Cornstalk (c. 1720? – November 10, 1777) was a
Shawnee
The Shawnee are an Algonquian-speaking indigenous people of the Northeastern Woodlands. In the 17th century they lived in Pennsylvania, and in the 18th century they were in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, with some bands in Kentucky a ...
leader in the
Ohio Country in the 1760s and 1770s. His name in the
Shawnee language
The Shawnee language is a Central Algonquian language spoken in parts of central and northeastern Oklahoma by the Shawnee people. It was originally spoken by these people in a broad territory throughout the Eastern United States, mostly north of ...
was Hokoleskwa. Little is known about his early life. He may have been born in the
Province of Pennsylvania. In 1763, he reportedly led a raid against British-American colonists in
Pontiac's War
Pontiac's War (also known as Pontiac's Conspiracy or Pontiac's Rebellion) was launched in 1763 by a loose confederation of Native Americans dissatisfied with British rule in the Great Lakes region following the French and Indian War (1754–176 ...
. He first appears in historical documents in 1764, when he was one of the hostages surrendered to the British as part of the peace negotiations ending Pontiac's War.
When the British-American colonies began expanding into the Ohio Country, Cornstalk played a major part in defense of the Shawnee homeland. He was the primary Shawnee war chief in
Lord Dunmore's War
Lord Dunmore's War—or Dunmore's War—was a 1774 conflict between the Colony of Virginia and the Shawnee and Mingo American Indian nations.
The Governor of Virginia during the conflict was John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore—Lord Dunmore. He a ...
(1774), leading Shawnees and other Native warriors against colonists in the
Battle of Point Pleasant. After suffering defeat in that battle, he became an advocate for Shawnee neutrality in the American Revolutionary War, which began in 1775. Many Shawnees fought against the Americans, hoping to regain lost lands, but Cornstalk was among those who feared that fighting the Americans would prove disastrous for the Shawnees.
In 1777, Cornstalk made a diplomatic visit to
Fort Randolph in Virginia (now West Virginia), hoping to learn American intentions. He and three others were imprisoned by the fort's commander. When an American militiaman was killed by Natives in the fort's vicinity, angry soldiers executed Cornstalk and the other prisoners. His murder enraged Shawnees and deprived them of an important voice of moderation.
Background and early life
Little is known of Cornstalk's early life, as he does not clearly appear in historical records until 1764.
[Sugden (1999)] His year of birth is unknown; some early writings estimate it at 1720, although this date is undocumented.
[Keenan (2006)] His name in the
Shawnee language
The Shawnee language is a Central Algonquian language spoken in parts of central and northeastern Oklahoma by the Shawnee people. It was originally spoken by these people in a broad territory throughout the Eastern United States, mostly north of ...
, Hokoleskwa ("a blade of corn"), was also recorded in colonial records as Colesqua, Keightughqua, and Semachquaan, with several spelling variations.
In the 1680s, decades before Cornstalk's birth, the Shawnees were
driven out of the Ohio Country by the
Iroquois
The Iroquois ( or ), officially the Haudenosaunee ( meaning "people of the longhouse"), are an Iroquoian-speaking confederacy of First Nations peoples in northeast North America/ Turtle Island. They were known during the colonial years to ...
. One Shawnee band resettled in the
Wyoming Valley
The Wyoming Valley is a historic industrialized region of Northeastern Pennsylvania. The region is historically notable for its influence in helping fuel the American Industrial Revolution with its many anthracite coal-mines. As a metropolitan ...
along the
Susquehanna River in the
Province of Pennsylvania, near present-day
Plymouth. A leader of this group was Paxinosa, a noted Shawnee chief.
Moravian missionaries who knew Cornstalk said he was Paxinosa's son or grandson, so Cornstalk might have been born in that area.
Shawnees of Cornstalk's era belonged to one of five tribal divisions:
Mekoche
Mekoche (or Mequachake, Shawnee: ''mecoce'') was the name of one of the five divisions (or bands) of the Shawnee, a Native American people, during the 18th century. The other four divisions were the Chalahgawtha, Kispoko, Pekowi, and Hathawekel ...
,
Chalahgawtha
Chalahgawtha (or, more commonly in English, Chillicothe) was the name of one of the five divisions (or bands) of the Shawnee, a Native American people, during the 18th century. It was also the name of the principal village of the division. The ot ...
(Chillicothe),
Kispoko Kispoko (also spelled Kiscopocoke, Kispokotha, Spitotha) is the name of one of the five divisions (or septs) of the Shawnee, a Native American people. The Kispoko were the smallest of the five septs or divisions during the 18th century. They lived ...
,
Pekowi Pekowi was the name of one of the five divisions (or bands) of the Shawnee, a Native Americans in the United States, Native American people, during the 18th century. The other four divisions were the Chalahgawtha, Mekoche, Kispoko, and Hathawekela. ...
, and
Hathawekela
Hathawekela (also spelled Oawikila, Thaawikila, Thawegila, Shawnee: ''θawikila'', French: ''Chalaqua'') was one of the five divisions (or bands) of the Shawnee, a Native American people during the 18th century. The other four divisions were the C ...
. Like Paxinosa, Cornstalk belonged to the Mekoche division.
When fighting in the
French and Indian War
The French and Indian War (1754–1763) was a theater of the Seven Years' War, which pitted the North American colonies of the British Empire against those of the French, each side being supported by various Native American tribes. At the ...
came to Pennsylvania in 1755, Paxinosa's band remained neutral. In 1758, seeking to avoid the conflict, they relocated to the Ohio County, establishing a new town,
Wakatomika, on the
Muskingum River
The Muskingum River (Shawnee: ') is a tributary of the Ohio River, approximately long, in southeastern Ohio in the United States. An important commercial route in the 19th century, it flows generally southward through the eastern hill country o ...
, with other Shawnee refugees. Some Ohio Shawnees took part in the war. Many years later, Cornstalk was said to have led a 1759 raid into Virginia, although stories about his participation in that raid may be apocryphal.
Cornstalk may have fought in
Pontiac's War
Pontiac's War (also known as Pontiac's Conspiracy or Pontiac's Rebellion) was launched in 1763 by a loose confederation of Native Americans dissatisfied with British rule in the Great Lakes region following the French and Indian War (1754–176 ...
(1763–1766), a pan-tribal effort to counter British control of the Ohio County. He is said to have led a 1763 raiding party into Virginia (now
West Virginia
West Virginia is a state in the Appalachian, Mid-Atlantic and Southeastern regions of the United States.The Census Bureau and the Association of American Geographers classify West Virginia as part of the Southern United States while the B ...
).
He first appears in historical records in 1764, when he took part in negotiations with Colonel
Henry Bouquet
Henry Bouquet (born Henri Louis Bouquet; 1719 – 2 September 1765) was a Swiss mercenary who rose to prominence in British service during the French and Indian War and Pontiac's War. He is best known for his victory over a Native American ...
. He was one of the hostages surrendered by the tribe to ensure compliance with the peace. Fearful for his safety, Cornstalk escaped and returned home.
The Ohio Shawnees had initially been concentrated in two major towns, Wakatomica on the Muskingum and
Lower Shawneetown
Lower Shawneetown, also known as Shannoah or Sonnontio, was an 18th-century Shawnee village located within the Lower Shawneetown Archeological District, near South Portsmouth in Greenup County, Kentucky and Lewis County, Kentucky. The population ...
on the
Ohio River. In 1758, Lower Shawneetown was abandoned in favor of multiple, smaller towns up the
Scioto River
The Scioto River ( ) is a river in central and southern Ohio more than in length. It rises in Hardin County just north of Roundhead, Ohio, flows through Columbus, Ohio, where it collects its largest tributary, the Olentangy River, and meets t ...
. In the 1760s, Cornstalk established his own town on the Scioto, as did his sister,
Nonhelema, known to colonists as the "Grenadier Squaw." Cornstalk's brothers Nimwha and Silver Heels were also notable Shawnee leaders.
Cornstalk had at least two children, sons Cutemwha (The Wolf) and Allanawissica (also called Elinipsico).
In the 1780s, Cutemwha (also known as Piaseka or Biaseka), would emerge an important Shawnee chief.
Lord Dunmore's War
![LoganElm11](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/LoganElm11.JPG)
During Pontiac's War, the British issued the
Royal Proclamation of 1763
The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was issued by King George III on 7 October 1763. It followed the Treaty of Paris (1763), which formally ended the Seven Years' War and transferred French territory in North America to Great Britain. The Procla ...
, which created a boundary between the British colonies and Native land in the west. This boundary did not last long: in the 1768
Treaty of Fort Stanwix
The Treaty of Fort Stanwix was a treaty signed between representatives from the Iroquois and Great Britain (accompanied by negotiators from New Jersey, Virginia and Pennsylvania) in 1768 at Fort Stanwix. It was negotiated between Sir William J ...
,
Sir William Johnson negotiated a new boundary line with the
Iroquois
The Iroquois ( or ), officially the Haudenosaunee ( meaning "people of the longhouse"), are an Iroquoian-speaking confederacy of First Nations peoples in northeast North America/ Turtle Island. They were known during the colonial years to ...
, ceding lands south of the
Ohio River (present-day
West Virginia
West Virginia is a state in the Appalachian, Mid-Atlantic and Southeastern regions of the United States.The Census Bureau and the Association of American Geographers classify West Virginia as part of the Southern United States while the B ...
and
Kentucky
Kentucky ( , ), officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States and one of the states of the Upper South. It borders Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio to the north; West Virginia and Virginia ...
) to the British. Although Shawnees used this land for hunting, they had not been consulted in the negotiations.
Clashes between whites and Indians erupted after 1769 as settlers and land speculators poured into the region. Shawnees began organizing other Natives in an effort to defend their hunting grounds against British colonization.
In 1773, Cornstalk warned
Thomas Bullitt
Thomas Bullitt (1730 – February 1778) was a United States military officer from Prince William County, Virginia and pioneer on its western frontier.
Early and family life
Thomas was born to Benjamin and Sarah (Harrison) Bullitt in 1730 in Princ ...
against surveying the region.
The issue became a crisis in 1774 after at least ten
Mingo Indians were murdered by white settlers in the
Yellow Creek massacre.
[Calloway (2007), p. 51] Mingos retaliated against settlers, and war seemed imminent. At
Fort Pitt,
John Connolly, agent for
Lord Dunmore
Earl of Dunmore is a title in the Peerage of Scotland.
History
The title was created in 1686 for Lord Charles Murray, second son of John Murray, 1st Marquess of Atholl. He was made Lord Murray of Blair, Moulin and Tillimet (or Tullimet) and V ...
, the royal governor of Virginia, called out the militia. Cornstalk worked to prevent the escalation of violence. He sent his brother Silver Heels to escort several British traders from the Shawnee towns to safety in Fort Pitt. While at Fort Pitt, Silver Heels was shot and seriously wounded by local militiamen.
Lord Dunmore's War
Lord Dunmore's War—or Dunmore's War—was a 1774 conflict between the Colony of Virginia and the Shawnee and Mingo American Indian nations.
The Governor of Virginia during the conflict was John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore—Lord Dunmore. He a ...
had begun.
Cornstalk was not the principal chief of the Shawnees, as is sometimes thought. Shawnees lived in autonomous towns with no central government, but in the 1760s they began appointing a ceremonial leader (or "principal chief") from the Mekoche division to speak for them in negotiations with colonial leaders. The principal chief in Cornstalk's day was the Mekoche Chief Kisinoutha (Hard Man). According to Shawnee custom, in time of war, civil chiefs like Kisinoutha yielded leadership to their war chiefs. Now Cornstalk, as head warrior, took command, leading war chiefs that included
Blue Jacket
Blue Jacket, or Weyapiersenwah (c. 1743 – 1810), was a war chief of the Shawnee people, known for his militant defense of Shawnee lands in the Ohio Country. Perhaps the preeminent American Indian leader in the Northwest Indian War, i ...
,
Black Snake (Peteusha), and
Pukeshinwau.
The Shawnees and Mingos were greatly outnumbered by the Virginians, so Cornstalk tried to recruit Native allies in the face of an imminent invasion. British officials successfully prevented other Indians from joining the war, leaving Cornstalk with only about 300 Shawnee, Mingo,
Delaware
Delaware ( ) is a state in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, bordering Maryland to its south and west; Pennsylvania to its north; and New Jersey and the Atlantic Ocean to its east. The state takes its name from the adjacent Del ...
, and
Wyandot
Wyandot may refer to:
Native American ethnography
* Wyandot people, also known as the Huron
* Wyandot language
Wyandot (sometimes spelled Wandat) is the Iroquoian language traditionally spoken by the people known variously as Wyandot or Wya ...
warriors to oppose Dunmore's 2,300 men. Dunmore launched a two-prong invasion of the Ohio Country, with him leading one wing, Colonel
Andrew Lewis in command of the other. Cornstalk decided to strike at Lewis's wing before the two armies could unite, initiating the
Battle of Point Pleasant on October 10. During the intense, day-long battle, Virginians heard Cornstalk encouraging his men to "be strong, be strong!"
[Calloway (2007), p. 55] The Shawnees initially had the upper hand, but when colonial reinforcements arrived, the outnumbered Shawnees were pushed back. Near sundown, Cornstalk finally withdrew his warriors across the Ohio River.
As Dunmore's armies continued to advance into the Ohio Country, some warriors wished to continue fighting. Cornstalk chastised them, saying, "then let us kill all our women and children, and go fight till we die." Cornstalk arranged to meet Dunmore and negotiate an end to the brief war. At the
Treaty of Camp Charlotte
Lord Dunmore's War—or Dunmore's War—was a 1774 conflict between the Colony of Virginia and the Shawnee and Mingo American Indian nations.
The Governor of Virginia during the conflict was John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore—Lord Dunmore. H ...
, Cornstalk apparently accepted the Ohio River as the boundary of Shawnee lands. He surrendered four hostages, including his son, to ensure compliance with the terms.
A Virginia officer, Col. Benjamin Wilson, wrote of Cornstalk's speech to Lord Dunmore at Camp Charlotte: "I have heard the first orators in Virginia,
Patrick Henry
Patrick Henry (May 29, 1736June 6, 1799) was an American attorney, planter, politician and orator known for declaring to the Second Virginia Convention (1775): " Give me liberty, or give me death!" A Founding Father, he served as the first a ...
and
Richard Henry Lee
Richard Henry Lee (January 20, 1732June 19, 1794) was an American statesman and Founding Father from Virginia, best known for the June 1776 Lee Resolution, the motion in the Second Continental Congress calling for the colonies' independence f ...
, but never have I heard one whose powers of delivery surpassed those of Cornstalk on that occasion."
American Revolution
![Death of Chief Cornstalk](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Death_of_Chief_Cornstalk.png)
When the
American Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was a major war of the American Revolution. Widely considered as the war that secured the independence of t ...
followed shortly after Dunmore's War, Cornstalk endeavored to keep his people neutral.
In October 1775, Cornstalk, Nimwha, and other Mekoches represented the Shawnees in 1775 at a council held at Fort Pitt, seeking to maintain peaceful relations with the Americans.
In the summer of 1776, he also visited the British in
Detroit
Detroit ( , ; , ) is the largest city in the U.S. state of Michigan. It is also the largest U.S. city on the United States–Canada border, and the seat of government of Wayne County. The City of Detroit had a population of 639,111 at t ...
, hoping to establish friendly relations with them as well.
Many Shawnees, nevertheless, hoped to use British aid to reclaim their lands lost to the Americans. Shawnees sent emissaries south to the
Cherokees
The Cherokee (; chr, ᎠᏂᏴᏫᏯᎢ, translit=Aniyvwiyaʔi or Anigiduwagi, or chr, ᏣᎳᎩ, links=no, translit=Tsalagi) are one of the indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands of the United States. Prior to the 18th century, t ...
at
Chota (present
Tennessee
Tennessee ( , ), officially the State of Tennessee, is a landlocked state in the Southeastern region of the United States. Tennessee is the 36th-largest by area and the 15th-most populous of the 50 states. It is bordered by Kentucky to th ...
) to seek aid. A young Cherokee chief,
Dragging Canoe
Dragging Canoe (ᏥᏳ ᎦᏅᏏᏂ, pronounced ''Tsiyu Gansini'', "he is dragging his canoe") (c. 1738 – February 29, 1792) was a Cherokee war chief who led a band of Cherokee warriors who resisted colonists and United States settlers in the ...
, accepted the call to arms. Shawnees and Cherokees began cooperating in a war against the Americans.
In the autumn of 1776, Cornstalk returned to Fort Pitt, where he told U.S. Indian agent
George Morgan that although some young Shawnee warriors were acting rashly, his people were committed to peace. Cornstalk had Morgan send a message to the
Continental Congress, outlining Shawnee grievances and offering friendship. In the meantime, Cornstalk said he had decided to remove his followers to
Coshocton, a neutral
Delaware
Delaware ( ) is a state in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, bordering Maryland to its south and west; Pennsylvania to its north; and New Jersey and the Atlantic Ocean to its east. The state takes its name from the adjacent Del ...
Indian town on the
Tuscarawas River
The Tuscarawas River is a principal tributary of the Muskingum River, 129.9 miles (209 km) long, in northeastern Ohio in the United States. Via the Muskingum and Ohio rivers, it is part of the watershed of the Mississippi River, draining a ...
.
By the winter of 1776, Shawnees were effectively divided between Cornstalk's neutral faction and militant bands led by such men as
Blackfish
Blackfish is a common name for the following species of fish, dolphins, and whales:
Fish
* Alaska blackfish, (''Dallia pectoralis''), an Esocidae from Alaska, Siberia and the Bering Sea islands
* Black fish ('' Carassioides acuminatus'') a cypri ...
. Although Cornstalk, Kisinoutha and other Mekoche leaders had made peace with the Virginians at Camp Charlotte, the other Shawnee divisions did not all agree with the loss of their hunting grounds and pursued their own agendas.
In October 1777, two Shawnees visited
Fort Randolph, an American fort that had been built at the site of the Battle of Point Pleasant (present-day
Point Pleasant, West Virginia
Point Pleasant is a city in and the county seat of Mason County, West Virginia, United States, at the confluence of the Ohio and Kanawha Rivers. The population was 4,101 at the 2020 census. It is the principal city of the Point Pleasant, ...
). They were detained by the fort's commander,
Matthew Arbuckle
Matthew Arbuckle (1778–1851) was a career soldier in the US Army closely identified with the Indian Territory for the last thirty years of his life.
Biography
Early life
He was born 28 December 1778 in Greenbrier County, Virginia (now West Vir ...
, who had decided to hold hostage any Shawnees who fell into his hands. Cornstalk's son Elinipsico (Allanawissica) arrived a few days later to ask why they were being held. Cornstalk came to the fort soon after, and all four were detained. On November 10, an American militiaman stationed at the fort was killed by unknown Indians in the vicinity. In retaliation, angry soldiers brutally executed Cornstalk, Elinipsico, and the other two Shawnees.
Aftermath and legacy
According to historian John Sudgen, "The significance of Cornstalk's death has been misinterpreted."
Cornstalk's murder did not cause the Shawnees to go to war against the Americans, as is sometimes believed, since militant Shawnees had already decided to do so.
However, his death deprived the Shawnees of an important voice of moderation and convinced many Indians that Americans could not be trusted.
More Shawnees joined the ranks of the militants after the murder. Cornstalk's followers relocated to Coshocton in 1778.
His sister Nonhelema moved to Fort Randolph, where she worked as an interpreter and messenger for the Americans, and continued to promote peace despite her brother's murder.
American political and military leaders were alarmed by Cornstalk's murder; they believed he was their only hope of securing Shawnee neutrality.
Patrick Henry
Patrick Henry (May 29, 1736June 6, 1799) was an American attorney, planter, politician and orator known for declaring to the Second Virginia Convention (1775): " Give me liberty, or give me death!" A Founding Father, he served as the first a ...
, the first American governor of Virginia, was outraged, demanding that Cornstalk's "vile assassins" be brought to justice.
They were "James Hall of the county of Rockbridge, and Malcolm McCown of Augusta, Adam Barnes of Greenbrier, William Roane of Rockbridge and Hugh Galbreath of Rockbridge... for James Hall 200 dollars, for Malcolm McCown 150 dollars, for Adam Barnes, William Roane and Hugh Galbreath 100 dollars each." The alleged killers were eventually brought to trial, but since their fellow soldiers would not testify against them, all were acquitted.
Cornstalk was originally buried at Fort Randolph. In 1840, his grave was rediscovered and his remains were moved to the
Mason County Courthouse grounds. When the courthouse was torn down in 1954, Cornstalk was reburied at
Tu-Endie-Wei State Park, the site of the Battle of Point Pleasant.
Local legends arose about his dying "curse" being the cause of misfortunes in the area. Regional stories claim that he took his revenge in the 1960s by sending the mysterious
Mothman
In West Virginia folklore, the Mothman is a humanoid creature reportedly seen in the Point Pleasant area from November 15, 1966, to December 15, 1967. The first newspaper report was published in the ''Point Pleasant Register'', dated ...
to terrorize Point Pleasant.
A legend about Aracoma, a supposed daughter of Cornstalk, is well known in
Logan County, West Virginia
Logan County is a county in the U.S. state of West Virginia. As of the 2020 census, the population was 32,567. Its county seat is Logan. Logan County comprises the Logan, WV Micropolitan Statistical Area, which is also included in the Charle ...
. The story is presented as an
outdoor drama each year at
Chief Logan State Park. The city of
Logan, West Virginia
Logan is a city in Logan County, West Virginia, United States, along the Guyandotte River. The population was 1,438 at the 2020 census. It is the county seat of Logan County.
History
What is now Logan was initially called "Islands of the Guyandot ...
, was known as "Aracoma" from about 1844 to 1907, and was named after her.
[, p. 381.]
See also
*
Chief Cornstalk Wildlife Management Area
References
Citations
Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
Chief Cornstalk burial markerGrenadier Squaw Village / Cornstalk Town historical markers
{{DEFAULTSORT:Cornstalk
Year of birth unknown
1777 deaths
American Revolutionary War executions
Native Americans in the American Revolution
Native American people of the Indian Wars
Shawnee people
Native American leaders
Murdered Native American people
People murdered in West Virginia
Year of birth uncertain
1700s births
People in Dunmore's War
18th-century Native Americans