to "promote ideas about how technological progress can increase freedom, happiness, and human flourishing in democratic societies."Joseph R. ...
) have risen to become advocates of the case for human enhancement while other academics (such as the members of
President Bush's Council on Bioethics) have become outspoken critics.
Advocacy of the case for human enhancement is increasingly becoming synonymous with "
transhumanism
Transhumanism is a philosophical and intellectual movement which advocates the enhancement of the human condition by developing and making widely available sophisticated technologies that can greatly enhance longevity and cognition.
Transhuma ...
", a controversial ideology and movement which has emerged to support the recognition and protection of the right of citizens to either maintain or
modify their own
minds and
bodies
Bodies may refer to:
* The plural of body
* ''Bodies'' (2004 TV series), BBC television programme
* Bodies (upcoming TV series), an upcoming British crime thriller limited series
* "Bodies" (''Law & Order''), 2003 episode of ''Law & Order''
* ...
; so as to guarantee them the
freedom of choice
Freedom of choice describes an individual's wikt:opportunity, opportunity and autonomy to perform an action selected from at least two available options, unconstrained by external parties.
In politics
In the abortion debate, for example, the te ...
and
informed consent of using human enhancement technologies on themselves and their children.
Their common understanding of the world can be seen from a physicist perspective rather than a biological perspective.
Based on the idea of
technological singularity
The technological singularity—or simply the singularity—is a hypothetical future point in time at which technological growth becomes uncontrollable and irreversible, resulting in unforeseeable changes to human civilization. According to the m ...
, human enhancement is merging with technological innovation that will advance post humanism.
Neuromarketing
Neuromarketing is a commercial marketing communication field that applies neuropsychology to market research, studying consumers' Piaget's theory of cognitive development, sensorimotor, cognitive, and affective responses to marketing stimuli. The ...
consultant Zack Lynch argues that
neurotechnologies will have a more immediate effect on society than
gene therapy
Gene therapy is a medical field which focuses on the genetic modification of cells to produce a therapeutic effect or the treatment of disease by repairing or reconstructing defective genetic material. The first attempt at modifying human DN ...
and will face less resistance as a pathway of radical human enhancement. He also argues that the concept of "
enablement" needs to be added to the debate over "therapy" versus "enhancement".
The prospect of human enhancement has sparked public
controversy.
The main ethical question in the debate about human enhancement involves which legal restrictions, if any, should exist.
Dale Carrico wrote that "human enhancement" is a
loaded term which has
eugenic
Eugenics ( ; ) is a fringe set of beliefs and practices that aim to improve the genetic quality of a human population. Historically, eugenicists have attempted to alter human gene pools by excluding people and groups judged to be inferior or ...
overtones because it may imply the improvement of human
hereditary traits to attain a universally accepted
norm
Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) and technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials (TENORM) consist of materials, usually industrial wastes or by-products enriched with radioactive elements found in the envi ...
of
biological fitness
Fitness (often denoted w or ω in population genetics models) is the quantitative representation of individual reproductive success. It is also equal to the average contribution to the gene pool of the next generation, made by the same individua ...
(at the possible expense of human
biodiversity
Biodiversity or biological diversity is the variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity is a measure of variation at the genetic (''genetic variability''), species (''species diversity''), and ecosystem (''ecosystem diversity'') l ...
and
neurodiversity
Neurodiversity refers to diversity in the human brain and cognition, for instance in sociability, learning, attention, mood and other mental functions.
It was coined in 1998 by sociologist Judy Singer, who helped popularize the concept ...
), and therefore can evoke negative reactions far beyond the specific meaning of the term.
Michael Selgelid terms this as a phase of "neugenics" suggesting that gene enhancements occurring now have already revived the idea of
eugenics
Eugenics ( ; ) is a fringe set of beliefs and practices that aim to improve the genetic quality of a human population. Historically, eugenicists have attempted to alter human gene pools by excluding people and groups judged to be inferior o ...
in our society. Practices of
prenatal diagnosis
Prenatal testing consists of prenatal screening and prenatal diagnosis, which are aspects of prenatal care that focus on detecting problems with the pregnancy as early as possible. These may be anatomic and physiologic problems with the health of ...
,
selective abortion and
in-vitro fertilization
In vitro fertilisation (IVF) is a process of fertilisation where an egg is combined with sperm in vitro ("in glass"). The process involves monitoring and stimulating an individual's ovulatory process, removing an ovum or ova (egg or eggs) ...
aims to improve human life allowing for parents to decide via genetic information if they want to continue or terminate the
pregnancy
Pregnancy is the time during which one or more offspring develops (gestation, gestates) inside a woman, woman's uterus (womb). A multiple birth, multiple pregnancy involves more than one offspring, such as with twins.
Pregnancy usually occur ...
.
A criticism of human enhancement is that it will create unfair physical or mental advantages, or unequal access to such enhancements can and will further the gulf between the "haves" and "have-nots".
[Michael Hauskeller, ''Better Humans?: Understanding the Enhancement Project,'' Acumen, 2013, .]
Futurist
Ray Kurzweil
Raymond Kurzweil ( ; born February 12, 1948) is an American computer scientist, author, inventor, and futurist. He is involved in fields such as optical character recognition (OCR), text-to-speech synthesis, speech recognition technology, and e ...
has shown some concern that, within the century, humans may be required to merge with this technology in order to compete in the marketplace.
Enhanced individuals have a better chance of being chosen for better opportunities in careers, entertainment and resources.
For example, life extending technologies can increase the average individual life span affecting the distribution of pension throughout the society. Increasing lifespan will affect human population further dividing limited resources such as food, energy, monetary resources and habitat.
Other critics of human enhancement fear that such capabilities would change, for the worse, the dynamic relations within a family. Given the choices of superior qualities, parents make their child as opposed to merely birthing it, and the newborn becomes a product of their will rather than a gift of nature to be loved unconditionally.
Effects on Identity
Human enhancement technologies can impact human
identity
Identity may refer to:
* Identity document
* Identity (philosophy)
* Identity (social science)
* Identity (mathematics)
Arts and entertainment Film and television
* ''Identity'' (1987 film), an Iranian film
* ''Identity'' (2003 film), ...
by affecting one's self-conception.
The argument does not necessarily come from the idea of improving the individual but rather changing who they are and becoming someone new. Altering an individual identity affects their personal story, development and mental capabilities. The basis of this argument comes from two main points : the charge of inauthenticity and the charge of violating an individual's core characteristics.
Gene therapy
Gene therapy is a medical field which focuses on the genetic modification of cells to produce a therapeutic effect or the treatment of disease by repairing or reconstructing defective genetic material. The first attempt at modifying human DN ...
has the ability to alter one mental capacity and through this argument, has the ability to affect their
narrative identity The theory of narrative identity postulates that individuals form an identity by integrating their life experiences into an internalized, evolving story of the self that provides the individual with a sense of unity and purpose in life. This life na ...
.
An individual's core characteristics may include internal psychological style,
personality
Personality is the characteristic sets of behaviors, cognitions, and emotional patterns that are formed from biological and environmental factors, and which change over time. While there is no generally agreed-upon definition of personality, m ...
, general
intelligence
Intelligence has been defined in many ways: the capacity for abstraction, logic, understanding, self-awareness, learning, emotional knowledge, reasoning, planning, creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving. More generally, it can be des ...
, necessity to sleep, normal
aging,
gender
Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to femininity and masculinity and differentiating between them. Depending on the context, this may include sex-based social structures (i.e. gender roles) and gender identity. Most cultures ...
and being ''
Homo sapiens
Humans (''Homo sapiens'') are the most abundant and widespread species of primate, characterized by bipedalism and exceptional cognitive skills due to a large and complex brain. This has enabled the development of advanced tools, culture, ...
''. Technologies threaten to alter the self fundamentally to the point where the result is a different person.
For example, extreme changes in
personality
Personality is the characteristic sets of behaviors, cognitions, and emotional patterns that are formed from biological and environmental factors, and which change over time. While there is no generally agreed-upon definition of personality, m ...
may affect the individual's relationships because others can no longer relate to the new person.
The capability approach focuses on a normative framework that can be applied to how human enhancement technologies affects human capabilities.
The ethics of this does not necessarily focus on the make up of the individual but rather what it allows individuals to do in today's society. This approach was first termed by
Amartya Sen
Amartya Kumar Sen (; born 3 November 1933) is an Indian economist and philosopher, who since 1972 has taught and worked in the United Kingdom and the United States. Sen has made contributions to welfare economics, social choice theory, econom ...
, where he mainly focused on the objectives of the approach rather than the aim for those objectives which entail resources, technological processes, and economic arrangement.
The central human capabilities include
life
Life is a quality that distinguishes matter that has biological processes, such as Cell signaling, signaling and self-sustaining processes, from that which does not, and is defined by the capacity for Cell growth, growth, reaction to Stimu ...
, bodily health, bodily integrity,
sense
A sense is a biological system used by an organism for sensation, the process of gathering information about the world through the detection of stimuli. (For example, in the human body, the brain which is part of the central nervous system re ...
,
emotion
Emotions are mental states brought on by neurophysiology, neurophysiological changes, variously associated with thoughts, feelings, behavioral responses, and a degree of pleasure or suffering, displeasure. There is currently no scientific ...
s,
practical reason
In philosophy, practical reason is the use of reason to decide how to act. It contrasts with theoretical reason, often called speculative reason, the use of reason to decide what to follow. For example, agents use practical reason to decide whethe ...
, affiliation, other
species
In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...
, play, and control over one's environment. This normative framework recognizes that human capabilities are always changing and technology has already played a part in this.
See also
References
Further reading
*
External links
Enhancement Technologies GroupInstitute for Ethics and Emerging TechnologiesHumanity+Human Enhancement Study (European Parliament STOA 2009)Ethics + Emerging Sciences Group (Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo)"Ethics of Human Enhancement: 25 Questions & Answers" (an NSF-funded report), August 31, 2009NeoHumanitas: Thinking our Future. Think tank reflecting on enhancing technologiesThe Case for Perfection: Ethics in the Age of Human Enhancement (PeterLang, 2016)Future-Human.Life (NeoHumanitas, 2017)Augmented Human International Conferences
{{Genetic engineering
Bioethics
Human evolution
*