Hmong Americans (
RPA: ''Hmoob Mes Kas'',
Pahawh Hmong
Pahawh Hmong ( RPA: Phaj hauj Hmoob , Pahawh: ; known also as ''Ntawv Pahawh, Ntawv Keeb, Ntawv Caub Fab, Ntawv Soob Lwj'') is an indigenous semi-syllabic script, invented in 1959 by Shong Lue Yang, to write two Hmong languages, Hmong Daw ''( ...
: "") are
Americans
Americans are the citizens and nationals of the United States of America.; ; Although direct citizens and nationals make up the majority of Americans, many dual citizens, expatriates, and permanent residents could also legally claim Ame ...
of
Hmong
Hmong may refer to:
* Hmong people, an ethnic group living mainly in Southwest China, Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand
* Hmong cuisine
* Hmong customs and culture
** Hmong music
** Hmong textile art
* Hmong language, a continuum of closely related to ...
ancestry. Many Hmong Americans immigrated to the United States as refugees in the late 1970s. Over half of the Hmong population from
Laos left the country, or attempted to leave, in 1975, at the culmination of the
Laotian Civil War.
Thousands of
Hmong were evacuated or escaped on their own to Hmong refugee camps in Thailand. About 90% of those who made it to refugee camps in Thailand were ultimately resettled in the United States. The rest, about 8 to 10%, resettled in countries including Canada, France, the Netherlands, and Australia.
According to the 2019
American Community Survey by the US Census Bureau, the population count for Hmong Americans was 327,000. Hmong Americans face disparities in healthcare, and socioeconomic challenges that lead to lower health literacy and median life expectancy, and per capita income.
History
1976 and 1980
![USA - HMONG Memorial](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/USA_-_HMONG_Memorial.jpg)
Initially, only 1,000 Hmong people were evacuated to the US. In May 1976, another 11,000 Hmong were allowed to enter the United States. By 1978 some 30,000 Hmong had immigrated to the US and by 1998, there were 200,000 Hmong living in the US. This first wave was made up primarily of men directly associated with General
Vang Pao
Vang Pao ( RPA: ''Vaj Pov'' , Lao: ວັງປາວ; 8 December 1929 – 6 January 2011) was a major general in the Royal Lao Army. He was a leader of the Hmong American community in the United States. He was also known as General Vang ...
's
Secret Army, which had been aligned with US war efforts during the
Vietnam War
The Vietnam War (also known by other names) was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam a ...
. Vang Pao's Secret Army, which was subsidized by the US
Central Intelligence Agency
The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA ), known informally as the Agency and historically as the Company, is a civilian foreign intelligence service of the federal government of the United States, officially tasked with gathering, processing, ...
, fought mostly along the
Ho Chi Minh Trail, where his forces sought to disrupt
North Vietnam
North Vietnam, officially the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV; vi, Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng hòa), was a socialist state supported by the Soviet Union (USSR) and the People's Republic of China (PRC) in Southeast Asia that existed f ...
ese weapons supply efforts to the communist
Viet Cong
,
, war = the Vietnam War
, image = FNL Flag.svg
, caption = The flag of the Viet Cong, adopted in 1960, is a variation on the flag of North Vietnam. Sometimes the lower stripe was green.
, active ...
rebel forces in
South Vietnam. Ethnic Laotian and Hmong veterans, and their families, led by Colonel Wangyee Vang formed the
Lao Veterans of America
The Lao Veterans of America, Inc., describes itself as a non-profit, non-partisan, non-governmental, veterans organization that represents Lao- and Hmong-American veterans who served in the U.S. clandestine war in the Kingdom of Laos during the Vie ...
in the aftermath of the war to help refugees in the camps in Thailand and to help former veterans and their families in the United States, especially with family reunification and resettlement issues.
The passage of the
Refugee Act of 1980
The United States Refugee Act of 1980 (Public Law 96-212) is an amendment to the earlier Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 and the Migration and Refugee Assistance Act of 1962, and was created to provide a permanent and systematic procedu ...
represented the second-wave of Hmong immigration. The
clans, from which the Hmong take their surnames, are: Chang (Tsaab) or Cha (Tsab), Chao (Tsom), Cheng (Tsheej), Chue (Tswb), Fang (Faaj) or Fa (Faj), Hang (Haam) or Ha (Ham), Her (Hawj), Khang (Khaab) or Kha (Khab), Kong (Koo) or Soung (Xoom), Kue (Kwm), Lee (Lis), Lor (Lauj), Moua (Muas), Pha (Phab), Thao (Thoj), Vang (Vaaj) or Va (Vaj), Vue or Vu (Vwj), Xiong (Xyooj) and Yang (Yaaj) or Ya (Yaj).
1990s and 2000s
Following the 1980 immigration wave, a heated global political debate developed over how to deal with the remaining Hmong refugees in Thailand. Many had been held in squalid Thai refugee camps, and the
United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre for harmoniz ...
and the
Clinton administration sought to repatriate them to Laos.
Reports of human rights violations against the Hmong in Laos, including killings and imprisonments, led most Thailand-based Hmong to oppose returning there, even as the conditions worsened of the camps in Thailand, because of their lack of sufficient funding.
One of the more prominent examples of apparent Laotian abuse of the Hmong was the fate of Vue Mai, a former soldier. The
US Embassy in Bangkok recruited him to return to Laos under the repatriation program, in their effort to reassure the Thai-based Hmong that their safety in Laos would be assured. But Vue disappeared in
Vientiane
Vientiane ( , ; lo, ວຽງຈັນ, ''Viangchan'', ) is the capital and largest city of Laos. Vientiane is divided administratively into 9 cities with a total area of only approx. 3,920 square kilometres and is located on the banks of ...
. The US Commission for Refugees later reported that he was arrested by Lao security forces and never seen again.
Especially following the Vue Mai incident, the Clinton and UN policy of returning the Hmong to Laos began to meet with strong political opposition by
US conservatives and some
human rights
Human rights are moral principles or normsJames Nickel, with assistance from Thomas Pogge, M.B.E. Smith, and Leif Wenar, 13 December 2013, Stanford Encyclopedia of PhilosophyHuman Rights Retrieved 14 August 2014 for certain standards of hu ...
advocates.
Michael Johns, a former
White House
The White House is the official residence and workplace of the president of the United States. It is located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D.C., and has been the residence of every U.S. president since John Adams in ...
aide to President
George H. W. Bush and a
Heritage Foundation
The Heritage Foundation (abbreviated to Heritage) is an American conservative think tank based in Washington, D.C. that is primarily geared toward public policy. The foundation took a leading role in the conservative movement during the preside ...
foreign policy analyst, along with other influential conservatives, led a campaign to grant the Thai-based Hmong immediate US immigration rights. In an October 1995 ''
National Review
''National Review'' is an American conservative editorial magazine, focusing on news and commentary pieces on political, social, and cultural affairs. The magazine was founded by the author William F. Buckley Jr. in 1955. Its editor-in-chief ...
'' article, citing the Hmong's contributions to US war efforts during the
Vietnam War
The Vietnam War (also known by other names) was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam a ...
, Johns described President Clinton's support for returning the Thai-based Hmong refugees to Laos as a "betrayal" and urged Congressional
Republicans to step up opposition to the repatriation. Opposition to the repatriation grew in Congress and among Hmong families in the US. Congressional Republicans responded by introducing and passing legislation to appropriate sufficient funds to resettle all remaining Hmong in Thailand in the United States. Clinton vowed to veto the legislation.
In addition to internal US opposition to the repatriation, the government of Laos expressed reservations about the repatriation, stating that the Hmong remaining in Thailand were a threat to its one-party
communist government and the
Marxist government in
Vientiane
Vientiane ( , ; lo, ວຽງຈັນ, ''Viangchan'', ) is the capital and largest city of Laos. Vientiane is divided administratively into 9 cities with a total area of only approx. 3,920 square kilometres and is located on the banks of ...
,
Laos. In a significant and unforeseen political victory for the Hmong and their US Republican advocates, tens of thousands of Thai-based Hmong refugees were ultimately granted US immigration rights. The majority were resettled in
California
California is a state in the Western United States, located along the Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the most populous U.S. state and the 3rd largest by area. It is also the m ...
,
Minnesota
Minnesota () is a state in the upper midwestern region of the United States. It is the 12th largest U.S. state in area and the 22nd most populous, with over 5.75 million residents. Minnesota is home to western prairies, now given over to ...
, and
Wisconsin
Wisconsin () is a state in the upper Midwestern United States. Wisconsin is the 25th-largest state by total area and the 20th-most populous. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake M ...
. The defeat of the repatriation initiative resulted in the reunifications in the US of many long-separated Hmong families. In 2006, as a reflection of the growth of the minority in the state, the Wisconsin State Elections Board translated state voting documents into the Hmong language.
Throughout the Vietnam War, and for two decades following it, the US government stated that there was no "Secret War" in Laos and that the US was not engaged in air or ground combat operations in Laos. In the late 1990s, however, several US conservatives, led by Johns and others, alleged that the Clinton administration was using the denial of this covert war to justify a repatriation of Thailand-based Hmong war veterans to Laos. It persuaded the US government to acknowledge the Secret War (conducted mostly under President
Richard Nixon
Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913April 22, 1994) was the 37th president of the United States, serving from 1969 to 1974. A member of the Republican Party, he previously served as a representative and senator from California and was ...
) and to honor the Hmong and American veterans from the war.
On May 15, 1997, in a total reversal of US policy, the federal government acknowledged that it had supported a prolonged air and ground campaign in Laos against the
North Vietnamese Army
The People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN; vi, Quân đội nhân dân Việt Nam, QĐNDVN), also recognized as the Vietnam People's Army (VPA) or the Vietnamese Army (), is the military force of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam and the armed win ...
and Vietcong. That day it dedicated the
Laos Memorial on the grounds of
Arlington National Cemetery
Arlington National Cemetery is one of two national cemeteries run by the United States Army. Nearly 400,000 people are buried in its 639 acres (259 ha) in Arlington, Virginia. There are about 30 funerals conducted on weekdays and 7 held on Sa ...
in honor of the Hmong and other combat veterans from the Secret War. In 1999 there were about 250,000 Hmong people living in the United States, living in numerous medium and large cities.
[Kaiser, Robert L. "After 25 Years In U.S., Hmong Still Feel Isolated." '']Chicago Tribune
The ''Chicago Tribune'' is a daily newspaper based in Chicago, Illinois, United States, owned by Tribune Publishing. Founded in 1847, and formerly self-styled as the "World's Greatest Newspaper" (a slogan for which WGN radio and television a ...
''. December 27, 1999
1
. Retrieved on April 14, 2012.
Some Hmong remained in
refugee camps in Thailand at the time of the
September 11, 2001, attacks. This resulted in the tightening of US immigration laws, especially under the
Patriot Act
The USA PATRIOT Act (commonly known as the Patriot Act) was a landmark Act of the United States Congress, signed into law by President George W. Bush. The formal name of the statute is the Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appro ...
and the
Real ID Act, and the immigration of Hmong refugees to the US has significantly slowed. Most Hmong refugees in Thailand had been engaged in documented armed conflict (although under US sponsorship) during and after the
Vietnam War
The Vietnam War (also known by other names) was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam a ...
. The anti-terrorism legislation created barriers to such people being accepted as immigrants.
Demographics
Hmong population in the US by areas of concentration
![20110404 Hmong Village Recycling Award 109](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/20110404_Hmong_Village_Recycling_Award_109.jpg)
According to the 2010 US Census, 260,073 people of Hmong descent reside in the United States up from 186,310 in 2000.
The vast majority of the growth since 2000 was from natural increase, except for the admission of a final group of over 15,000 refugees in 2004 and 2005 from
Wat Tham Krabok Wat Tham Krabok ( th, วัดถ้ำกระบอก, literally 'Temple of the Bamboo Cave') is a Buddhist temple (''wat'') in the Phra Phutthabat District of Saraburi Province, Thailand.
The temple was first established as a monastery in 1 ...
in
Thailand
Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is bo ...
. Of the 260,073 Hmong-Americans, 247,595 or 95.2% are Hmong alone, and the remaining 12,478 are mixed Hmong with some other ethnicity or race. The Hmong-American population is among the youngest of all groups in the United States, with the majority being under 30 years old, born after 1980, with most part-Hmong are under 10 years old.
States with the largest Hmong population include:
California
California is a state in the Western United States, located along the Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the most populous U.S. state and the 3rd largest by area. It is also the m ...
(86,989; 0.2%),
Minnesota
Minnesota () is a state in the upper midwestern region of the United States. It is the 12th largest U.S. state in area and the 22nd most populous, with over 5.75 million residents. Minnesota is home to western prairies, now given over to ...
(63,619; 1.2%),
Wisconsin
Wisconsin () is a state in the upper Midwestern United States. Wisconsin is the 25th-largest state by total area and the 20th-most populous. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake M ...
(47,127; 0.8%), and
North Carolina
North Carolina () is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States. The state is the 28th largest and 9th-most populous of the United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, Georgia and So ...
(10,433; 0.1%),
Michigan
Michigan () is a state in the Great Lakes region of the upper Midwestern United States. With a population of nearly 10.12 million and an area of nearly , Michigan is the 10th-largest state by population, the 11th-largest by area, and the ...
(5,924; 0.1%),
Colorado
Colorado (, other variants) is a state in the Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It encompasses most of the Southern Rocky Mountains, as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of t ...
(4,530; 0.1%),
Georgia
Georgia most commonly refers to:
* Georgia (country), a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the Southeast United States
Georgia may also refer to:
Places
Historical states and entities
* Related to the ...
(3,623; 0.03%),
Alaska
Alaska ( ; russian: Аляска, Alyaska; ale, Alax̂sxax̂; ; ems, Alas'kaaq; Yup'ik: ''Alaskaq''; tli, Anáaski) is a state located in the Western United States on the northwest extremity of North America. A semi-exclave of the U.S., ...
(3,534; 0.5%),
Oklahoma
Oklahoma (; Choctaw language, Choctaw: ; chr, ᎣᎧᎳᎰᎹ, ''Okalahoma'' ) is a U.S. state, state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States, bordered by Texas on the south and west, Kansas on the nor ...
(3,369; 0.1%), and
Oregon
Oregon () is a U.S. state, state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. The Columbia River delineates much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington (state), Washington, while the Snake River delineates much of it ...
(2,920; 0.1%).
The metropolitan areas of
Fresno
Fresno () is a major city in the San Joaquin Valley of California, United States. It is the county seat of Fresno County and the largest city in the greater Central Valley region. It covers about and had a population of 542,107 in 2020, maki ...
and
Minneapolis-St. Paul have especially large Hmong communities.
St. Paul, Minnesota, has the largest Hmong population per capita in the United States (10.0%; 28,591 Hmong Americans), followed by
Wausau in Wisconsin (3,569; 9.1% of its population).
In terms of metropolitan area, the largest Hmong-American community is in Minneapolis-Saint Paul-Bloomington, MN Metro Area (74,422); followed by Fresno, CA Metro Area (31,771); Sacramento, CA Metro Area (26,996); Milwaukee, WI Metro Area (11,904); and Merced, CA Metro Area (7,254).
There are smaller Hmong communities scattered across the country, including cities in California; Colorado (
Denver, Colorado
Denver () is a consolidated city and county, the capital, and most populous city of the U.S. state of Colorado. Its population was 715,522 at the 2020 census, a 19.22% increase since 2010. It is the 19th-most populous city in the Unit ...
– 4,264); Michigan (
Detroit, Michigan
Detroit ( , ; , ) is the largest city in the U.S. state of Michigan. It is also the largest U.S. city on the United States–Canada border, and the seat of government of Wayne County. The City of Detroit had a population of 639,111 at ...
and
Warren, Michigan
Warren is a city in Macomb County in the U.S. state of Michigan. The 2020 Census places the city's population at 139,387, making Warren the largest city in Macomb County, the third largest city in Michigan, and Metro Detroit's largest suburb.
T ...
– 4,190), Alaska (
Anchorage, Alaska
Anchorage () is the largest city in the U.S. state of Alaska by population. With a population of 291,247 in 2020, it contains nearly 40% of the state's population. The Anchorage metropolitan area, which includes Anchorage and the neighboring Ma ...
– 3,494); North Carolina (
Hickory, North Carolina
Hickory is a city located primarily in Catawba County, with formal boundaries extending into Burke and Caldwell counties. The city lies in the U.S. state of North Carolina. At the time of the 2020 census, Hickory's population was 43,490. Hickor ...
); Georgia (
Auburn
Auburn may refer to:
Places Australia
* Auburn, New South Wales
* City of Auburn, the local government area
*Electoral district of Auburn
*Auburn, Queensland, a locality in the Western Downs Region
*Auburn, South Australia
*Auburn, Tasmania
*Aub ...
,
Duluth
, settlement_type = City
, nicknames = Twin Ports (with Superior), Zenith City
, motto =
, image_skyline =
, image_caption = Clockwise from top: urban Duluth skyline; Minnesota ...
,
Lawrenceville,
Monroe,
Atlanta
Atlanta ( ) is the capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Georgia. It is the seat of Fulton County, the most populous county in Georgia, but its territory falls in both Fulton and DeKalb counties. With a population of 498,715 ...
, and
Winder); Wisconsin (
Eau Claire,
Appleton,
Green Bay,
La Crosse
La Crosse is a city in the U.S. state of Wisconsin and the county seat of La Crosse County, Wisconsin, La Crosse County. Positioned alongside the Mississippi River, La Crosse is the largest city on Wisconsin's western border. La Crosse's populat ...
, and
Stevens Point
Stevens Point is the county seat of Portage County, Wisconsin, United States. The city was incorporated in 1858.
Its 2020 population of 25,666 makes it the largest city in the county. Stevens Point forms the core of the United States Census Bur ...
,
Plover
Plovers ( , ) are a widely distributed group of wading birds belonging to the subfamily Charadriinae.
Description
There are about 66 species in the subfamily, most of them called "plover" or "dotterel". The closely related lapwing subfa ...
, and
Sheboygan); Kansas (
Kansas City
The Kansas City metropolitan area is a bi-state metropolitan area anchored by Kansas City, Missouri. Its 14 counties straddle the border between the U.S. states of Missouri (9 counties) and Kansas (5 counties). With and a population of more ...
– 1,754); Oklahoma (
Tulsa
Tulsa () is the second-largest city in the U.S. state, state of Oklahoma and List of United States cities by population, 47th-most populous city in the United States. The population was 413,066 as of the 2020 United States census, 2020 census. ...
– 2,483);
Southwest Missouri; Northwest
Arkansas
Arkansas ( ) is a landlocked state in the South Central United States. It is bordered by Missouri to the north, Tennessee and Mississippi to the east, Louisiana to the south, and Texas and Oklahoma to the west. Its name is from the Osage ...
(
Benton County); Washington; Oregon (
Portland
Portland most commonly refers to:
* Portland, Oregon, the largest city in the state of Oregon, in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States
* Portland, Maine, the largest city in the state of Maine, in the New England region of the northeas ...
), Montana (Missoula) and throughout the United States.
Hmong by location
As of the
2000 US Census
The United States census of 2000, conducted by the Census Bureau, determined the resident population of the United States on April 1, 2000, to be 281,421,906, an increase of 13.2 percent over the 248,709,873 people enumerated during the 1990 cen ...
, the largest Hmong population by metropolitan area resided in and around Minneapolis-St. Paul, with 40,707 people. The following areas were
Greater Fresno with 22,456 people,
Greater Sacramento
The Greater Sacramento area refers to a metropolitan region in Northern California comprising either the U.S. Census Bureau defined Sacramento–Roseville–Arden-Arcade metropolitan statistical area or the larger Sacramento–Roseville combined ...
(Sacramento-Yolo) with 16,261, Greater Milwaukee (Milwaukee-Racine) with 8,078, Greater Merced with 6,148, Greater Stockton (Stockton-Lodi) with 5,553, Appleton-Oshkosh-Neenah with 4,741, Greater Wausau with 4,453, Hickory-Morganton-Lenoir (North Carolina) with 4,207, and
Greater Detroit
The Detroit metropolitan area, often referred to as Metro Detroit, is a major metropolitan area in the U.S. State of Michigan, consisting of the city of Detroit and its surrounding area. There are varied definitions of the area, including the ...
(Detroit-Ann Arbor-Flint) with 3,926.
[O'Malley, Julia.]
Hmong and Mormon
." ''Anchorage Daily News
The ''Anchorage Daily News'' is a daily newspaper published by the Binkley Co., and based in Anchorage, Alaska. It is the most widely read newspaper and news website (adn.com) in the state of Alaska.
The newspaper is headquartered in Anchorage, ...
''. Sunday, October 8, 2006. A1. Retrieved on March 13, 2012.
California
California has the largest Hmong population in the United States by state.
As of 2010, there are 95,120 Hmong Americans in California.
In 2002, the State of California counted about 35,000 students of Hmong descent in schools. According to Jay Schenirer, a member of the school board of the
Sacramento City Unified School District
Sacramento City Unified School District (SCUSD) is a public school system in Sacramento, California. With 47,900 students in 81 schools, it is the eleventh largest school district in California.
Founding
Harvey Willson “H.W.” Harkness w ...
, most of the students lived in the
Central Valley, in an area ranging from
Fresno
Fresno () is a major city in the San Joaquin Valley of California, United States. It is the county seat of Fresno County and the largest city in the greater Central Valley region. It covers about and had a population of 542,107 in 2020, maki ...
to
Marysville.
Fresno County
Fresno County (), officially the County of Fresno, is a county located in the central portion of the U.S. state of California. As of the 2020 Census, the population was 1,008,654. The county seat is Fresno, the fifth-most populous city in Cali ...
and
Sacramento County
Sacramento County () is a county located in the U.S. state of California. As of the 2020 census, the population was 1,585,055. Its county seat is Sacramento, which has been the state capital of California since 1854.
Sacramento County is the ...
combined have almost 12,000 Hmong students.
[Chavez, Erika.]
Hmong cry for help has been heard A state forum will seek ways to improve student achievement.
" ''The Sacramento Bee
''The Sacramento Bee'' is a daily newspaper published in Sacramento, California, in the United States. Since its foundation in 1857, ''The Bee'' has become the largest newspaper in Sacramento, the fifth largest newspaper in California, and the 2 ...
''. Tuesday, May 28, 2002. B1. Retrieved on March 12, 2012.
As of 2002, of the Hmong students who took the
California English Language Development Test, which measures English fluency in students who are learning English, 15% of Hmong scores at the "advanced" or "early advanced" classifications, while 30% of
Vietnamese
Vietnamese may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to Vietnam, a country in Southeast Asia
** A citizen of Vietnam. See Demographics of Vietnam.
* Vietnamese people, or Kinh people, a Southeast Asian ethnic group native to Vietnam
** Overse ...
English learning students and 21% of all of California's over 1.5 million English learning students scored at those levels. Suanna Gilman-Ponce, the multilingual education department head of Sacramento City Unified, said that the Hmong students have lower rates due to having parents who speak little English; therefore they enter American schools with few English skills. In addition, their culture was not literate, so Hmong history was not written down and history books did not discuss Hmong history.
In 2011, Susan B. Anthony Elementary School in Sacramento established a Hmong-language immersion program. In 2019, Fresno Unified School district began offering dual immersion as well as Elective course offerings for high school students to learn the Hmong language.
[Chavez, Erika.]
Hmong immersion program in Sacramento aims to educate, preserve.
" PRI. December 25, 2012. Retrieved on October 13, 2013. In the Fresno Unified School District, over 10,000 signatures of support were collected for the naming of a new elementary school for General Vang Pao, a well known leader from the Secret Wars in Laos and the Hmong American diaspora.
Colorado
Colorado is home to approximately 5,000 Hmong who first settled in the state in the late 1976 to early 1980s. Today, most of the Hmong live in the north metro Denver area including Arvada, Brighton, Broomfield, Federal Heights, Lafayette, Northglenn, Thornton and Westminster.
In 1995, Golden, Colorado became the first city in the United States to designate a Lao-Hmong Recognition Day. Since then, other areas in the country followed suit, declaring July 22 “Lao-Hmong Recognition Day”. The establishment of this day recognizes the bravery, sacrifice, and loyalty to the United States exhibited by the Lao-Hmong. The Lao-Hmong Recognition Day was held in recognition and to honor of the Lao-Hmong Special Guerrilla Units (SGU) Veterans, "America’s Secret Army and Most Loyal Allies." The SGUs were composed of indigenous Laotians, especially the Hmong, Lao, Mien, Lue, Khmu and Thaidam tribes, and were known for their patriotism, valiant service, personal sacrifice and loyal support of the United States Armed Forces in Laos during the Vietnam War.
"Historically, the Lao-Hmong people were one of our country’s most loyal allies. During the Vietnam War, they fought bravely alongside U.S. soldiers. Many emigrated to the U.S. and now proudly call this country their home. We are grateful for their service and sacrifice to our nation," said U.S. Rep.
Ed Perlmutter
Edwin George Perlmutter (born May 1, 1953) is an American lawyer and politician serving as the U.S. representative for . A member of the Democratic Party, his district is located in the northern and western suburbs of the Denver metropolitan area ...
(CO-07).
The Hmong Alliance and Missionary District headquarters is located in Thornton, CO. In 2018, the Hmong District celebrates its fortieth-year anniversary in St. Paul, MN with over 110 churches scattered throughout the United States with an inclusive membership of 30,000 plus people. The Hmong District is led by Rev. Dr. Lantzia Thao (Tswv Txos), who acts as the Hmong District Superintendent overseeing the entire movement and operations.
Kansas
Kansas has a moderately-sized Hmong population.
Kansas City
The Kansas City metropolitan area is a bi-state metropolitan area anchored by Kansas City, Missouri. Its 14 counties straddle the border between the U.S. states of Missouri (9 counties) and Kansas (5 counties). With and a population of more ...
was one of the first cities to accept Hmong people after the war. Its Hmong population declined in the early 80s due to migration from Kansas to California, and the Northern Midwest. The population has since stabilized and has more than double every decade since 1990. According to the 2010 Census, 1,732 Hmong people lived in Kansas of which 1,600 lived in the Kansas Side of Kansas City and an estimated more than 400 families and 2,000 Hmong living in the Greater Kansas City Area in 2013. Lao Family was established in Kansas City in the 1980s but the Hmong separated from the organization to create the Hmong American Community, Inc. which today is still a functioning entity hosting Hmong New Year celebrations in Kansas City. Kansas City has a vast majority Green Hmong population and is greater than 80% converted to Christianity though more and more Hmong people move in every year that still practices the traditional religion. Kansas City is home to Hmong churches, multiple Hmong runs and owned manufacturing companies, nail salons, small business such as insurance and barber shops, vendors at the flea market, an organization such as Hmong Village Inc., Vang Organization, and Herr Organization just to name a few.
Massachusetts
The Hmong community in Massachusetts is small compared to the Vietnamese and Cambodian populations of Massachusetts. As of 2011, according to Judy Thao, the director of the United Hmong of Massachusetts, an organization based in
Lowell, about 2,000 Hmong resided in the State of Massachusetts. Thao said that the largest community, with 60 to 70 families, is located in the
Fitchburg/
Leominster
Leominster ( ) is a market town in Herefordshire, England, at the confluence of the River Lugg and its tributary the River Kenwater. The town is north of Hereford and south of Ludlow in Shropshire. With a population of 11,700, Leominster is t ...
area. As of 2010, there are 412 people of Hmong descent living in Fitchburg (one percent of the city's population). Thao said that about 20 to 30 families each live in the second largest communities, in
Springfield
Springfield may refer to:
* Springfield (toponym), the place name in general
Places and locations Australia
* Springfield, New South Wales (Central Coast)
* Springfield, New South Wales (Snowy Monaro Regional Council)
* Springfield, Queenslan ...
and
Brockton.
Michigan
As of 1999, fewer than 4,000 Hmong people lived in Detroit.
[Kaiser, Robert L. "After 25 Years In U.s., Hmong Still Feel Isolated." '']Chicago Tribune
The ''Chicago Tribune'' is a daily newspaper based in Chicago, Illinois, United States, owned by Tribune Publishing. Founded in 1847, and formerly self-styled as the "World's Greatest Newspaper" (a slogan for which WGN radio and television a ...
''. December 27, 1999
2
. Retrieved on April 14, 2012. As of 2005, Michigan had 5,400 Hmong people; reflecting an increase from 2,300 in the 1990s. As of 2005, most Hmong in Michigan lived in Metro Detroit in the cities of Detroit,
Pontiac Pontiac may refer to:
*Pontiac (automobile), a car brand
*Pontiac (Ottawa leader) ( – 1769), a Native American war chief
Places and jurisdictions Canada
*Pontiac, Quebec, a municipality
** Apostolic Vicariate of Pontiac, now the Roman Catholic D ...
, and
Warren
A warren is a network of wild rodent or lagomorph, typically rabbit burrows. Domestic warrens are artificial, enclosed establishment of animal husbandry dedicated to the raising of rabbits for meat and fur. The term evolved from the medieval A ...
.
["Michigan Hmong." '']Michigan Daily
''The Michigan Daily'' is the weekly student newspaper of the University of Michigan. Its first edition was published on September 29, 1890. The newspaper is financially and editorially independent of the University's administration and other stu ...
''. January 10, 2007. p
2
Archive
Retrieved on November 8, 2012. As of 2002 the concentrations of Hmong and Laotian people in the
Wayne–
Macomb–
Oakland
Oakland is the largest city and the county seat of Alameda County, California, United States. A major West Coast port, Oakland is the largest city in the East Bay region of the San Francisco Bay Area, the third largest city overall in the Bay A ...
tri-county area were in northeast Detroit, southern Warren, and central Pontiac.
[Metzger, Kurt and Jason Booza.]
Asians in the United States, Michigan and Metropolitan Detroit
." Center for Urban Studies, Wayne State University
Wayne State University (WSU) is a public research university in Detroit, Michigan. It is Michigan's third-largest university. Founded in 1868, Wayne State consists of 13 schools and colleges offering approximately 350 programs to nearly 25,000 ...
. January 2002 Working Paper Series, No. 7. p. 7. Retrieved on November 6, 2013. That year, Kurt Metzger and Jason Booza, authors of "Asians in the United States, Michigan and Metropolitan Detroit," wrote that "The 3,943 Hmong living in tri-county area is one of the most concentrated of the Asian groups."
As of 2007, almost 8,000 Hmong lived in Michigan, most in northeastern Detroit. As of 2007, Hmong were increasingly moving to Pontiac and Warren.
The Greater Lansing Area is home to the second largest Hmong American population in Michigan. After 1970, Hmong Americans began to settle in Lansing, Michigan's capital city. Hmong Americans in the Greater Lansing Area, often, have strong ties to churches. Churches like St. Michael's, Our Savior Lutheran Church, and All Saints Episcopal Church sponsored Hmong Americans coming to Lansing, providing them resources to make the transition to America a smoother experience.
Lansing
Lansing () is the capital of the U.S. state of Michigan. It is mostly in Ingham County, although portions of the city extend west into Eaton County and north into Clinton County. The 2020 census placed the city's population at 112,644, makin ...
hosts a statewide Hmong New Year Festival.
Minnesota
As of 1999, Minnesota has the second largest US Hmong population by state.
As of 2001, the largest Hmong population in the United States by the city is located in St. Paul.
''Pom Siab Hmoob'' (Gazing into the Heart of the Hmong) Theatre, which is reportedly the world's first Hmong theater group, was formed in 1990. It is based in the Twin Cities. It is now known as the Center for Hmong Arts and Talent (CHAT).
The film ''
Gran Torino
''Gran Torino'' is a 2008 American drama film directed and produced by Clint Eastwood, who also starred in the film. The film co-stars Christopher Carley, Bee Vang, and Ahney Her. This was Eastwood's first starring role since 2004's ''Million D ...
'' by
Clint Eastwood
Clinton Eastwood Jr. (born May 31, 1930) is an American actor and film director. After achieving success in the Western TV series '' Rawhide'', he rose to international fame with his role as the "Man with No Name" in Sergio Leone's "''Doll ...
, though set and filmed in Detroit, Michigan, stars five Minnesotan Hmong (Hmongesotan) Americans, and the original story was based on a neighborhood in Saint Paul. It was the first mainstream US film to feature Hmong Americans.
[Yuen, Laura.]
Hmong get a mixed debut in new Eastwood film
." ''Minnesota Public Radio
Minnesota Public Radio (MPR), is a public radio network for the state of Minnesota. With its three services, News & Information, YourClassical MPR and The Current, MPR operates a 46-station regional radio network in the upper Midwest.
MPR ha ...
''. December 18, 2008. Retrieved on March 18, 2012.
North Carolina
In 2010, North Carolina had a population of 10,864 Hmong and has one of the highest rates of employment compared to other states in the US. 50% of the Hmong population work in the manufacturing industry.
The two centers of population are in the
Hickory
Hickory is a common name for trees composing the genus ''Carya'', which includes around 18 species. Five or six species are native to China, Indochina, and India (Assam), as many as twelve are native to the United States, four are found in Mexi ...
and
Greensboro
Greensboro (; formerly Greensborough) is a city in and the county seat of Guilford County, North Carolina, United States. It is the third-most populous city in North Carolina after Charlotte and Raleigh, the 69th-most populous city in the Un ...
areas respectively.
Pennsylvania
A group of Hmong refugees settled in
Philadelphia
Philadelphia, often called Philly, is the largest city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, the sixth-largest city in the U.S., the second-largest city in both the Northeast megalopolis and Mid-Atlantic regions after New York City. Sinc ...
after the end of the 1970s Laotian Civil War. They were attacked in discriminatory acts, and the city's Commission on Human Relations held hearings on the incidents.
Anne Fadiman
Anne Fadiman (born August 7, 1953) is an American essayist and reporter. Her interests include literary journalism, essays, memoir, and autobiography. She has received the National Book Critics Circle Award, the Los Angeles Times Book Prize for ...
, author of ''
The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down
''The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down: A Hmong Child, Her American Doctors, and the Collision of Two Cultures'' is a 1997 book by Anne Fadiman that chronicles the struggles of a Hmong refugee family from Houaysouy, Sainyabuli Province, La ...
'', said that lower-class residents resented the Hmong receiving a $100,000 federal grant for employment assistance when they were also out of work; they believed that American citizens should be getting assistance. Between 1982 and 1984, three quarters of the
Hmong people
The Hmong people ( RPA: ''Hmoob'', Nyiakeng Puachue: , Pahawh Hmong: , ) are a sub-ethnic group of the Miao people who originated from Central China. The modern Hmongs presently reside mainly in Southwest China (Guizhou, Yunnan, Sichuan, Chon ...
who had settled in Philadelphia left for other cities in the United States to join relatives who were already there.
Rhode Island
![Providence Hmong Church](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Providence_Hmong_Church.jpg)
In 1976, Hmong members of the U.S. Secret Army Special Guerrilla Unit, recruited by the CIA during the Vietnam War, were resettled in Rhode Island as refugees.
In 1983 their population was estimated at 1,700–2,000. 2010 census results put the number of Rhode Island Hmong at 1,015.
The Hmong United Association of Rhode Island puts on a Hmong New Year's festival annually.
About sixty families are members of the Providence Hmong Church of the Christian and Missionary Alliance; they are known locally for their egg roll fundraiser, held in the spring.
Wisconsin
As of 2010, Wisconsin has over 49,000 Hmong people—the largest Asian ethnic group in the state.
Other locations
In December 1999, according to the Hmong National Development Inc.,
Chicago
(''City in a Garden''); I Will
, image_map =
, map_caption = Interactive Map of Chicago
, coordinates =
, coordinates_footnotes =
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdivision_name ...
had about 500 Hmong people.
There is a sizable Hmong population in
Westminster, Colorado
The City of Westminster is a home rule municipality located in Adams and Jefferson counties, Colorado, United States. The city population was 116,317 at the 2020 United States Census with 71,240 residing in Adams County and 45,077 residing in J ...
(0.8% of the city's population as of 2010).
Community and social issues
Lack of education and high dropout rates
The 2000
US Census reveals that 60% of all Hmong above 24 years of age have a highest educational attainment of high school or equivalent, as many of these immigrants came to America as adults or young adults. According to a government data collected in 2013, 40% of Hmong Americans drop out of school.
Among the Hmong population, 38% have not received a high school degree, and 14% have at least a bachelor's degree. Educational attainment among Hmong women is significantly lower than among Hmong men, with about one in five Hmong women having a high school diploma.
The lack of formal education among Hmong immigrants is due to the fact that many were once farmers in the hills of Laos or were refugees from war who fled into remote jungles, and had little or no access to schools.
In St. Paul about 2,000 Hmong people have their bachelor's degree, 150 have their master's degree, and 68 have received their doctoral degree, which is a very low percentage considering the population of Hmong Americans in St. Paul is less than 36,000.
In the topic of community issues and Hmong in education, factors to consider are family dynamic, parent engagement, accessibility to resources, and the various school climates. The lack of emotional support for Hmong LGBTQ+ youth in Minnesota and Wisconsin reveal mental and health concerns which affect their academic performance.
Hmong girls and boys had also encountered difficulties in achieving success in the field of education as they adapted the Hmong culture, which is considered as rural, to contemporary American society (Ngo & Lor, 2013).
[Ngo, B. & Lor, P. N. (2013). "Great Expectations: The Struggles of Hmong American High School Boys." In M. E. Pfeifer, M. Chiu, & K. Yang (Eds.), ''Diversity in Diaspora: Hmong Americans in the Twenty-First Century'' (pp. 151–164). Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press.] Cha suggested that the dropout rate of Hmong teenagers was the highest among those of Asian American groups (2013). In the first few years after immigration, Hmong girls almost had no chance to be educated in school. Later, as they got the opportunities to go to school, around 90% of Hmong girls chose to quit school because parents preferred obedient and compliant daughters-in-law when looking for partners for their sons (Ngo & Lor, 2013).
On the other hand, Hmong young men are burdened more due to the high expectations on sons in Hmong culture, which led to their challenges in school, such as bad relationships with teachers and lack of participation in class. The word used to describe the work those Hmong boys were involved in for family was “helping out” (Ngo & Lor, 2013, p. 155),
referring to an accepted and natural habit including working outside, taking care of the siblings, completing daily household, being cultural brokers for parents and attending numerous traditional ceremonies. For example, Hmong boys were asked to write checks to pay for utility bills and to prepare food for their younger brothers. Also, they went to ceremonies not only to maintain the family relationship but also to keep the traditions from disappearing.
According to Yang (2013), after three decades of struggle, Hmong Americans had achieved in economic, political and educational aspects. Starting from small business, the businesses of Hmong had become international, diverse and high-tech since 2000. For example, about 50 home health care agencies which were supported by federal or state medical assistance were run by Hmong in Minnesota. The Hmong were also more involved in political activities that 57 percent of the Hmong in Minnesota regarded themselves as Democrats, shown by a survey in 2008, and several Hmong people, including Madison P. Nguyen, former Hmong refugee women in Minnesota, had been elected political staffs in city offices.
Income and poverty rates
2017 data collected by the US government found that Hmong Americans had a median household income of $48,000 compared to the American average of $53,600. The government estimated that 38% of Hmong Americans lived below the
poverty line
The poverty threshold, poverty limit, poverty line or breadline is the minimum level of income deemed adequate in a particular country. The poverty line is usually calculated by estimating the total cost of one year's worth of necessities for t ...
, compared to 16% of all Americans.
The 2014
American Community Survey found that per capita income of Hmong Americans was $12,923, significantly lower than the American average of $25,825. When income is compared between
US ethnic groups, Hmong Americans are the third lowest earning group.
In a 2013,
NPR
National Public Radio (NPR, stylized in all lowercase) is an American privately and state funded nonprofit media organization headquartered in Washington, D.C., with its NPR West headquarters in Culver City, California. It differs from other ...
discussion, sociologist Rosalind Chou stated that "when you break it down by specific ethnic groups, the Hmong, the Bangladeshi, they have poverty rates that rival the African-American poverty rate."
Culture and politics
There are many cultural, political, and social issues that are being debated among Hmong American communities. Topics include political participation, poverty, gang violence, race relations, and education. The Hmong community also retains many ties with the Hmong still in Indochina and remains active in regional politics.
Politics and culture vary with the location of Hmong-American communities. The Twin Cities, St. Paul and Minneapolis, are more progressive as the queer/LGBTQ+ culture and politics surrounding sexuality and gender are projected and recognized at the local, regional, state, and national level.
Sexuality
Identities go beyond the Hmong-American identity. Heterosexuality and heteronormativity is traditionally tied to the Hmong identity and its history. Studies show that homophobia in the Hmong communities prior to the immigration to the United States is near to nothing, Hmong traditional elders didn't recall homophobia because non-heterosexual identities were nearly non-existent. Among the diverse identities of Hmong Americans, non-traditional gender and sexual identities have gained cultural, political, and social significance.
In 2003, Shades of Yellow (SOY), an LGBTQ+ non-profit organization, was established in St. Paul, Minnesota, to support Hmong people who identify as LGBTQ+. In March 2017, SOY announced the closing of their doors as leadership and funding levels changed.
In December 2005, the Sacramento Hmong LGBTQIA group was founded and serves to provide socials such as movie nights, potlucks, and cultural shows.
The Sacramento Hmong LGBTQIA group collaborates with local organizations, for example, the Asian Pacific Islander Queer Sacramento Coalition (APIQSC), to build allyship and stronger political and social relationships within the LGBTQ+ Hmong and general API communities.
Sexual health is critical to the LGBTQ+ Hmong community as it is for the general Southeast Asian (SEA) community throughout the country. Social media and Southeast Asian presence in it calls for a high risk of contracting STI's and HIV, as well other transmissible diseases and health concerns. Sexual education and awareness, as well as education regarding online sex culture, is heavily recommended for awareness and safety when considering sexual health.
Mental health
Compared to other Southeast Asian refugees in America, Hmong refugees have the highest rates of mental health disorders, with an overall mental illness incidence rate at around 33.5%. This mental health problem has been attributed to traumatic past experiences and problems adjusting to life in the United States.
Gender roles play an integral factor for the mental health of Hmong women. Gender construct of Hmong women, traditionally, socially and politically, have historically been oppressive and marginalizing. Even in traditional Hmong cloth (''paj ntaub)'' and folklore (''dab neej)'' Hmong gender roles are concretely sewn and told, and repeated. Misogyny and patriarchy in the Hmong community is present to this day which calls for Hmong women empowerment initiatives throughout the United States.
In religious and traditional Hmong families the subject of mental health is taboo because of Shamanism, with the belief that remedy to health is through communication and exchanges with spirits. Through spiritual ceremonies, overall health is remedied, not through health facilities or specialists, not through science.
[Her, James. “Mental Health Experiences within the Hmong American LGBTQ Community: A Qualitative Research Project,” 2016.] In addition, LGBTQ+ Hmong individuals struggle with mental health due to the lack of education and attention on mental health in Hmong communities, deals with depression, anxiety, substance abuse, and suicide.
Health disparities
In other aspects of health, like cancer, Hmong Americans have the highest cancer mortality rates compared to other Asian American groups. Low cancer screenings and lack of interventions to address stigma of utilizing public health services are among some reasons for this trend. Access to education can help with increasing health practices like receiving a Pap test for cervical cancer screening. A Patient Navigation Program implemented in San Francisco for Hmong Americans led to a 38% increase in Pap test participation, highlighting progress made in increasing participation via education. A cross-sectional study of 168 immigrant Hmong Americans found that half of them reported not understanding health information. Factors like acculturation and number of years in the US were positively correlated with health literacy rate, and lower health literacy rates were associated with poor health in the participants. Acculturation indicators such as language use and social connections, were positively correlated with higher BMI-for-age in Hmong American children 9–18 years old.
A study of 417 Hmong American parents and caregivers showed that the top two contributing factors to perceived barriers to immunization were socioeconomic position and use of traditional Hmong healthcare. Traditional Hmong healthcare includes the use of a traditional Hmong healer shaman, who is used as a complement to Western medicine by Hmong patients.
Health disparities
Health equity arises from access to the social determinants of health, specifically from wealth, power and prestige. Individuals who have consistently been deprived of these three determinants are significantly disadvantaged from health inequiti ...
faced by Hmong Americans are overlooked with combined data that do not disaggregate ethnic groups within the label, Asian American.
Violence
Hmong Americans have experienced violence after immigrating to the United States. Some specific instances of violence against Hmong Americans have been murders, of which a few have occurred while they were engaging in hunting. Hmong Americans have hunted because it is a common traditional practice in countries such as Laos, Cambodia, and Thailand. These are common countries from which the Hmong ethnic group has immigrated, although they do not have a specific home country. Chong Moua Yang, a Hmong American hunter, was murdered in Bath Township, Michigan on November 16, 2018. His murder, however, still remains unsolved.
In a 2018 study of 231 college students' experience and knowledge surrounding domestic violence, Takahashi and Lee found that two thirds were aware of domestic violence in their community, and 32.8% of Hmong women experienced violence. These domestic issues would be solved within clan systems and divorce is often not welcomed in order to maintain the relationship.
Languages and culture
The
Hmong language
Hmong / Mong (; RPA: ''Hmoob,'' ; Nyiakeng Puachue: ; Pahawh: , ) is a dialect continuum of the West Hmongic branch of the Hmongic languages spoken by the Hmong people of Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Hainan, northern Vietnam, Thailand ...
is spoken by approximately 4 million with about 5% residing in the United States. There are two main different dialects, Hmong Leeg and Hmong Dawb. In America, these are known as Hmong Leeg and White Hmong. Many of the vowel sounds are quite a bit different in these dialects compared to some of the Asian ones. In the United States, about 60% speak
White Hmong
Hmong / Mong (; RPA: ''Hmoob,'' ; Nyiakeng Puachue: ; Pahawh: , ) is a dialect continuum of the West Hmongic branch of the Hmongic languages spoken by the Hmong people of Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Hainan, northern Vietnam, Thailand, ...
and 40% speak
Hmong Leeg. The
Centers for Disease Control
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is the national public health agency of the United States. It is a United States federal agency, under the Department of Health and Human Services, and is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgi ...
states "Though some Hmong report difficulty understanding speakers of a dialect not their own, for the most part, White and Hmong Leeg speakers seem to understand one another." As of 2012, Hmong in California are developing a Hmong-English online translator, in collaboration with
Microsoft
Microsoft Corporation is an American multinational technology corporation producing computer software, consumer electronics, personal computers, and related services headquartered at the Microsoft Redmond campus located in Redmond, Washing ...
.
To maintain Hmong culture, history, and language, many organizations were created to conserve Hmong culture including the
Lao Veterans of America
The Lao Veterans of America, Inc., describes itself as a non-profit, non-partisan, non-governmental, veterans organization that represents Lao- and Hmong-American veterans who served in the U.S. clandestine war in the Kingdom of Laos during the Vie ...
, Lao Veterans of America Institute,
Lao Human Rights Council
The Lao Human Rights Council, Inc. (LHRC) is a non-profit, non-partisan, non-governmental (NGO) refugee and human rights organization. It is based nationally, and internationally, with chapters in Colorado, Wisconsin and Minnesota. The Lao Human Ri ...
, Hmong Advancement, Inc., Hmong Advance, Inc.,
United League for Democracy in Laos
The United League for Democracy in Laos, Inc. (ULDL) is a non-profit, non-governmental organization (NGO) based in the Washington, D.C.-area with chapters and members in the United States, Thailand, and Laos. The ULDL has worked to provide informa ...
, Inc., Lao Family, Hmong National Development (HND) association and the ''Hmong Today'' and ''Hmong Times'' newspapers. In the case of kinship among other relatives in the United States, the Hmong people tend to stay in groups where there are much other Hmong residing. This allows them to share their cultural values and practices together.
White Hmong and Leeg Hmong
White Hmong (Hmoob Dawb) and Hmong Leeg (Moob Leeg) are the two primary dialects spoken by Hmong Americans. The difference between the two dialects is analogous to the difference between American and British English; thus, both can understand each other easily. Green Hmong is named so because of the color used in Green Hmong women's traditional costume.
There is a misconception that Moob Leeg and Green Hmong are the same. Although their dialects are the same they are both different sub-groups of the Hmong. Moob Leeg is said to be the original spoken Hmong language.
It is seen that the majority of the Hmong American population is either White or Hmong Leeg, but with language, there can be some language barriers. For example, providing quality interpreter services can be difficult. Complicating communication issues is the fact that until the late 1960s no written form of the Hmong language existed, and many of the Hmong people were unable to read or write their own language. This makes the use of written materials for Hmong patients fairly useless. This kind of complication in communicating was able to be seen in Anne Fadiman's book, ''The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down: A Hmong Child, Her American Doctors, and the Collision of Two Cultures'', where the Lees cannot read or write their own language and have trouble when their daughter Lia has to go to the hospital. Lack of literacy creates a barrier in being able to properly give Lia her medications.
Hmong American rituals and funerals
From funerals to soul calling, Hmong rituals and ceremonies have been an important part of the Hmong cultural and spiritual experience.
Since arriving in the United States in the late 1970s, many Hmong families still practice their rituals, but the number of traditional funerals preferred had dwindled due to a large number of Hmong, mostly the younger generations, converting to Christianity, lacking finances, and other reasons. Living in the United States also with jobs and school, there is not that much time to take a week off, which is how long most of these funeral rituals take.
There are several differences between traditional funeral rituals in Laos, Thailand and in the United States. Usually in Laos and Thailand funerals occur immediately in the home after a person dies. The person is dressed and then held within the hours at the home (Lee, 2009). Funerals can last three to four days and require washing and dressing the deceased, and conducting animal sacrifices to properly prepare the soul to be reincarnated.
Hmongs in the media
2007 coup conspiracy accusations and arrests
On June 4, 2007, following a lengthy federal investigation labeled "Operation Flawed Eagle," warrants were issued by a California-based US federal court for the arrest of General
Vang Pao
Vang Pao ( RPA: ''Vaj Pov'' , Lao: ວັງປາວ; 8 December 1929 – 6 January 2011) was a major general in the Royal Lao Army. He was a leader of the Hmong American community in the United States. He was also known as General Vang ...
, eight other Hmong people, and one non-Hmong person for allegedly plotting to overthrow the government of Laos in violation of the federal
Neutrality Acts and various US weapons laws.
The federal charges allege that members of the group inspected weapons, including AK-47s, smoke grenades, and Stinger missiles, with the intent of purchasing them and smuggling them into Thailand in June 2007 for use in Hmong guerrilla war efforts against the Laotian government. The one non-Hmong person of the nine arrested, Harrison Jack, is a 1968
West Point
The United States Military Academy (USMA), also known Metonymy, metonymically as West Point or simply as Army, is a United States service academies, United States service academy in West Point, New York. It was originally established as a f ...
graduate, and retired Army infantry officer. The defendants faced possible life prison terms for violation. Vang Pao and other defendants were ultimately granted bail, following the posting of $1.5 million in the property. Following the arrests, many Vang Pao supporters had called on President
George W. Bush
George Walker Bush (born July 6, 1946) is an American politician who served as the 43rd president of the United States from 2001 to 2009. A member of the Republican Party, Bush family, and son of the 41st president George H. W. Bush, he ...
and California Governor
Arnold Schwarzenegger
Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger (born July 30, 1947) is an Austrian and American actor, film producer, businessman, retired professional bodybuilder and politician who served as the 38th governor of California between 2003 and 2011. ''Time'' ...
to pardon the defendants. On September 18, 2009, the federal government dropped all charges against Vang Pao, announcing in a release that the federal government was permitted to consider "the probable sentence or other consequences if the person is convicted.” On January 10, 2011, charges against all of the remaining defendants were dropped as well.
In popular culture
The 2008 film ''
Gran Torino
''Gran Torino'' is a 2008 American drama film directed and produced by Clint Eastwood, who also starred in the film. The film co-stars Christopher Carley, Bee Vang, and Ahney Her. This was Eastwood's first starring role since 2004's ''Million D ...
'', directed by
Clint Eastwood
Clinton Eastwood Jr. (born May 31, 1930) is an American actor and film director. After achieving success in the Western TV series '' Rawhide'', he rose to international fame with his role as the "Man with No Name" in Sergio Leone's "''Doll ...
, was the first
mainstream
Mainstream may refer to:
Film
* ''Mainstream'' (film), a 2020 American film
Literature
* ''Mainstream'' (fanzine), a science fiction fanzine
* Mainstream Publishing, a Scottish publisher
* ''Mainstream'', a 1943 book by Hamilton Basso
Mu ...
US film to feature Hmong Americans.
Eastwood plays
Walt Kowalski
Walter Kowalski is a fictional character and the protagonist of the 2008 American film ''Gran Torino''. He was portrayed by Clint Eastwood, who also directed the film.
Character biography and creation
Walt is a misanthropic and irritable Pol ...
, an elderly, racist
Korean War
, date = {{Ubl, 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953 (''de facto'')({{Age in years, months, weeks and days, month1=6, day1=25, year1=1950, month2=7, day2=27, year2=1953), 25 June 1950 – present (''de jure'')({{Age in years, months, weeks a ...
veteran living in Detroit, Michigan who befriends a Hmong teenager named Thao, played by
Bee Vang
Bee Vang ( RPA: ''Npis Vaj'', Pahawh: ', Chinese-Mandarin: 王陛; born November 4, 1991) is an American actor and activist of Hmong descent. He is best known for starring in Clint Eastwood's 2008 film ''Gran Torino'' as Thao Vang Lor.
Early l ...
, who previously tries to steal his
Gran Torino
''Gran Torino'' is a 2008 American drama film directed and produced by Clint Eastwood, who also starred in the film. The film co-stars Christopher Carley, Bee Vang, and Ahney Her. This was Eastwood's first starring role since 2004's ''Million D ...
as an initiation into a local Hmong gang run by his own cousins.
In the episode
Body & Soul of the TV series ''
House
A house is a single-unit residential building. It may range in complexity from a rudimentary hut to a complex structure of wood, masonry, concrete or other material, outfitted with plumbing, electrical, and heating, ventilation, and air condi ...
'', the team treats a Hmong child that is believed to be possessed by a dab, which the doctors, as well the child's mother attempt to disprove. Following an exorcism in order to free the dab from the child, his symptoms go away, which his mother and grandfather attribute to the exorcism, while the doctors believe it was the long shot treatment of Ibuprofen to treat his Patent ductus arteriosus that cured him.
Notable people
At least two Hmong have been elected to high public office. In 2002,
Mee Moua
Mee Moua ( RPA: Qaav Ruom, born June 30, 1969 in Xieng Khouang, Laos), is an American politician, and is the former president and executive director of the Asian Americans Advancing Justice -AAJC (Advancing Justice-AAJC) She served as the vic ...
became the first Hmong American legislator when she was elected to fill the
Minnesota State Senate
The Minnesota Senate is the upper house of the Legislature of the U.S. state of Minnesota. At 67 members, half as many as the Minnesota House of Representatives, it is the largest upper house of any U.S. state legislature. Floor sessions are hel ...
seat vacated by
Randy Kelly
Randy Cameron Kelly (born August 2, 1950) is an American politician and the former mayor of Saint Paul, Minnesota. He is a member of the Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party (DFL).
Born in the small town of Rolette, North Dakota, Kelly and his family ...
when he was elected mayor of St. Paul. She later became the Senate
majority whip
A whip is an official of a political party whose task is to ensure party discipline in a legislature. This means ensuring that members of the party vote according to the party platform, rather than according to their own individual ideology ...
.
Cy Thao
Cy Thao (born March 2, 1972) is a Laotian-born Hmong American politician who served as a member of the Minnesota House of Representatives from 2003 to 2011.
Early life and education
In 1975, Thao's family fled from Communists in Laos and lived ...
is a member of the
Minnesota House of Representatives
The Minnesota House of Representatives is the lower house of the Legislature of the U.S. state of Minnesota. There are 134 members, twice as many as the Minnesota Senate. Floor sessions are held in the north wing of the State Capitol in Saint Pa ...
.
At age 14, Joe Bee Xiong fought alongside American soldiers like his father had done. When their village fell to the Communists, Xiong and his family fled to a refugee camp in Thailand and eventually ended up in Wisconsin in 1980. In 1996, Xiong was elected to the
Eau Claire, Wisconsin, city council. Xiong was the first Hmong to be elected to a city council in Wisconsin. He ran for the state Assembly in 2004. Xiong was traveling with family in his native country, Laos, when he died, possibly of heart-related complications. Wisconsin Congressman Ron Kind worked with Xiong to investigate reports of human rights abuses against Hmong still in Laos and Southeast Asia and says Xiong was a great community leader and an inspiration to many. Another Hmong, Thomas T. Vue, presently serves on the Eau Claire city council. Furthermore, Chue Neng Xiong was elected to the Eau Claire, WI school board and sworn into service on April 22, 2013.
Community leaders and organizations, including Dr. Wangyee Vang, Dr.
Cherzong Vang Cherzong Vang (April 13, 1943 – November 10, 2012) was an American community leader from St. Paul, Minnesota. He was an elder of the Hmong people in Laos and the Lao-American community in the Twin Cities of the United States.
Cherzong worked wit ...
, the
Lao Veterans of America
The Lao Veterans of America, Inc., describes itself as a non-profit, non-partisan, non-governmental, veterans organization that represents Lao- and Hmong-American veterans who served in the U.S. clandestine war in the Kingdom of Laos during the Vie ...
, the Lao Veterans of America Institute,
the Center for Public Policy Analysis
The Center for Public Policy Analysis (CPPA), or Centre for Public Policy Analysis, was established in Washington, D.C., in 1988 and describes itself as a non-profit, non-partisan, think tank and research organization. The CPPA is a non-governm ...
, the
Lao Human Rights Council
The Lao Human Rights Council, Inc. (LHRC) is a non-profit, non-partisan, non-governmental (NGO) refugee and human rights organization. It is based nationally, and internationally, with chapters in Colorado, Wisconsin and Minnesota. The Lao Human Ri ...
, and others, have sought to educate the public and policymakers about the important contribution of the Hmong people, and Lao Hmong veterans, during the Vietnam War in support of US national security interests. In 1997, the Lao Veterans of America dedicated a monument in
Arlington National Cemetery
Arlington National Cemetery is one of two national cemeteries run by the United States Army. Nearly 400,000 people are buried in its 639 acres (259 ha) in Arlington, Virginia. There are about 30 funerals conducted on weekdays and 7 held on Sa ...
, the
Laos Memorial, to help honor the Hmong veterans and community for their service to the United States during the
Vietnam War
The Vietnam War (also known by other names) was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam a ...
and its aftermath. Each year, in May, they continue to host annual ceremonies with members of the
US Congress
The United States Congress is the legislature of the federal government of the United States. It is bicameral, composed of a lower body, the House of Representatives, and an upper body, the Senate. It meets in the U.S. Capitol in Washingto ...
and other officials, to honor the service of the Hmong. Many Hmong elders and young people attend the ceremonies and events in Washington, D.C.
Sunisa "Suni" Lee of
Saint Paul, Minnesota
Saint Paul (abbreviated St. Paul) is the List of capitals in the United States, capital of the U.S. state of Minnesota and the county seat of Ramsey County, Minnesota, Ramsey County. Situated on high bluffs overlooking a bend in the Mississip ...
, is a three time Olympic gymnastic Medalist. In the
2020 Summer Olympics
The , officially the and also known as , was an international multi-sport event held from 23 July to 8 August 2021 in Tokyo, Japan, with some preliminary events that began on 21 July.
Tokyo was selected as the host city during the ...
, she first won Silver in the Women's artistic team all-around, followed by Gold in the Women's artistic individual all-around and then Bronze in the Women's uneven bars. Suni is also the first Hmong-American Gymnast to perform in the Olympics.
In 2022
Sheng Thao
Sheng Thao (, born 1985) is an American politician serving as the District 4 councilmember and the president pro tempore of the Oakland City Council. She is also the Mayor-elect of Oakland. She was the first Hmong woman to be elected as a member ...
became the first Hmong American woman elected mayor of a major city in the United States (Oakland).
List
*
Ahney Her
Whitney Cua Her (born 1992), better known by her stage name Ahney Her, is an American actress. She is of Hmong descent.
Early life and education
Ahney Her was born and raised in Lansing, Michigan, where she had completed high school at Sexto ...
, actress, best known as Sue Lor in ''
Gran Torino
''Gran Torino'' is a 2008 American drama film directed and produced by Clint Eastwood, who also starred in the film. The film co-stars Christopher Carley, Bee Vang, and Ahney Her. This was Eastwood's first starring role since 2004's ''Million D ...
''
*
Bee Vang
Bee Vang ( RPA: ''Npis Vaj'', Pahawh: ', Chinese-Mandarin: 王陛; born November 4, 1991) is an American actor and activist of Hmong descent. He is best known for starring in Clint Eastwood's 2008 film ''Gran Torino'' as Thao Vang Lor.
Early l ...
, actor, best known as Thao Vang Lor in ''
Gran Torino
''Gran Torino'' is a 2008 American drama film directed and produced by Clint Eastwood, who also starred in the film. The film co-stars Christopher Carley, Bee Vang, and Ahney Her. This was Eastwood's first starring role since 2004's ''Million D ...
''
*
Brenda Song
Brenda Song (born March 27, 1988) is an American actress. Born in California, Song began her career at the age of six, working as a child model. She made her screen debut with a guest appearance on the sitcom '' Thunder Alley'' (1995), and ...
, Disney Channel actress and teen star, known for ''
The Suite Life of Zack & Cody
''The Suite Life of Zack & Cody'' is an American sitcom created by Danny Kallis and Jim Geoghan. The series aired on Disney Channel from March 18, 2005, to September 1, 2008. The series was nominated for an Emmy Award three times and was also ...
'' and ''
The Suite Life on Deck
''The Suite Life on Deck'' is an American teen sitcom that aired on Disney Channel from September 26, 2008 to May 6, 2011. It is a sequel/Spin-off (media), spin-off of the Disney Channel Original Series ''The Suite Life of Zack & Cody''. The ser ...
''; "Song" is an anglicized spelling of "Xiong"
*
Cy Thao
Cy Thao (born March 2, 1972) is a Laotian-born Hmong American politician who served as a member of the Minnesota House of Representatives from 2003 to 2011.
Early life and education
In 1975, Thao's family fled from Communists in Laos and lived ...
,
Minnesota
Minnesota () is a state in the upper midwestern region of the United States. It is the 12th largest U.S. state in area and the 22nd most populous, with over 5.75 million residents. Minnesota is home to western prairies, now given over to ...
State Representative
*
Chai Vang
Chai Soua Vang (born September 24, 1968), more commonly known as Chai Vang, is an American of Hmong descent who was convicted of first degree intentional homicide, having pleaded self-defense after allegedly being fired upon. Vang, a six-year ve ...
, ex-National Guardsman, now a convicted multiple murderer
*
Cherzong Vang Cherzong Vang (April 13, 1943 – November 10, 2012) was an American community leader from St. Paul, Minnesota. He was an elder of the Hmong people in Laos and the Lao-American community in the Twin Cities of the United States.
Cherzong worked wit ...
, Hmong community leader educator, youth advocate, Minnesota
Lao Veterans of America
The Lao Veterans of America, Inc., describes itself as a non-profit, non-partisan, non-governmental, veterans organization that represents Lao- and Hmong-American veterans who served in the U.S. clandestine war in the Kingdom of Laos during the Vie ...
past President, and
Hmong Veterans' Naturalization Act of 2000 advocate
*
Gia Vang
''Gia'' is a 1998 American Biographical film, biographical Drama (film and television), drama television film about the life and times of one of the first supermodels, Gia Carangi. The film stars Angelina Jolie as Gia and Faye Dunaway as Wilhelm ...
, weekend news anchor KNTV San Jose (NBC Bay Area)
*
Dia Cha, author, professor and anthropologist,
St. Cloud State University, Minnesota
*
Foung Hawj
Foung Hawj ( ; ; lo, ຝົງ ເຮີ; RPA: Foom Hawj; Pahawh: ) is an American media producer and politician who is a member of the Minnesota Senate. A member of the Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party (DFL), he represents Distr ...
, pioneer Hmong-American broadcaster, media artist and Minnesota State Senator, elected in 2012
*
Hang Sao
Hang Sao (Haam Choj, a given Mong name; 1939–2004) was a prominent figure in the Laotian Civil War. He was raised in the city of Pah Leong, Xieng Khoua. Hang Sao served in the Royal Lao Army from 1961 to 1975. In 1969, he was appointed to the pos ...
, Hmong American activist, lieutenant colonel in the Royal Lao Army, advisor to the King of Laos in exile
*
Houa Vue Moua, author and community activist
*
Ka Vang
Ka Vang (born 1975) is a Hmong-American writer in the United States. Vang was born on a CIA military base, Long Cheng, Laos, at the end of the Vietnam War, and immigrated to the United States in 1980. A fiction writer, poet, playwright, and forme ...
, writer
*
Kao Kalia Yang
Kao Kalia Yang (born 1980) is a Hmong American writer and author of ''The Latehomecomer: A Hmong Family Memoir'' from Coffee House Press and ''The Song Poet'' from Metropolitan Press. Her work has appeared in the ''Paj Ntaub Voice'' Hmong liter ...
, writer and author of ''The Latehomecomer: A Hmong Family Memoir''
*
Kristy Yang
Kristy Yang (born 7 January 1974), also known as Yang Gongru, is a Chinese-born Canadian actress based in Hong Kong.
Early life
Yang was born in Shanghai, China, to a Chinese father and Jenny Liu, a half American-half Chinese. Ms.Liu was invited ...
, Milwaukee County Circuit Judge, Attorney, elected in 2017.
*
Lormong Lo
Lormong Lo (1959 – July 19, 2011) was the first Hmong American to be appointed to a city council in the U.S, in June 1994, where he managed the largest metropolitan city (Omaha—480,000 people) in the state of Nebraska. He replaced Joe Friend, ...
, former Omaha City Councilman
*
Mai Neng Moua, writer
*
Mee Moua
Mee Moua ( RPA: Qaav Ruom, born June 30, 1969 in Xieng Khouang, Laos), is an American politician, and is the former president and executive director of the Asian Americans Advancing Justice -AAJC (Advancing Justice-AAJC) She served as the vic ...
,
Minnesota
Minnesota () is a state in the upper midwestern region of the United States. It is the 12th largest U.S. state in area and the 22nd most populous, with over 5.75 million residents. Minnesota is home to western prairies, now given over to ...
State Senator
*
Michael Vang, soccer player
*
Sheng Thao
Sheng Thao (, born 1985) is an American politician serving as the District 4 councilmember and the president pro tempore of the Oakland City Council. She is also the Mayor-elect of Oakland. She was the first Hmong woman to be elected as a member ...
, first Hmong woman to be elected as a member of the city council in the state of California and the first Hmong person elected to the Oakland City Council, and the first Hmong-American woman to become mayor of a major city in the United States (Oakland).
*
Sunisa Lee
Sunisa "Suni" Lee (born Sunisa Phabsomphou; March 9, 2003) is a Hmong American artistic gymnast. She is the 2020 Olympic all-around champion and uneven bars bronze medalist. She was a member of the teams that won gold at the 2019 World Champio ...
, 2020 women's gymnastics Olympic all-around Gold Medal winner and first Hmong-American Olympic gymnast
*
Vang Pao
Vang Pao ( RPA: ''Vaj Pov'' , Lao: ວັງປາວ; 8 December 1929 – 6 January 2011) was a major general in the Royal Lao Army. He was a leader of the Hmong American community in the United States. He was also known as General Vang ...
,
Royal Lao Army
The Royal Lao Army (french: Armée royale du Laos – ARL), also designated by its anglicized title RLA, was the Land Component of the Royal Lao Armed Forces (FAR), the official military of the Kingdom of Laos during the North Vietnamese invasio ...
Major General
Major general (abbreviated MG, maj. gen. and similar) is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of sergeant major general. The disappearance of the "sergeant" in the title explains the apparent confusion of a ...
, revered Hmong Leader, commander of CIA-supported Hmong forces during the
Laotian Civil War
*
Vang Pobzeb
Vang Pobzeb (July 12, 1957 – August 23, 2005) was a Hmong American dedicated to Lao and Hmong human rights. For over 25 years, he was an outspoken critic of the Marxist governments of the Pathet Lao in Laos and the Socialist Republic of Vietna ...
, Hmong scholar; PhD, human rights and international relations expert; Laotian and Hmong refugee advocate
*
Xao "Jerry" Yang,
2007 World Series of Poker
The 2007 World Series of Poker (WSOP) began on June 1st, 2007. The $10,000 ( US) no-limit Texas hold 'em Main Event began on July 6th and was completed on the morning of July 18th. All events were held at the Rio All Suite Hotel and Casino in L ...
Main Event Champion
*
Zha Blong Xiong, first Asian American and Hmong American to serve on the Fresno City Council (2006)
New American Media, 28 Nov 2006
"Latinos Help Elect First Hmong City Council Member in California."
* Tou Thao, police officer charged with aiding and abetting the murder of George Floyd
On , George Floyd, a 46-year-old black man, was murdered in the U.S. city of Minneapolis by Derek Chauvin, a 44-year-old white police officer. Floyd had been arrested on suspicion of using a counterfeit $20 bill. Chauvin knelt on Floyd's n ...
in Minneapolis
Minneapolis () is the largest city in Minnesota, United States, and the county seat of Hennepin County. The city is abundant in water, with thirteen lakes, wetlands, the Mississippi River, creeks and waterfalls. Minneapolis has its origins ...
, Minnesota
Minnesota () is a state in the upper midwestern region of the United States. It is the 12th largest U.S. state in area and the 22nd most populous, with over 5.75 million residents. Minnesota is home to western prairies, now given over to ...
on May 25, 2020.
See also
* Asian Americans
Asian Americans are Americans of Asian ancestry (including naturalized Americans who are immigrants from specific regions in Asia and descendants of such immigrants). Although this term had historically been used for all the indigenous people ...
* Laotian Americans
Laotian Americans ( lo, ຄົນອາເມລິກາລາວ) are Americans who trace their ancestry to Laos. Laotian Americans are included in the larger category of Asian Americans. The major immigrant generation were generally refugees w ...
* List of Hmong/Miao People
* Cherzong Vang Cherzong Vang (April 13, 1943 – November 10, 2012) was an American community leader from St. Paul, Minnesota. He was an elder of the Hmong people in Laos and the Lao-American community in the Twin Cities of the United States.
Cherzong worked wit ...
* Sheng Thao
Sheng Thao (, born 1985) is an American politician serving as the District 4 councilmember and the president pro tempore of the Oakland City Council. She is also the Mayor-elect of Oakland. She was the first Hmong woman to be elected as a member ...
* Vang Pao
Vang Pao ( RPA: ''Vaj Pov'' , Lao: ວັງປາວ; 8 December 1929 – 6 January 2011) was a major general in the Royal Lao Army. He was a leader of the Hmong American community in the United States. He was also known as General Vang ...
* Vang Pobzeb
Vang Pobzeb (July 12, 1957 – August 23, 2005) was a Hmong American dedicated to Lao and Hmong human rights. For over 25 years, he was an outspoken critic of the Marxist governments of the Pathet Lao in Laos and the Socialist Republic of Vietna ...
* Hmong Veterans' Naturalization Act of 2000
* Lao Veterans of America
The Lao Veterans of America, Inc., describes itself as a non-profit, non-partisan, non-governmental, veterans organization that represents Lao- and Hmong-American veterans who served in the U.S. clandestine war in the Kingdom of Laos during the Vie ...
* Hmong people
The Hmong people ( RPA: ''Hmoob'', Nyiakeng Puachue: , Pahawh Hmong: , ) are a sub-ethnic group of the Miao people who originated from Central China. The modern Hmongs presently reside mainly in Southwest China (Guizhou, Yunnan, Sichuan, Chon ...
* Hmong language
Hmong / Mong (; RPA: ''Hmoob,'' ; Nyiakeng Puachue: ; Pahawh: , ) is a dialect continuum of the West Hmongic branch of the Hmongic languages spoken by the Hmong people of Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Hainan, northern Vietnam, Thailand ...
* Hmong customs and culture
The Hmong people are an ethnic group currently native to several countries, believed to have come from the Yangtze river basin area in southern China. The Hmong are known in China as the ''Miao'', which encompasses not only Hmong, but also other ...
* Hmong folk religion
Kev Dab Kev Qhuas (Hmong folk spirituality or Miao folk spirituality) is the common ethnic religion of Miao peoples, best translated as the practice of spirituality.Lee, Tapp, 2010. p. 36 The religion is also called Hmongism by a Hmong American ch ...
* Hmong churches
Hmong Churches are churches of the China-based Hmong people. Hmong Churches tend to be Renewal churches.
History
The first missionaries to Laos were from the Netherlands. At that time, Laos was a French protectorate within French Indochina, gov ...
* Kingdom of Laos
The Kingdom of Laos was a landlocked country in Southeast Asia at the heart of the Indochinese Peninsula. It was bordered by Burma and China to the northwest, North Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the southeast, and Thailand to the west and ...
* North Vietnamese invasion of Laos
North Vietnam supported the Pathet Lao to fight against the Kingdom of Laos between 1958–1959. Control over Laos allowed for the eventual construction of the Ho Chi Minh Trail that would serve as the main supply route for enhanced NLF (the ...
* Vietnam War
The Vietnam War (also known by other names) was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam a ...
* Laos Memorial
* Lao Human Rights Council
The Lao Human Rights Council, Inc. (LHRC) is a non-profit, non-partisan, non-governmental (NGO) refugee and human rights organization. It is based nationally, and internationally, with chapters in Colorado, Wisconsin and Minnesota. The Lao Human Ri ...
* United League for Democracy in Laos
The United League for Democracy in Laos, Inc. (ULDL) is a non-profit, non-governmental organization (NGO) based in the Washington, D.C.-area with chapters and members in the United States, Thailand, and Laos. The ULDL has worked to provide informa ...
* The Center for Public Policy Analysis
The Center for Public Policy Analysis (CPPA), or Centre for Public Policy Analysis, was established in Washington, D.C., in 1988 and describes itself as a non-profit, non-partisan, think tank and research organization. The CPPA is a non-governm ...
* Immigrant health care in the United States
Immigrant health care in the United States refers to the collective systems in the United States that deliver health care services to immigrants. The term "Immigration, immigrant" is often used to encompass non-citizens of varying status; this inc ...
References
Further reading
* Bankston, Carl L. "Hmong Americans." in ''Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America,'' edited by Thomas Riggs, (3rd ed., vol. 2, Gale, 2014), pp. 331–344. [Bankston, Carl L. "Hmong Americans." Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America, edited by Thomas Riggs, 3rd ed., vol. 2, Gale, 2014, pp. 331–344. Gale eBooks
Hmong Americans - Document - Gale Power Search
online]
* Chan, Sucheng, ed. ''Hmong Means Free: Life in Laos and America'' (Temple University Press, 1994)
online
* Hein, Jeremy. ''Ethnic Origins: The Adaptation of Cambodian and Hmong Refugees in Four American Cities'' (Russell Sage Foundation, 2006).
* Her, Vincent K., and Mary Louise Buley-Messner, eds. ''Hmong and American: From Refugees to Citizens'' (Minnesota Historical Society, 2012).
* Lo, Aline, and Kong Pheng Pha. "Hmong American Literature and Culture." in ''Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Literature'' (2018).
* Vang, Chia Youvee. ''Hmong America: Reconstructing Community in Diaspora'' (U of Illinois Press, 2010).
* Yang, Kou. ''The Making of Hmong America: Forty Years after the Secret War'' (Lexington Books, 2017).
* Yang Dao – Growing up Hmong at the Crossroads
* Gonzalo, Pa Xiong. ''Growing Up Hmong in Laos and America: Two Generations of Women'' ''Amerasia should Journal'' (2010) 36#1 pp 56–103
* Lee, Marjorie. "Through Hmong America: A Bibliographic Journey." ''Amerasia Journal'' 36.1 (2010): 105–114.
*'' The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down: A Hmong Child, Her American Doctors, and the Collision of Two Cultures'' by Anne Fadiman
Anne Fadiman (born August 7, 1953) is an American essayist and reporter. Her interests include literary journalism, essays, memoir, and autobiography. She has received the National Book Critics Circle Award, the Los Angeles Times Book Prize for ...
* ''The Latehomecomer: A Hmong Family Memoir'' by Kao Kalia Yang
* ''Tangled Threads: A Hmong Girl's Story'' by Pegi Deitz Shea
* ''Hmong and American: Stories of Transition to a Strange Land'' by Sue Murphy Mote
* ''Hmong America: Reconstructing Community in Diaspora'' (Asian American Experience) by Chia Youyee Vang
* ''Cooking from the Heart: The Hmong Kitchen in America'' by Sami Scripter and Sheng Yang
* ''Tangled Threads: A Hmong Girl's Story'' by Shea, Pegi Deitz
* ''Harvesting Pa Chay's Wheat: The Hmong & America's Secret War in Laos'' by Keith Quincy
* ''The Promised Land: The Socioeconomic Reality of the Hmong People in Urban America (1976–2000)'' by Fungchatau T. Lo
* ''Hmong in America: Journey from a Secret War'' by Tim Pfaff
* Moua, Mai Neng (editor). ''Bamboo Among the Oaks: Contemporary Writing by Hmong Americans''. Minnesota Historical Society Press
The Minnesota Historical Society (MNHS) is a nonprofit educational and cultural institution dedicated to preserving the history of the U.S. state of Minnesota. It was founded by the territorial legislature in 1849, almost a decade before statehoo ...
, 2002. , 9780873514378.
* ''The Whispering Cloth: A Refugee's Story'' by Pegi Deitz Shea
* ''Hmong in Minnesota'' by Chia Vang
* "The violence of Hmong gangs and the crime of rape." '' The FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin''. February 1, 2003.
*
The Educational Performance of Hmong Students in Wisconsin
Archive
Wisconsin Policy Research Institute. December 1997. Volume 10, Issue 8.
*
Wisconsin Hmong Population and Hmong Mutual Assistance Associations
"
Archive
US Department of Agriculture
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is the United States federal executive departments, federal executive department responsible for developing and executing federal laws related to farming, forestry, rural economic development, ...
*
2010 U.S. Census Hmong Populations
"
Archive
Hmong National Development, Inc.
External links
Hmong in the U.S. Fact Sheet
(2021), demographic and statistical data
Hmong Cultural Center
based in Saint Paul, Minnesota
Saint Paul (abbreviated St. Paul) is the List of capitals in the United States, capital of the U.S. state of Minnesota and the county seat of Ramsey County, Minnesota, Ramsey County. Situated on high bluffs overlooking a bend in the Mississip ...
.
''Hmong Studies Journal''
academic journal published since 1996
Hmong-American Partnership
based in Saint Paul, Minnesota
''Hmong Times''
Minnesota-based Hmong newspaper
''Being Hmong Means Being Free''
(2000), documentary film
A documentary film or documentary is a non-fictional film, motion-picture intended to "document reality, primarily for the purposes of instruction, education or maintaining a Recorded history, historical record". Bill Nichols (film critic), Bil ...
, produced by Wisconsin Public Television
PBS Wisconsin (formerly Wisconsin Public Television or WPT) is a state network of non-commercial educational television stations operated primarily by the Wisconsin Educational Communications Board and the University of Wisconsin–Madison. It c ...
, focusing on the Hmong-American experience among those who immigrated to the U.S. between 1975 and the early 1990s
* Richard L. Holm,
Recollections of a Case Officer in Laos, 1962–1964
", ''Studies in Intelligence'' 47, no. 1 (2003): 2. "The CIA’s paramilitary efforts in Laos were divided roughly along geographic lines: There were separate programs in north Laos, where I was initially assigned; central Laos—also known as the Panhandle—where I would later be assigned; and south Laos. Each program involved working with different tribal/ethnic groups, such as the Hmong in the mountainous north and the Lao in the lowlands."
PDF
)
{{Demographics of the United States
Asian-American society