linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. It is called a scientific study because it entails a comprehensive, systematic, objective, and precise analysis of all aspects of language, particularly its nature and structure. Linguis ...

, an honorific (

abbreviated An abbreviation (from Latin ''brevis'', meaning ''short'') is a shortened form of a word or phrase, by any method. It may consist of a group of letters or words taken from the full version of the word or phrase; for example, the word ''abbrevia ...

) is a

grammatical In linguistics, grammaticality is determined by the conformity to language usage as derived by the grammar of a particular variety (linguistics), speech variety. The notion of grammaticality rose alongside the theory of generative grammar, the go ...

morphosyntactic In linguistics, morphology () is the study of words, how they are formed, and their relationship to other words in the same language. It analyzes the structure of words and parts of words such as stems, root words, prefixes, and suffixes. Morph ...

form that encodes the relative social status of the participants of the conversation. Distinct from honorific titles, linguistic honorifics convey formality , social distance, politeness , humility , deference, or respect through the choice of an alternate form such as an

affix In linguistics, an affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word or word form. Affixes may be derivational, like English ''-ness'' and ''pre-'', or inflectional, like English plural ''-s'' and past tense ''-ed''. They ar ...

clitic In morphology and syntax, a clitic (, backformed from Greek "leaning" or "enclitic"Crystal, David. ''A First Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics''. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1980. Print.) is a morpheme that has syntactic characteristics of a w ...

grammatical case A grammatical case is a category of nouns and noun modifiers (determiners, adjectives, participles, and Numeral (linguistics), numerals), which corresponds to one or more potential grammatical functions for a nominal group in a wording. In vari ...

, change in person or number, or an entirely different

lexical item In lexicography, a lexical item is a single word, a part of a word, or a chain of words ( catena) that forms the basic elements of a language's lexicon (≈ vocabulary). Examples are ''cat'', ''traffic light'', ''take care of'', ''by the way' ...

. A key feature of an honorific system is that one can convey the same message in both honorific and familiar forms—i.e., it is possible to say something like (as in an oft-cited example from Brown and Levinson) "The soup is hot" in a way that confers honor or deference on one of the participants of the conversation. Honorific speech is a type of social deixis, as an understanding of the context—in this case, the social status of the speaker relative to the other participants or bystanders—is crucial to its use. There are three main types of honorifics, categorized according to the individual whose status is being expressed: * Addressee (or speaker/hearer) * Referent (or speaker/referent) * Bystander (or speaker/bystander) Addressee honorifics express the social status of the person being spoken to (the hearer), regardless of what is being talked about. For example, Javanese has three different words for "house" depending on the status level of the person spoken to. Referent honorifics express the status of the person being spoken about. In this type of honorific, both the referent (the person being spoken about) and the target (the person whose status is being expressed) of the honorific expression are the same. This is exemplified by the T–V distinction present in many

Indo-European languages The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the overwhelming majority of Europe, the Iranian plateau, and the northern Indian subcontinent. Some European languages of this family, English, French, Portuguese, Russian, Dutc ...

, in which a different second-person pronoun (such as ''tu'' or ''vous'' in French) is chosen based on the relative social status of the speaker and the hearer (the hearer, in this case, also being the referent). Bystander honorifics express the status of someone who is nearby, but not a participant in the conversation (the overhearer). These are the least common, and are found primarily in

avoidance speech Avoidance speech is a group of sociolinguistic phenomena in which a special restricted speech style must be used in the presence of or in reference to certain relatives. Avoidance speech is found in many Australian Aboriginal languages and Aust ...

such as the "mother-in-law languages" of aboriginal Australia, where one changes one's speech in the presence of an in-law or other tabooed relative. A fourth type, the Speaker/Situation honorific, does not concern the status of any participant or bystander, but the circumstances and environment in which the conversation is occurring. The classic example of this is

diglossia In linguistics, diglossia () is a situation in which two dialects or languages are used (in fairly strict compartmentalization) by a single language community. In addition to the community's everyday or vernacular language variety (labeled " ...

, in which an elevated or "high form" of a language is used in situations where more formality is called for, and a vernacular or "low form" of a language is used in more casual situations. Politeness can be indicated by means other than grammar or marked vocabulary, such as conventions of word choice or by choosing what to say and what not to say. Politeness is one aspect of

Register Register or registration may refer to: Arts entertainment, and media Music * Register (music), the relative "height" or range of a note, melody, part, instrument, etc. * ''Register'', a 2017 album by Travis Miller * Registration (organ), th ...

, which is a more general concept of choosing a particular variety of language for a particular purpose or audience.

T–V distinction in Indo-European languages

One common system of honorific speech is T–V distinction. The terms ''T-form'' and ''V-form'' to describe the second person pronouns ''tu'' and ''vos'', respectively, were introduced by Brown and Gilman, whose 1960 study of them introduced the idea that the use of these forms was governed by "power and solidarity." The Latin ''tu'' refers to the singular T-form, while the Latin ''vos'' refers to the V-form, which is usually plural-marked. ''Tu'' is used to express informality, and in contrast, ''vos'' is used to express politeness and formality. T–V distinction is characteristic of many Indo-European languages, including Persian, Portuguese, Polish, and Russian, as detailed below.

Brazilian Portuguese

The pronouns ''tu'' (informal) and ''você'' (more formal) fit the T–V pattern nicely, except that their use varies a great deal from region to region. For instance, in most parts of Brazil, ''tu'' is not used; whereas in the northern state of Maranhão and southern regions, it is. A third lexical option is added to the honorific scheme: ''o senhor'' and ''a senhora'' (literally meaning "sir" and "madam", which are third-person references that are used in direct address (that would "normally" require the second person ''tu'' or ''você''). These forms are highly formal and used when speaking "upward" and always used in formal correspondence, such as in governmental letters, to authorities, customers and elders. See more discussion at

Portuguese personal pronouns Portuguese may refer to: * anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Portugal ** Portuguese cuisine, traditional foods ** Portuguese language, a Romance language *** Portuguese dialects, variants of the Portuguese language ** Portu ...

North Indian languages

North Indian languages such as Hindi,

Urdu Urdu (;"Urdu"
''

Polish Polish may refer to: * Anything from or related to Poland, a country in Europe * Polish language * Poles Poles,, ; singular masculine: ''Polak'', singular feminine: ''Polka'' or Polish people, are a West Slavic nation and ethnic group, w ...

has a simpler grammatical and lexical politeness incorporated into its language, in comparison to Japanese and Korean. It uses grammatical category of honorifics within certain verbs and personal pronouns; this honorific system is namely split into two basic levels – the familiar (T) and the polite (V): :*''ty'': second-person singular, informal :*''on'' (masculine) / ''ona'' (feminine): third-person singular, informal (note that there's also neuter ''ono'', but it is not used when referring to people except small children) :*''wy'': second-person plural, informal :*''oni'' (used when referring to a group of men or a mixed-sex group)/''one'' (when referring to a group of women): third-person plural :*''pan'' (male-marked) / ''pani'' (female-marked): second- and third-person singular, formal :*''panowie'' (male-marked) / ''panie'' (female-marked) / ''państwo'' (mixed gender): second- and third-person plural, formal Sometimes ''panna'' is used for an unmarried woman, along with using different suffixes for last name, although it is mostly obsolete and can be considered condescending. Using first name alone is familiar (but not necessarily intimate, as in Japanese—it is commonly used among colleagues, for example). Using the last name alone is extremely rare and when it is employed, it is condescending, and used among school pupils and in the military. Also using Pan/Pani with surname in vocative form is rather impolite. The address in form "proszę Pana/Pani" is preferred. Pan/Pani can be used as a prefix to a first or last name, as in the example: :*''Pan Karol'': Mr. Karol :*''Pani Kowalska'': Mrs./Ms. Kowalska :*''Pani Anna'': Mrs./Ms. Anna Which are more formal than using the typical familiar ''ty''/''on''/''ona'', but they may imply familiarity, especially in second person. Using a prefix with the first name is almost always considered familiar and possibly rude. Using the last name with a prefix in second person can still be considered impolite. Using the set phrase ''proszę pana'', ''proszę pani'' is preferred (and polite) when drawing attention (in a way akin to using ''sir'' in English). In addition, there are two different V forms within the honorific usage – the more formal and the less formal form. The less formal form is more colloquial and used in daily speech more frequently. The higher honorific level includes "compound" pronouns consisting of prefixal ''pan'' or ''pani'' in conjunction with professional titles. Here are some examples (for males/females resp.): :*''Pan minister'' / ''Pani minister'': Minister :*''Pan dyrektor'' / ''Pani dyrektor'': Director :*''Pan kierowca'' / ''Pani kierowca'': driver :*''Pan doktor'' / ''Pani doktor'': doctor These professional titles are more formal as the speaker humbles him/herself and puts the addressee at a higher rank or status. These can also be used along with a name (only last or both names), but that's extremely formal and almost never used in direct conversation. For some professional titles (e.g. ''doktor'', ''profesor''), the ''pan''/''pani'' can be dropped, resulting in a form which is less formal, but still polite. Unlike the above, this can also precede a name (almost always last), but it is seldom used in second person. As with ''pan''/''pani'' phrases such as ''proszę pana ministra'' (which can be translated "Minister, sir") can also be used for calling attention, although they are less common. The ''pan''/''pani'' can also be dropped with some titles in the phrase, but it is even less common and can be inappropriate. Historical factors played a major role in shaping the Polish usage of honorifics. Poland's history of nobility was the major source for Polish politeness, which explains how the honorific male-marked pronoun ''pan'' (''pani'' is female-marked) was derived from the old word for "lord." There are separate honorific pronouns used to address a priest (''ksiądz''), a nun or nurse (''siostra''). It is acceptable to replace ''siostra'' with ''pani'' when addressing a nurse, but it is unacceptable when speaking to a nun. Likewise, it is unacceptable to replace ''ksiądz'' with ''pan'' when speaking to a priest. The intimate T form is marked as neutral when used reciprocally between children, relatives, students, soldiers and young people.

Russian

Native

Russian Russian(s) refers to anything related to Russia, including: *Russians (, ''russkiye''), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries *Rossiyane (), Russian language term for all citizens and peo ...

speakers usually know when to use the informal second person singular pronoun (''ty'') or the formal form (''vy''). The practice of being informal is known as ''týkan’e'' while the practice of being formal and polite is referred to ''výkan’e''. It has been suggested that the origin of ''vy''-address came from the Roman Empire and the French due to the influence of their language and culture on the Russian aristocracy. In many other European countries, ''ty'' initially was used to address any one person or object, regardless of age and social ranking. ''Vy'' was then used to address multiple people or objects altogether. Later, after being in contact with foreigners, the second person plural pronoun acquired another function. Displaying respect and formality, it was used for addressing aristocrats – people of higher social status and power. Another theory suggests that in Russia, the Emperor first adopted the plural ''vy''-form. The Emperor is considered plural because he is the representation of the people. Likewise, the Emperor could refer to himself using ''vos'' (we), to represent "I and my people". From the courts, the middle and lower classes gradually adopted this usage. The younger generation and commoners, with minimal education still address each other using ''ty'' with no connotation of disrespect, however. Certain Russians who are used to ''vy''-address may perceive the ones who don't differentiate between ''ty'' and ''vy'' forms as uneducated, offensive and uncultured. This leads to the conclusion that this honorific was not a Russian innovation. Instead, the use of ''vy'' in both the singular and plural form is due to the exposure to the Latin historical and political developments. The usage of ''vy'' did not spread throughout the Russian population quickly; as a result, the usage was inconsistent until the eighteenth century, when ''Vy'' became more prominent in secular literature.

French

In French the singular form 'tu' is used in intimate and informal speech, as well as "speaking down", as adults to children (but never "up"). The plural form 'vous' is used to address individuals formally and in situations in which adults meet for the first time. Often people decide explicitly to break the formal by one or the other asking "on se tutoie?" (where "tutoyer" is the verb meaning to speak in the 'tu' register, its equivalent being "vouvoyer"). Also, the normally first person plural form "nous" may be used as an "humility mark" especially in formal communications like college thesis, to recognise that the work done is not the result of the single author of the thesis but comes from in a way, of all the predecessors and pairs in the realm of knowledge of the subject.

Avoidance speech

Avoidance speech, or "mother-in-law language," is the most common example of a bystander honorific. In this honorific system, a speaker switches to a different variety of speech in the presence of an in-law or other relative for whom an affinal

taboo A taboo or tabu is a social group's ban, prohibition, or avoidance of something (usually an utterance or behavior) based on the group's sense that it is excessively repulsive, sacred, or allowed only for certain persons.''Encyclopædia Britannica ...

exists. These languages usually have the same

phonology Phonology is the branch of linguistics that studies how languages or dialects systematically organize their sounds or, for sign languages, their constituent parts of signs. The term can also refer specifically to the sound or sign system of a ...

and grammatical structure as the standard language they derived from, but are characterized by a smaller lexical inventory than the standard language. Avoidance speech of this sort is primarily found in

Australian Aboriginal languages The Indigenous languages of Australia number in the hundreds, the precise number being quite uncertain, although there is a range of estimates from a minimum of around 250 (using the technical definition of 'language' as non-mutually intellig ...

such as Dyirbal, but can also be found in some Native American languages, including

Navajo The Navajo (; British English: Navaho; nv, Diné or ') are a Native American people of the Southwestern United States. With more than 399,494 enrolled tribal members , the Navajo Nation is the largest federally recognized tribe in the United ...

, and some

Bantu languages The Bantu languages (English: , Proto-Bantu: *bantʊ̀) are a large family of languages spoken by the Bantu people of Central, Southern, Eastern africa and Southeast Africa. They form the largest branch of the Southern Bantoid languages. The t ...

, including Zulu.

Dyirbal

The

Dyirbal language Dyirbal (also ''Djirubal'') is an Australian Aboriginal language spoken in northeast Queensland by the Dyirbal people. In 2016, the Australian Bureau of Statistics reported that there were 8 speakers of the language. It is a member of the sm ...

has a special avoidance speech style called ''Jalnguy'' that is used by a speaker when in the presence of the speaker's mother-in-law. This mother-in-law language has the same phonology and grammar as the everyday style, but uses an almost totally distinct set of lexemes when in the presence of the tabooed relative. This special lexicon has fewer lexemes than the everyday style and typically employs only transitive verb roots whereas everyday style uses non-cognate transitive and intransitive roots. By using this mother-in-law language a speaker then indicates a deferential social relationship.

Guugu-Yimidhirr

In Guugu-Yimidhirr, a traditional Australian Aboriginal language, special avoidance lexemes are used to express deference when in the presence of tabooed in-law relatives. In other words, speakers will either be completely prohibited from speaking to one's mother-in-law or must employ "avoidance language" to one's brother-in-law. The brother-in-law language involves a special set of words to replace regular Guugu-Yimidhirr words and the speaker must avoid words which could suggest reference to genitalia or bodily acts. This brother-in-law language therefore indexes a deferential social relationship of the brother-in-law to the speaker and is reflected in the appropriate social behavior of Guugu-Yimidhirr society. For example, one avoids touching tabooed in-laws, looking at them, joking with them, and cursing in their presence.

Mortlockese

The

Mortlockese language Mortlockese (Kapsen Mwoshulók), also known as Mortlock or Nomoi, is a language that belongs to the Chuukic group of Micronesian languages in the Federated States of Micronesia spoken primarily in the Mortlock Islands ( Nomoi or Lower Mortlock Is ...

uses avoidance speech between genders. In Mortlock culture, there are many restrictions and rules when interacting with people of the opposite gender, such as how only males are allowed to go fishing or how women are supposed to lower their posture in the presence of men. This avoidance speech showcases one of these restrictions/rules. This gender-restrictive vocabulary can only be used when speaking to people of the same gender. For men, this is sometimes referred to as ''kapsen leefalang'' or the speech of the cookhouse.

Other examples of honorifics

English

Modern English has no grammatical system of honorific speech, with formality and informality being conveyed entirely by register, word choice, tone, rhetorical strategy, etc.

Middle English Middle English (abbreviated to ME) is a form of the English language that was spoken after the Norman conquest of 1066, until the late 15th century. The English language underwent distinct variations and developments following the Old English p ...

once exhibited a T–V distinction between the 2nd person singular pronoun ''

thou The word ''thou'' is a second-person singular pronoun in English. It is now largely archaic, having been replaced in most contexts by the word ''you'', although it remains in use in parts of Northern England and in Scots (). ''Thou'' is the ...

'' and the 2nd person plural '' ye'' and later ''

you In Modern English, ''you'' is the second-person pronoun. It is grammatically plural, and was historically used only for the dative case, but in most modern dialects is used for all cases and numbers. History ''You'' comes from the Proto- ...

'', with the latter being used as an honorific regardless of the number of addressees. ''Thou'' and its associated forms have fallen into disuse and are considered archaic, though it is often used in recreations of archaic-sounding speech. It has also survived in some dialect forms of English, notably in some regions of Yorkshire, especially amongst the older and more rural populations. ''Ye'' usage can still be found in pockets of the east coast of North America, such as rural Newfoundland.

German

German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) ** Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ge ...

has 'Sie' as formal and 'ihr' (pl.), & 'du' (sg.) as the informal.

Chinese

Chinese has '您'(nín) as formal 'you', & '你'(nǐ) as the informal.

Japanese

Japanese Japanese may refer to: * Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia * Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan * Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture ** Japanese diaspor ...

honorific speech requires either honorific morphemes to be appended to verbs and some nouns or verbs and pronouns be replaced by words that mean the same but incorporate different honorific connotations. Japanese honorific speech is broadly referred to as ''keigo'' (literally "respectful language"), and includes three main categories according to Western linguistic theory: ''sonkeigo'', respectful language; ''kensongo'' or ''kenjōgo'', humble language; and ''teineigo'', polite language. # ''Sonkeigo'' #* raises the status of the addressee or referent (e.g. third person) in relation to the speaker #* encodes a feeling of respect #* example: 先生がそちらにお出でになる。 ''Sensei ga sochira ni oide ni naru.'' 'The teacher is going there.' # ''Kenjōgo'' #* humbles the status of the speaker in relation to the addressee or referent #* encodes a feeling of humility #* example: 明日先生のところに伺う。 ''Asu sensei no tokoro ni ukagau.'' 'I will go to the teacher's place tomorrow.' # ''Teineigo'' #* raises the status of the addressee or referent in relation to the speaker #* encodes politeness #* example: 先生がそちらに行きます。 ''Sensei ga sochira ni ikimasu.'' 'The teacher is going there.' Another subcategory of ''keigo'' is ''bikago'' or ''bika-hyōgen'', which means "word beautification" and is used to demonstrate the quality of the speaker's language. Each type of speech has its own vocabulary and verb endings.Wetzel, Patricia J. 2004. ''Keigo in Modern Japan''. University of Hawai’I Press. pp.3–4, 23, 29–30, 33, 39–41, 60–65 Japanese linguist Hatsutarō Ōishi distinguishes four sources of respect as the primary reasons for using ''keigo'': # respecting those who have a higher social rank, extraordinary ability, or credentials # respecting those who occupy a dominant position # respecting those to whom one is indebted # respect for humanity Comparatively, a more contemporary linguistic account by functional linguist Yasuto Kikuchi posits that honorific speech is governed by social factors and psychological factors. :Some examples of what Kikuchi considers social factors include: :* the location and topic being discussed by the speaker :* whether the context is written or spoken :* interpersonal relationships between the speaker, listener, and referent (i.e. positional relationships, relative familiarity, and in-group/out-group relationships). :Some examples of what Kikuchi considers psychological factors are: :* the intention of the speaker in using polite speech :* how relative distance in relationships is understood :* how skilled the speaker is in expression.

Javanese

Speech levels, although not as developed or as complex as honorific speech found in Japanese, are but one of a complex and nuanced aspect of Javanese etiquette: etiquette governs not only speaking but, "sitting, speaking, standing, pointing, composing one's countenance"James Joseph Errington: 1998. ''Shifting languages: interaction and identity in Javanese Indonesia'' in ''Issue 19 of Studies in the social and cultural foundations of language''. Cambridge University Press: 1998. , . 216 pages 84–88Errington, JJ 1988. ''Structure and Style in Javanese: A Semiotic View of Linguistic Etiquette''. University of Pennsylvania Press: 11 and one could add mastery of English and Western table manners. According to Wolfowitz, as quoted in:

"The system is based on sets of precisely ranked or style-coded morphemes that are semantically equivalent but stylistically contrastive"

important is an honorific vocabulary referring to the possessions, attributes, states and actions of persons, a vocabulary that includes honorific kin terms. The Javanese perception of this is best summarized as per Errington's anecdote of an old Javanese man explaining:

Whenever two people meet they should ask themselves: "Who is this person? Who am I? What is this person to me? Balanced against one another on a scale: this is ''unggah-unggah''- relative value

The understanding of honorifics is heavily emphasized by speakers of Javanese. High-strata Javanese will bluntly state: "to be human is to be Javanese". Those who are "sampun Jawa" or "already Javanese" are those who have a good grasp of social interaction and stratified Javanese language and applied to foreigners as well. Children, boors, simpletons, the insane, the immoral are ''durung Jawa'': not yet Javanese. Javanese speech is stratified. The three levels are: :*''Ngoko'' is the common "everyday" speech. :*''Krama'' is known as the polite and formal style. ''Krama'' is divided into two other categories: :**''Krama Madya'': semi-polite and semi-formal :**''Krama Inggil'': fully polite and formal "Krama" is pronounced as rɔmɔ All these categories are ranked according to age, rank, kinship relations, and "intimacy." If a speaker is uncertain about the addressee's age or rank, they commence with ''

krama inggil Krama Inggil is a polite form of the Javanese language used in daily conversations, especially with older people. The opposite of this speaking manner is called " Boso Ngoko". Nowadays, this manner of speaking is rarely used by the residents of J ...

'' and adapt their speech strata according to the highest level of formality, moving down to lower levels. ''Krama'' is usually learned from parents and teachers, and ''Ngoko'' is usually learned from interacting with peers at a younger age. Javanese women are expected to address their husbands in front of others, including their children in a respectful manner. Such speech pattern is especially more pronounced in areas where arranged marriage are prominent and within households where the husband is considerably older than the wife. Husbands generally address their wives by their first name, pet name, or "younger sibling" (''dhik'' or ''mbak lik'') while wives generally address their husbands as "elder brother" (''mas''). High-strata children are expected to speak in krama inggil to both father and mother. This is less reinforced as the social strata descends, to the point of being near non-existent especially among the modern working class strata who may have the necessity of both parents working. At this point grandparents take the role of educating the children to correct language usage. Women are considered the custodians of language and culture within the household.

Korean

Korean Korean may refer to: People and culture * Koreans, ethnic group originating in the Korean Peninsula * Korean cuisine * Korean culture * Korean language **Korean alphabet, known as Hangul or Chosŏn'gŭl **Korean dialects and the Jeju language ** ...

honorific speech is a mixture of subject honorification, object exaltation, and the various speech levels. Depending on how these three factors are used, the speaker highlights different aspects of the relationship between the speaker, the subject, and the listener (who may also be the subject).Lee, Iksop and S. Robert Ramsey. 2000. ''The Korean Language''. State University of New York Press. pp. 224, 250, 253–263.

Korean honorifics The Korean language has a system of honorifics that recognizes and reflects the hierarchical social status of participants with respect to the subject and/or the object and/or the audience. Speakers use honorifics to indicate their social rel ...

can be added to nouns, adjectives, and verbs, and honorific styles of address may also be used.

Korean pronouns Korean pronouns pose some difficulty to speakers of English due to their complexity. The Korean language makes extensive use of speech levels and honorifics in its grammar, and Korean pronouns also change depending on the social distinction betw ...

may be dropped, or may be used in formal, familiar, or humble forms. Seven

Korean speech levels There are seven verb paradigms or speech levels in Korean, and each level has its own unique set of verb endings which are used to indicate the level of formality of a situation. Unlike honorifics – which are used to show respect towards som ...

can be used (though some are archaic) to express the level of politeness and formality to the audience. Each has its own set of verb endings. :The six commonly used speech styles from lowest to highest are: # plain style (''haerache'' or 해라체) #* formal #* signals more social distance between the speaker and addressee than that when using intimate style #* generally used when writing for a general audience #* generally used in written language, but when it used in spoken language, it represents admiration. # ''banmal'' or intimate style (''haeche'' or 해체) #* informal #* typically used with close friends, by parents to their children, by a relatively older speaker to a child, by children to children, or by youngsters to the same-ages. #* recently, many children use banmal to their parents. # familiar style (''hageche'' or 하게체) #* more formal than ''banmal'' style #* signals that the speaker will treat the listener with consideration and courtesy #* typically used when the addressee is below the speaker in age or social rank (e.g. the speaker is at least thirty years old and the addressee is of college age) #* The familiar style generally implies the speaker is showing authority therefore typically requires the speaker to be sufficiently mature. #* Women seldom use familiar style because it is commonly associated with male authority. #* Generally, it is used by senior citizens, getting out of use by most of people in everyday language. # semiformal or blunt style (''haoche'' or 하오체) #* more formal than familiar style with neutral politeness #* used to address someone in an inferior position (e.g. age or social rank) #* A speaker will use semiformal style with a stranger whose social rank is clear but not particularly lower compared to the speaker. #* It is generally used by senior citizens, getting out of used by most of people in everyday language. #* When semiformal style is used by young people, it also represents humorous sense, and is thought to be unsuitable for serious situations. # polite style (''haeyoche'' or 해요체) #* informal but polite. #* typically used when the addressee is a superior (e.g. by children to their parents, students to teachers) #* This is the most common speech style and is commonly used between strangers. # formal or deferential style (''hapshoche'' or 합쇼체) #* used to treat superiors with the most reserve and the most respect #* commonly used in speeches delivered to large audiences, in news reports, radio broadcasts, business, and formal discussions. #* in most of cases, books are written in plain style(herache), or formal style(hapshoche). #* In some cases, speakers will switch between polite and formal styles depending on the situation and the atmosphere that one wishes to convey. These six speech styles are sometimes divided into honorific and non-honorific levels where the formal and polite styles are honorific and the rest are non-honorific. According to Strauss and Eun, the two honorific speech levels are "prototypically used among non-intimate adults of relatively equal rank". Comparatively, the non-honorific speech levels are typically used between intimates, in-group members, or in "downward directions of address by the speaker to his or her interlocutor."Stauss, Susan and Jong Oh Eun. 2005. “Indexicality and honorific speech level choice in Korean.” Linguistics. 613–614. ISSN 1613-396X

Modern Nahuatl

The

Nahuatl language Nahuatl (; ), Aztec, or Mexicano is a language or, by some definitions, a group of languages of the Uto-Aztecan languages, Uto-Aztecan language family. Varieties of Nahuatl are spoken by about Nahuas, Nahua peoples, most of whom live mainly in ...

, spoken in scattered communities in rural areas of Central Mexico, utilizes a system of honorific speech to mark social distance and respect. The honorific speech of the Nahuatl dialects spoken in the Malinche Volcano area of Puebla and Tlaxcala in Mexico is divided into four levels: an "intimate or subordinating" Level I; a "neutral, socially distant" or "respectful between intimates" Level II; "noble" or "reverential" Level III; and the "compadrazgo" or "maximally social distant" Level IV. Level I is typically used by non-age-mates and non-intimates and is unmarked in terms of

prefix A prefix is an affix which is placed before the Word stem, stem of a word. Adding it to the beginning of one word changes it into another word. For example, when the prefix ''un-'' is added to the word ''happy'', it creates the word ''unhappy'' ...

ation or

suffixation In linguistics, a suffix is an affix which is placed after the stem of a word. Common examples are case endings, which indicate the grammatical case of nouns, adjectives, and verb endings, which form the conjugation of verbs. Suffixes can carry g ...

of the listener and verbs. Level II is marked by the prefix on- on the verb and is used between intimates. Some Nahuatl speakers have been observed to alternate between Level I and Level II for one listener. The use of both levels is believed to show some respect or to not subordinate the listener. Level III is marked by the prefix ''on-'', the reflexive prefix ''mo-'', and an appropriate transitivizing suffix based on the verb stem. Verbs in Level III may additionally be marked with the reverential suffix ''–tzinōa''. Finally, Level IV is typically used between people who share a ritual kinship relationship (e.g. parent with godparent, godparent with godparent of the same child). Level IV is marked by a

proclitic In morphology and syntax, a clitic (, backformed from Greek "leaning" or "enclitic"Crystal, David. ''A First Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics''. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1980. Print.) is a morpheme that has syntactic characteristics of a w ...

(i.e. word that depends on the following word and works similarly to an affix, such as the word "a" or "an" in English) ''ma''. Another important aspect of Level IV is that it addresses the listener in 3rd person whereas Level I through III all use 2nd person forms. By using this 3rd person form, maximal social distance is achieved.

Mortlockese

The

is an Austronesian language spoken primarily on the Mortlock islands in Micronesia. In Mortlock culture, there is a hierarchy with chiefs called ''samwool.'' When speaking to these chiefs or to anyone of higher status, one must use honorifics (in Mortlockese called ''kapas pwéteete'' or ''kapas amáfel'') in order to convey respect. In the Mortlockese Language, there are only two levels of speaking - common language and respectful language(honorifics). While respectful language is used when speaking to people of higher status, common language is used when speaking to anyone of the same or lesser status. One example showing the difference between respectful and common language can be seen in the word sleep. The word for sleep using common language is ''maúr'' while the word for sleep using respectful language is ''saipash''. Along with the respectful language, there are formal greetings called ''tiirou'' or ''fairo'' that are used in meetings and gatherings. In English, some examples of formal greetings would be "good evening" or "it's a pleasure to meet you" or "how are you." These formal greetings not only use words, but also gestures. It is the combination of the words and gestures that create the ''tiirou'' or ''fairo''(formal greeting). In English a formal greeting like this would be like saying "nice to meet you" while offering a handshake.

Pohnpeian

Pohnpeian Pohnpeian is a Micronesian language spoken as the indigenous language of the island of Pohnpei in the Caroline Islands. Pohnpeian has approximately 30,000 (estimated) native speakers living in Pohnpei and its outlying atolls and islands with a ...

, honorific speech is especially important when interacting with chiefs and during Christian church services. Even radio announcements use honorifics, specifically bystander honorifics, because a chief or someone of higher status could potentially be listening. Pohnpeian honorific speech consists of: :*status-lowering (humiliative) speech :*status-raising (exaltive) speech Honorific speech is usually performed through the choice of verbs and possessive classifier. There are only status-raising nouns but none for status lowering; there are only status-lowering pronouns but none for status-raising. The construction of possessive classifiers depends on ownership, temporality, degrees of control, locative associations, and status. In addition to status-rising and status-lowering possessive classifiers, there are also common (non-status marked) possessive classifiers. Status-rising and status-lowering possessive classifiers have different properties of control and temporality. Common possessive classifiers are divided into three main categories – relatives, personal items, and food/drink. Given that rank is inherited matrilineally, maternal relatives have specific classifiers, but paternal relatives do not. Personal items that are in close contact with the higher ranks are marked with honorific language. Food is related to social ranking; there is a hierarchy of food distribution. The best share of food is first distributed to the chief and people of higher status. In possessive constructions, food is linked to low-status possession, but not as heavily link to high-status possession. Tungoal ("food/eating") is used for all categories of low-status possessives; however, the most widely used high-status classifier, sapwelline ("land/hand") is not semantically connected to food. There are separate terms for food of high-status people – ''koanoat'', ''pwenieu'', and ''sak''. On Pohnpei, it is also important to follow a specific order of serving food. The higher-ranked people eat first, both in casual family settings and community events. The lower-status people receive the "leftovers" or the weaker portion.

Thai

Wuvulu-Aua

In Wuvulu grammar, the honorific dual is used to convey respect, especially towards in-laws. The second person dual pronoun, ''amurua'' literally translates to 'you two', but can also be used as an honorific to address one. This communicates to the individual being spoken to is worth the respect of two individuals. It is undocumented if there are other honorifics greater than this one. Ex. Mafufuo, meru. (Good Morning, you two) Note: ''Meru'' is the shortened version of ''amurua'' This sentence can be used to speak with one or two people.

Notes

References

* Brown, Penelope and Levinson, Stephen C. 1987. ''Politeness: Some Universals in Language''. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. * Frawley, William. 1992. ''Linguistic Semantics''. Lawrence Erlbaum. * Levinson, Stephen C. 1983. ''Pragmatics''. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. * Sifianou, Maria. 1999. ''Politeness Phenomena in England and Greece''. Oxford University Press. {{Authority control Sociolinguistics Pragmatics * Linguistics terminology

T–V distinction in Indo-European languages

Brazilian Portuguese

North Indian languages

Russian

French

Avoidance speech

Dyirbal

Guugu-Yimidhirr

Mortlockese

Other examples of honorifics

English

German

Chinese

Japanese

Javanese

Korean

Modern Nahuatl

Mortlockese

Pohnpeian

Thai

Wuvulu-Aua

See also

Notes

References