![Uryankhay-Tuva AO](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Uryankhay-Tuva_AO.png)
The territory currently known as
Tuva
Tuva (; russian: Тува́) or Tyva ( tyv, Тыва), officially the Republic of Tuva (russian: Респу́блика Тыва́, r=Respublika Tyva, p=rʲɪˈspublʲɪkə tɨˈva; tyv, Тыва Республика, translit=Tyva Respublika ...
has been occupied by various groups throughout its history. Sources are rare and unclear for most of Tuva's early history. Archeological evidence indicates a
Scythian
The Scythians or Scyths, and sometimes also referred to as the Classical Scythians and the Pontic Scythians, were an ancient Eastern
* : "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Centra ...
presence possibly as early as the 9th century BC. Tuva was conquered relatively easily by the succession of empires which swept across the region. It was most likely held by various Turkic khanates until 1207. It was then ruled by various
Mongol
The Mongols ( mn, Монголчууд, , , ; ; russian: Монголы) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation. The Mongols are the principal member of ...
-led regimes (including the
Yuan dynasty
The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fifth ...
) until the 18th century, when it submitted to the
Manchu
The Manchus (; ) are a Tungusic East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized ethnic minority in China and the people from whom Manchuria derives its name. The Later Jin (1616–1636) and ...
-led
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
. Slow
Russia
Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia, Northern Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the ...
n colonization during the 19th century led to progressive annexation of the region to Russia in the 20th century. The region was then controlled by the
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was an empire and the final period of the Russian monarchy from 1721 to 1917, ruling across large parts of Eurasia. It succeeded the Tsardom of Russia following the Treaty of Nystad, which ended the Great Northern War. ...
and the
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen national ...
before finally joining the
Russian Federation
Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia, Northern Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the ...
in 1992. Throughout this whole time, the borders of Tuva have seen very little modification.
Early history
There are few written sources for the history of
Tannu Uriankhai
Tannu Uriankhai ( tyv, Таңды Урянхай, ; mn, Тагна Урианхай, Tagna Urianhai, ; ) is a historical region of the Mongol Empire (and its principal successor, the Yuan dynasty) and, later, the Qing dynasty. The territory of ...
prior to the mid-18th century. Moreover, these sources often do not distinguish between the Tannu Uriankhai, the
Altai Uriankhai
The Altai Uriankhai (Mongolian Cyrillic: , ; ) refers to a Mongol tribe around the Altai Mountains that was organized by the Qing dynasty. They now form a subgroup in western Mongolia and eastern Xinjiang.
The Uriyangkhai or Uriankhai people ...
, and the
Altainor Uriankhai. In general, the land has played only a passive role in the
history of Inner Asia, passing without much difficulty from one conqueror to another. It was dominated by a series of Turkic khanates of northern Mongolia; Turks, Uighurs and Kirghiz although, it appears that the real Turkification of the region began with the flight of Turkic tribes into this area after the rise of Genghis Khan in the 13th century.
Archeological finds indicate a long occupation of what is now Tuva. Tombs have been found dating back as far as the late
Paleolithic Era
The Paleolithic or Palaeolithic (), also called the Old Stone Age (from Greek: παλαιός ''palaios'', "old" and λίθος ''lithos'', "stone"), is a period in human prehistory that is distinguished by the original development of stone tool ...
.
Probably the most spectacular
Scythian
The Scythians or Scyths, and sometimes also referred to as the Classical Scythians and the Pontic Scythians, were an ancient Eastern
* : "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Centra ...
finds known to archaeologists have been discovered in northern Tuva near
Arzhaan. Dating to between the 7th and 9th centuries BC they are also among the earliest known, as well as the easternmost.
[ See p. 1087.] Following restoration in
St Petersburg
Saint Petersburg ( rus, links=no, Санкт-Петербург, a=Ru-Sankt Peterburg Leningrad Petrograd Piter.ogg, r=Sankt-Peterburg, p=ˈsankt pʲɪtʲɪrˈburk), formerly known as Petrograd (1914–1924) and later Leningrad (1924–1991), i ...
,
the sumptuous gold treasure hoard is now on display in the new National Museum in Kyzyl.
The
Xiongnu
The Xiongnu (, ) were a tribal confederation of nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Modu Chanyu, the supreme leader after 20 ...
ruled over the area of Tuva prior to 200 AD. The identity of the ethnic core of Xiongnu has been a subject of varied hypotheses and proposals by scholars including Mongolic and Turkic. At this time a people known to the Chinese as
Dingling
The Dingling ( (174 BCE); (200 BCE); Eastern Han Chinese: *''teŋ-leŋ'' < : *''têŋ-rêŋ'') were ancient people ...
inhabited the region. The Chinese recorded the existence of a tribe of Dingling origin named ''Dubo'' in the eastern Sayans. This name is recognized as being associated with the Tuvan people and is the earliest written record of them.
The
Xianbei
The Xianbei (; ) were a Proto-Mongolic ancient nomadic people that once resided in the eastern Eurasian steppes in what is today Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Northeastern China. They originated from the Donghu people who splintered into the ...
defeated the Xiongnu and they in turn were defeated by the
Rouran
The Rouran Khaganate, also Juan-Juan Khaganate (), was a tribal confederation and later state founded by a people of Proto-Mongolic Donghu origin.*Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (2000)"Ji 姬 and Jiang 姜: The Role of Exogamic Clans in the Organizati ...
.
From around the end of the 6th century, the
Göktürks
The Göktürks, Celestial Turks or Blue Turks ( otk, 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰰:𐰉𐰆𐰑𐰣, Türük Bodun; ; ) were a nomadic confederation of Turkic peoples in medieval Inner Asia. The Göktürks, under the leadership of Bumin Qaghan (d. 552) and ...
held dominion over Tuva
up until the 8th century when the
Uyghurs
The Uyghurs; ; ; ; zh, s=, t=, p=Wéiwú'ěr, IPA: ( ), alternatively spelled Uighurs, Uygurs or Uigurs, are a Turkic ethnic group originating from and culturally affiliated with the general region of Central and East Asia. The Uyghur ...
took over.
The indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Tuva Republic are a Turkic-speaking people of
South Siberia
South Central Siberia is a geographical region north of the point where Russia, China, Kazakhstan and Mongolia come together.
Regions of Asia
North Asia
The Four Corners
At approximately , the borders of Russia, China, Mongolia and Kaza ...
, whose language shows strong
Samoyedic and
Mongolian influences. The name "Tuva" probably derives from a Samoyedic tribe, referred to in 7th-century Chinese sources as Dubo or Tupo, who lived in the upper Yenisei region. These people were known to the Chinese and Mongolians as Uriankhai. Most scholars trace the name to the Uriankhai of the
Greater Hinggan Range, a
Jurched people who as a result of extensive migrations gave their name to several peoples living in the region from east Siberia and
northeast China
Northeast China or Northeastern China () is a geographical region of China, which is often referred to as "Manchuria" or "Inner Manchuria" by surrounding countries and the West. It usually corresponds specifically to the three provinces east of t ...
to the Altai mountains. These should not be confused with the Altai Uriankhai (ethnic Mongolians living in western Mongolia), the Altainor Uriankhai (a Turkic-speaking people in the Altai Republic within the Russian Federation), and the Khovsgolnor Uriankhai (reindeer herders in the eastern Tuva Republic).
![East-Hem 800ad](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/East-Hem_800ad.jpg)
Tuvans were subjects of the
Uyghur Khaganate
The Uyghur Khaganate (also Uyghur Empire or Uighur Khaganate, self defined as Toquz-Oghuz country; otk, 𐱃𐰆𐰴𐰕:𐰆𐰍𐰕:𐰉𐰆𐰑𐰣, Toquz Oγuz budun, Tang-era names, with modern Hanyu Pinyin: or ) was a Turkic empire that e ...
during the 8th and early 9th centuries AD. The Uyghurs established several fortifications within Tuva as a means of subduing the population. The Uyghur Khaganate was overthrown in 840 AD by a rebellion of the
Yeniseian Kyrgyz who came from the upper reaches of the Yenisei. During this period, some Uyghurs were absorbed into Tuvan society. The Khirghiz ruled Tuva until the 13th century.
Mongol rule
In 1207, Tuva was conquered by
Mongol
The Mongols ( mn, Монголчууд, , , ; ; russian: Монголы) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation. The Mongols are the principal member of ...
s under
Jochi
Jochi Khan ( Mongolian: mn, Зүчи, ; kk, Жошы, Joşy جوشى; ; crh, Cuçi, Джучи, جوچى; also spelled Juchi; Djochi, and Jöchi c. 1182– February 1227) was a Mongol army commander who was the eldest son of Temüjin (aka G ...
, the eldest son of
Genghis Khan
''Chinggis Khaan'' ͡ʃʰiŋɡɪs xaːŋbr />Mongol script: ''Chinggis Qa(gh)an/ Chinggis Khagan''
, birth_name = Temüjin
, successor = Tolui (as regent)Ögedei Khan
, spouse =
, issue =
, house = Borjigin
, ...
. This was the beginning of Mongol suzerainty over the Tuvans. Tuvans were ruled by the Khalka Mongol leader Sholoi Ubashi's
Altyn-Khan Khanate until the 17th century.
The state of the Altyn-Khan disappeared due to constant warring between the Oirats and the Khalka of
Jasaghtu Khan Aimak. The Tuvans became part of the
Dzungarian
Dzungaria (; from the Mongolian language, Mongolian words , meaning 'left hand') is a geographical subregion in Northwest China that corresponds to the northern half of Xinjiang. It is thus also known as Beijiang, which means "Northern Xinjiang" ...
state ruled by the Oirats.
The Dzungars ruled over all the Sayano-Altay Plateau until 1755.
The historic region of Tannu Uriankhai, of which Tuva is a part, was controlled by the Mongols from 1207 to 1757, when it was brought under the rule of the
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
, the last dynasty of China, until 1911.
It then came under the dominion of the
Yuan dynasty
The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fifth ...
of China (1271–1368), and with the fall of the Yuan it was controlled by the
Oirats
Oirats ( mn, Ойрад, ''Oirad'', or , Oird; xal-RU, Өөрд; zh, 瓦剌; in the past, also Eleuths) are the westernmost group of the Mongols whose ancestral home is in the Altai region of Siberia, Xinjiang and western Mongolia.
Histor ...
until the end of the 16th and early 17th centuries. Thereafter, the history of western Mongolia, and by extension Tannu Uriankhai, is a story of the complex military relations between the Altan Khanate (Khotogoit tribe) and the Oirots, both competing for supremacy in western Mongolia. The territory of current Tuva has been ruled by the
Xianbei state
The Xianbei state or Xianbei confederation was a nomadic empire which existed in modern-day Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, northern Xinjiang, Northeast China, Gansu, Buryatia, Zabaykalsky Krai, Irkutsk Oblast, Tuva, Altai Republic and eastern Kazak ...
(93–234),
Rouran Khaganate
The Rouran Khaganate, also Juan-Juan Khaganate (), was a tribal confederation and later state founded by a people of Proto-Mongolic Donghu origin.*Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (2000)"Ji 姬 and Jiang 姜: The Role of Exogamic Clans in the Organizatio ...
(330–555),
Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire of the 13th and 14th centuries was the largest contiguous land empire in history. Originating in present-day Mongolia in East Asia, the Mongol Empire at its height stretched from the Sea of Japan to parts of Eastern Europe, ...
(1206–1271), Yuan dynasty (1271–1368),
Northern Yuan dynasty
The Northern Yuan () was a dynastic regime ruled by the Mongol Borjigin clan based in the Mongolian Plateau. It existed as a rump state after the collapse of the Yuan dynasty in 1368 and lasted until its conquest by the Jurchen-led Later Jin ...
(1368–1691) and
Dzungar Khanate
The Dzungar Khanate, also written as the Zunghar Khanate, was an Inner Asian khanate of Oirat Mongol origin. At its greatest extent, it covered an area from southern Siberia in the north to present-day Kyrgyzstan in the south, and from t ...
(1634–1758).
Qing rule
The
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
established its dominion over the
Khalkha
The Khalkha (Mongolian script, Mongolian: mn, Халх, Halh, , zh, 喀爾喀) have been the largest subgroup of Mongols, Mongol people in modern Mongolia since the 15th century. The Khalkha, together with Chahars, Ordos Mongols, Ordos and Tum ...
s after intervening in their war against the Oirat. In 1691, the
Kangxi Emperor
The Kangxi Emperor (4 May 1654– 20 December 1722), also known by his temple name Emperor Shengzu of Qing, born Xuanye, was the third emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper, reigning from 1661 to 1 ...
accepted the submission of the Khalkhas at Dolon Nor in modern Inner Mongolia, and then personally led an army against the Oirat under the rule of Galdan, defeating them in 1696. The Khalkha Mongols and their subjects (some Uriankhais) were now under Qing rule, with the Dzungar Empire continuing to control the territory of modern-day Tuva. In 1726, the
Yongzheng Emperor
, regnal name =
, posthumous name = Emperor Jingtian Changyun Jianzhong Biaozhen Wenwu Yingming Kuanren Xinyi Ruisheng Daxiao Zhicheng Xian()Manchu: Temgetulehe hūwangdi ()
, temple name = Shizong()Manchu: Šidzung ()
, house = Aisin Gioro ...
ordered the Khotogoit Khan Buuvei Beise to accompany a high Qing official ("amban") to "inform the Uriankhais of
ing
Ing, ING or ing may refer to:
Art and media
* '' ...ing'', a 2003 Korean film
* i.n.g, a Taiwanese girl group
* The Ing, a race of dark creatures in the 2004 video game '' Metroid Prime 2: Echoes''
* "Ing", the first song on The Roches' 1992 ...
edicts" in order to prevent "something untoward from happening." Qing subjugation of the Altai Uriankhai and the Altainor Uriankhai occurred much later, in 1754, as part of a broader military offensive against the Dzungar Empire.
Tannu Uriankhai
The
Tannu Uriankhai
Tannu Uriankhai ( tyv, Таңды Урянхай, ; mn, Тагна Урианхай, Tagna Urianhai, ; ) is a historical region of the Mongol Empire (and its principal successor, the Yuan dynasty) and, later, the Qing dynasty. The territory of ...
were reorganized into an administrative system similar to that of Mongolia, with five
khoshuns ("
banner
A banner can be a flag or another piece of cloth bearing a symbol, logo, slogan or another message. A flag whose design is the same as the shield in a coat of arms (but usually in a square or rectangular shape) is called a banner of arms. Also, ...
") and 46 or 47
sumuns ("arrow") (Chinese and Russian sources differ on the number of khoshuns and sumuns). Each khoshun was governed by an hereditary prince nominally appointed by the Qing military governor at
Uliastai
Uliastai ( mn, Улиастай; ), also spelled Uliyasutai or Oulia-Sontai, and sometimes known as Javkhlant, is a city in Mongolia located in the western part of the country and from the capital Ulaanbaatar. Uliastai is the capital of Zavkhan P ...
. In the latter half of the 18th century, one of the khoshun princes was placed in charge of the others as governor (Mongolian:"amban-noyon") in recognition of his military service to the dynasty.
Tannu Uriankhai (as well as Altai and Altainor Uriankhai) occupied a unique position in the Qing Dynasty's frontier administration system. Qing statutes rigorously defined procedures to be followed by the nobles of Outer and Inner Mongolia, Zungaria, and Qinghai for rendering tribute, receiving government stipends, and participating in imperial audiences. However, they are silent regarding Tannu Uriankhai.
[Thomas E. Ewing, ''The Forgotten Frontier: South Siberia (Tuva) in Chinese and Russian History, 1600-1920,'' Central Asiatic Journal (1981), v. XXV, p. 176.] After the demarcation of the Sino-Russian border by the
Treaty of Kyakhta
The Treaty of Kyakhta (or Kiakhta),, ; , Xiao'erjing: بُلِيًاصِٿِ\ٿِاكْتُ تِيَوْيُؤ; mn, Хиагтын гэрээ, Hiagtiin geree, along with the Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689), regulated the relations between Imperial ...
in 1727, the Qing placed border guards ("yurt pickets," Mongolian: ''ger kharuul'') south of the Tannu-ola Mountains separating Tannu Uriankai from Outer Mongolia, not along the
Sayan Mountains
The Sayan Mountains (russian: Саяны ''Sajany''; mn, Соёны нуруу, ''Soyonï nurû''; otk, 𐰚𐰇𐰏𐰢𐰤, Kögmen) are a mountain range in southern Siberia, Russia (Buryatia, Irkutsk Oblast, Krasnoyarsk Krai, Tuva Republic ...
separating the region from Russia. This fact was used by 19th-century Russian polemicists, and later Soviet writers, to state that Tuva had historically been "disputed" territory between Russia and China. The Qing military governor at Uliastiai, on his triennial inspection tours of the 24 pickets under his direct supervision, never crossed the Tannu-ola mountains to visit Uriankhai. When problems occurred meriting official attention, the military governor would send a Mongol from his staff rather than attend to the matter himself.
After this treaty, inhabitants of Uriankhai without citizenship ties to either side were required to pay taxes to both Russia and China.
Indeed, there is no evidence that Tannu Uriankhai was ever visited by a senior Qing official (except in 1726). Chinese merchants were forbidden to cross the pickets, a law which was not lifted until the turn of the 20th century. Instead, a few days were set aside for trade at Uliastai when Uriankhai nobles delivered their annual fur tribute to the military governor and received their salaries and other imperial gifts (primarily bolts of satin and cotton cloth) from the emperor. Thus, Tannu Uriankhai enjoyed a degree of political and cultural autonomy unequalled on the Chinese frontier.
Russian colonists
During the 19th century,
Russians
, native_name_lang = ru
, image =
, caption =
, population =
, popplace =
118 million Russians in the Russian Federation (2002 ''Winkler Prins'' estimate)
, region1 =
, pop1 ...
began to settle in Tuva, resulting in an 1860
Chinese-Russian treaty, in which the Qing Dynasty allowed Russians to settle providing that they lived in boats or tents. Russian gold prospectors came as early as 1838 to mine gold from the upper Systyg-Khem.
In the following decades, gold was mined on the Khüt, Öök, Serlig, and northern tributaries of the
Bii-Khem and
Ulug-Khem. By 1885, almost 9,000 kilograms of gold had been extracted.
In 1881, Russians were allowed to live in permanent buildings. By that time a sizeable Russian community had been established. Their affairs were managed by an official in Russia. These officials also settled disputes and checked on Tuvan chiefs. By 1883, the total number of Russian miners had reached 485.
[V.I. Dulov, "''Russko-tuvinskie ekonomicheskie svyazi v. XIX stoletii'' (Russian-Tuvin economic relations in the 19th century)". In ''Uchenye zapiski tuvinskogo nauchno-issledovatel’skogo instituta yazyka, literatury I istorii'' (Kyzyl, 1954), no. 2, p. 104.]
Russian merchants from
Minusinsk
Minusinsk (russian: Минуси́нск; kjh, Минсуғ) is a historical types of inhabited localities in Russia, town in Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia. Population: 44,500 (1973).
Geography
Minusinsk marks the center of the Minusinsk Hollow ...
followed, especially after the
Treaty of Peking
The Convention of Peking or First Convention of Peking is an agreement comprising three distinct treaties concluded between the Qing dynasty of China and Great Britain, France, and the Russian Empire in 1860. In China, they are regarded as amon ...
in 1860, which opened China to foreign trade. They were lured by the "wild prices", as one 19th-century Russian writer described them, that Tuvans were willing to pay for Russian manufactured goods: cloth, haberdashery,
samovar
A samovar (russian: самовар, , literally "self-brewer") is a metal container traditionally used to heat and boil water. Although originating in Russia, the samovar is well known outside of Russia and has spread through Russian culture t ...
s, knives, tobacco, etc. By the end of the 1860s there were already sixteen commercial "establishments" (''zavedenie'') in
Tannu Uriankhai
Tannu Uriankhai ( tyv, Таңды Урянхай, ; mn, Тагна Урианхай, Tagna Urianhai, ; ) is a historical region of the Mongol Empire (and its principal successor, the Yuan dynasty) and, later, the Qing dynasty. The territory of ...
. The Tuvans paid for these goods in livestock-on-the-hoof, furs, and animal skins (sheep, goat, horse, and cattle). But crossing the Sayan Mountains was a journey not without hardships, and even peril; thus, by 1880–85, there were perhaps no more than 50 (or fewer) Russian traders operating in Tannu Uriankhai during the summer, when trade was most active.
Russian colonization followed. It started in 1856 with a sect of
Old Believers
Old Believers or Old Ritualists, ''starovery'' or ''staroobryadtsy'' are Eastern Orthodox Christians who maintain the liturgical and ritual practices of the Russian Orthodox Church as they were before the reforms of Patriarch Nikon of Moscow bet ...
called the "Seekers of White Waters," a place which according to their tradition was isolated from the rest of the world by impassable mountains and forests, where they could obtain refuge from government authorities and where the
Nikonian rites of the Russian Orthodox Church were not practiced.
[F.Ya. Kon. ''Usinskii krai'' ("Usinsk Region") Krasnoyarsk, 1914. pp. 29-38.] In the 1860s a different kind of refugee arrived, those fleeing from penal servitude in Siberia. More Russians came. Small settlements were formed in the northern and central parts of Tuva.
The formal beginning of Russian colonization in Tannu Uriankhai occurred in 1885, when a merchant received permission from the Governor-General of
Irkutsk
Irkutsk ( ; rus, Иркутск, p=ɪrˈkutsk; Buryat language, Buryat and mn, Эрхүү, ''Erhüü'', ) is the largest city and administrative center of Irkutsk Oblast, Russia. With a population of 617,473 as of the 2010 Census, Irkutsk is ...
to farm at present-day Turan. Other settlements were formed, and by the first decade of the 20th century there were perhaps 2,000 merchants and colonists.
By the late 1870s and in the 1880s the Russian presence included a political presence. In 1878, Russians discovered gold in eastern Uriankhai. There were rumors of fabulous wealth to be gained from this area, and the Russian provincial authorities at
Yeniseisk
Yeniseysk ( rus, Енисейск, p=jɪnʲɪˈsʲejsk) is a types of inhabited localities in Russia, town in Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia, located on the Yenisei River. Population: 20,000 (1970).
History
Yeniseysk was founded in 1619 as a stocka ...
received many petitions from gold miners to mine. Permission was granted. Merchants and miners petitioned the Russian authorities for military and police protection.
In 1886, the Usinsk Frontier Superintendent was established. Its primary function was to represent Russian interests in Tannu-Uriankhai to Tuvan nobles (not Qing officials) and to issue passports to Russians traveling in
Uriankhai
Uriankhai ( traditional Mongolian: , Mongolian Cyrillic: урианхай; sah, урааҥхай; zh, t=烏梁海, s=乌梁海, p=Wūliánghǎi), Uriankhan (, урианхан) or Uriankhat (, урианхад), is a term of address applie ...
. Over the years this office quietly began to unofficially govern at least the Russians in the region, managing taxation, policing, administration, and justice. These powers officially belonged to, but were effectively relinquished by, the Qing.
Shortly after the office of Superintendent was created, the ''Sibirskaya gazeta'' brought out a special edition, congratulating the government on its creation, and predicting that all Tannu Uriankhai would someday become part of the Russian state.
In general, the Tsarist government was reluctant to act precipitately in Uriankhai for fear of arousing the Qing. It generally preferred a less obvious approach, one that depended on quietly encourages colonization rather than military action. This fundamentally distinguished ultimate Russian dominion over Tannu Uriankhai from that of
Outer Mongolia
Outer Mongolia was the name of a territory in the Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China from 1691 to 1911. It corresponds to the modern-day independent state of Mongolia and the Russian republic of Tuva. The historical region gained ''de facto' ...
, with which it has often been compared. In the former, the Russians were essentially colonists; in the latter, they were traders. The Russians built permanent farm houses in Uriankhai, opened land for cultivation, erected fences, and raised livestock. They were there to stay. What gave the Russian presence added durability was its concentration in the northern and central parts of Tannu Uriankhai, areas sparsely populated by the natives themselves. It was Russian colonization, therefore, rather than purposeful Tsarist aggression, that resulted in Tannu Uriankhai ultimately becoming part of Russia in the following century.
Qing reaction
The Qing government was not oblivious to the Russian presence. In the 1860s and 1870s the Uliastai military governor repeatedly reported the influx of Russians to the Qing. During negotiations leading up to the
Treaty of Tarbagatai
The Treaty of Tarbagatai () or Treaty of Chuguchak () of 7 October Old_Style.html"_;"title="5_September_Old_Style">O.S./nowiki>_1864_was_a_border_protocol_between_Qing_dynasty.html" "title="Old_Style">O.S..html" ;"title="Old_Style.html" ;"title=" ...
of 1864 between the Qing and Russia, the Russian representative insisted that all territory to the north of the Qing frontier pickets should belong to Russia. Moreover, the Uliastai military governor obtained a Russian map showing the Tannu-ola Mountains as the Sino-Russian border. These incidents worried the Qing.
But in the second half of the 19th century, the Qing government was distracted by internal problems and could not deal with these issues. Instead, local officials on the frontier were left to manage the Russians as best they could, an impossible task without funds or troops. The military governors at Uliastai could only provide limp protests and inconclusive investigations.
In 1909, it was recorded that 9,000 Russians settled in Tannu Uriankhai.
Independence
By the early 20th century the Uriankhai economy had seriously deteriorated, resulting increased poverty in the region. The causes of this decline were varied: declining number of fur-bearing animals probably due to over-hunting by both Uriankhais and Russians; declining number of livestock as a result of the export market to Siberia; and periodic natural disasters (especially droughts and plagues), which further decreased the livestock populations.
The decline in the number of squirrels also led to marked inflation since Uriankhai trade with Russians was conducted on credit using a complex system of valuation principally pegged to squirrel skins. Furthermore, Russians encouraged credit purchases at usurious rates of interest. If repayment was not forthcoming, Russian merchants would drive off the livestock either of the debtor or his relatives or friends. This resulted in retaliatory raids by the Uriankhai.
Due to Qing policy, ethnic
Han
Han may refer to:
Ethnic groups
* Han Chinese, or Han People (): the name for the largest ethnic group in China, which also constitutes the world's largest ethnic group.
** Han Taiwanese (): the name for the ethnic group of the Taiwanese p ...
traders were kept out of Uriankhai. These policies had actually been applied, unlike in other frontier regions such as Mongolia. In 1902, Han traders were allowed to cross the border in order to break the Russian monopoly of the Uriankhai economy. By 1910, there were 30 or so shops, all branches of Han-owned firms operating in Uliastai. Due to, among other things more aggressive selling, easier credit terms, and cheaper and more popular goods for sale, the Han were soon able to dominate commerce just as they had in Mongolia. Soon, the Uriankhais, commoners and princes alike, had accumulated large debts to Han merchants.
The end of Qing rule in Tannu Uriankhai came quickly. On 10 October 1911, the
Wuchang Uprising
The Wuchang Uprising was an armed rebellion against the ruling Qing dynasty that took place in Wuchang (now Wuchang District of Wuhan), Hubei, China on 10 October 1911, beginning the Xinhai Revolution that successfully overthrew China's last i ...
led to a full-scale
revolution to overthrow the Qing, and soon afterwards many Chinese provinces rapidly declared their independence.
Outer Mongolia
Outer Mongolia was the name of a territory in the Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China from 1691 to 1911. It corresponds to the modern-day independent state of Mongolia and the Russian republic of Tuva. The historical region gained ''de facto' ...
declared its own independence from China on 1 December and expelled the Qing viceroy four days later. In the second half of December bands of Uriankhai began plundering and burning Han-owned shops.
Uriankhai nobles were divided as to the best political course of action. The Uriankhai governor (Mongolian: amban-noyon), Gombo-Dorzhu, advocated becoming a protectorate of Russia, hoping that the Russians in turn would appoint him governor of Uriankhai. But the princes of two other khoshuns preferred to submit to the new Outer Mongolian state under the theocratic rule of the Jebstundamba Khutukhtu of Urga. There were also nobles who wanted an independent country.
Undeterred, Gombu-Dorzhu sent a petition to the Frontier Superintendent at Usinsk stating that he had been chosen as leader of the independent Tannu Uriankhai state. He asked for protection, and proposed that Russian troops be sent immediately into the country to prevent China from restoring its rule over the region. There was no reply because three months earlier the Tsarist Council of Ministers had already decided on a policy of gradual, cautious absorption of Uriankhai by encouraging Russian colonization. Precipitate action by Russia, the Council feared, might provoke China.
This position changed, however, as a result of genuine concern for the safety of Russian lives and property in Uriankhai, pressure from commercial circles in Russia for a more active approach, and a petition from two Uriankhai khoshuns in the fall of 1913 requesting to be accepted as a part of Russia. Other Uriankhai khoshuns soon followed suit. In April 1914 Tannu Uriankhai was formally accepted as a protectorate of Russia.
Russian interests in Tuva continued into the twentieth century.
Annexation to Czarist Russia
During the
1911 revolution
The 1911 Revolution, also known as the Xinhai Revolution or Hsinhai Revolution, ended China's last imperial dynasty, the Manchu-led Qing dynasty, and led to the establishment of the Republic of China. The revolution was the culmination of a d ...
in China,
tsar
Tsar ( or ), also spelled ''czar'', ''tzar'', or ''csar'', is a title used by East Slavs, East and South Slavs, South Slavic monarchs. The term is derived from the Latin word ''Caesar (title), caesar'', which was intended to mean "emperor" i ...
ist
Russia
Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia, Northern Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the ...
encouraged a
separatist
Separatism is the advocacy of cultural, ethnic, tribal, religious, racial, governmental or gender separation from the larger group. As with secession, separatism conventionally refers to full political separation. Groups simply seeking greate ...
movement among the Tuvans.
Tsar Nicholas II
Nicholas II or Nikolai II Alexandrovich Romanov; spelled in pre-revolutionary script. ( 186817 July 1918), known in the Russian Orthodox Church as Saint Nicholas the Passion-Bearer,. was the last Emperor of Russia, King of Congress Polan ...
ordered Russian troops into Tuva in 1912, as Russian settlers were allegedly being attacked.
Tuva became nominally independent as the
Urjanchai Republic before being brought under Russian
protectorate
A protectorate, in the context of international relations, is a State (polity), state that is under protection by another state for defence against aggression and other violations of law. It is a dependent territory that enjoys autonomy over m ...
as the Uryankhay
Kray on 17 April 1914 in the memorandum of Foreign Minister
Sergey Sazonov
Sergei Dmitryevich Sazonov GCB (Russian: Сергей Дмитриевич Сазонов; 10 August 1860 in Ryazan Governorate 11 December 1927) was a Russian statesman and diplomat who served as Foreign Minister from November 1910 to July 1916. ...
on the question of accepting the population of five khoshuns of the Uryankhai Territory. It was then part of the
Yeniseysk Governorate
Yeniseysk Governorate (russian: Енисе́йская губе́рния) was a governorate ('' guberniya'') of the Russian Empire and later of the Russian Republic, Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic in 1822-1925.
General info ...
. This move was requested by a number of prominent Tuvans, including the High
Lama
Lama (; "chief") is a title for a teacher of the Dharma in Tibetan Buddhism. The name is similar to the Sanskrit term ''guru'', meaning "heavy one", endowed with qualities the student will eventually embody. The Tibetan word "lama" means "hi ...
. A Tuvan capital was established, called
Belotsarsk
Kyzyl (; Tuvan and russian: Кызыл; , ) is the capital city of the republic of Tuva, Russia. The name of the city means "red" or "crimson" in Tuvan (and in many other Turkic languages). Its population was
History
The city was founded in 1 ...
(Белоца́рск; literally, "Town of White Tsar"). Meanwhile, in 1911, Mongolia became independent, though under Russian protection.
Following the
Russian Revolution of 1917
The Russian Revolution was a period of political and social revolution that took place in the former Russian Empire which began during the First World War. This period saw Russia abolish its monarchy and adopt a socialist form of government ...
which ended the Tsar's rule, most of Tuva was occupied from 5 July 1918 to 15 July 1919 by
Aleksandr Kolchak
Alexander Vasilyevich Kolchak (russian: link=no, Александр Васильевич Колчак; – 7 February 1920) was an Imperial Russian admiral, military leader and polar explorer who served in the Imperial Russian Navy and fought ...
's "White" Russian troops. Pyotr Ivanovich Turchaninov was named governor of the territory. In the autumn of 1918 the southwestern part was occupied by Chinese troops and the southern part by Mongol troops led by
Khatanbaatar Magsarjav
Khatanbaatar Magsarjav ( mn, Хатанбаатар Магсаржав, ; 1877 – September 3, 1927) was a Mongolian general and a leading figure in Mongolia's struggle for independence. His contingent of 800 elite Mongol soldiers fought W ...
.
Communist Tuva
From July 1919 to February 1920 the communist
Red Army
The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army (Russian: Рабо́че-крестья́нская Кра́сная армия),) often shortened to the Red Army, was the army and air force of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic and, after ...
controlled Tuva, but from 19 February 1920 to June 1921 it was occupied by China under governor Yan Shichao. On 14 August 1921 the
Bolshevik
The Bolsheviks (russian: Большевики́, from большинство́ ''bol'shinstvó'', 'majority'),; derived from ''bol'shinstvó'' (большинство́), "majority", literally meaning "one of the majority". also known in English ...
s (supported by Russia) established the
Tuvan People's Republic
The Tuvan People's Republic (TPR; tyv, Тыва Арат Республик, translit=Tywa Arat Respublik; Yanalif: ''Tьʙа Arat Respuʙlik'', ),) and abbreviated TAR. known as the Tannu Tuva People's Republic until 1926, was a partially rec ...
, popularly called Tannu-Tuva. In 1926, the capital (Belotsarsk; Khem-Beldyr since 1918) was renamed
Kyzyl
Kyzyl (; Tuvan and russian: Кызыл; , ) is the capital city of the republic of Tuva, Russia. The name of the city means "red" or "crimson" in Tuvan (and in many other Turkic languages). Its population was
History
The city was founded in 1 ...
, meaning "Red". Tuva was an independent state between the World Wars.
The state's first communist ruler, Prime Minister
Donduk, sought to strengthen ties with
Mongolia
Mongolia; Mongolian script: , , ; lit. "Mongol Nation" or "State of Mongolia" () is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of , with a population of just 3.3 million, ...
and establish
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
as the
state religion
A state religion (also called religious state or official religion) is a religion or creed officially endorsed by a sovereign state. A state with an official religion (also known as confessional state), while not secular state, secular, is not n ...
. This unsettled the Kremlin, which orchestrated a
coup carried out in 1929 by five young Tuvan graduates of Moscow's
Communist University of the Toilers of the East
The Communist University of the Toilers of the East (KUTV) (russian: link=no, Коммунистический университет трудящихся Востока; also known as the Far East University) was a revolutionary training scho ...
. In 1930, the pro-Soviet government began to reform the
writing system
A writing system is a method of visually representing verbal communication, based on a script and a set of rules regulating its use. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a reliable form ...
, first replacing Mongol script with a Latin script, then adopting a Cyrillic script in 1943. Under the leadership of Party Secretary
Salchak Toka
Salchak Kalbakkhorekovich Toka (russian: Салчак Калбакхорекович Тока, – 11 May 1973) was a Tuvan and later, Soviet politician. He was General Secretary of the Tuvinian department of the CPSU from 1944 to 1973; previou ...
, ethnic Russians were granted full citizenship rights and Buddhist and Mongol influences on the Tuvan state and society were systematically reduced.
In
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
the state contributed infantry, armored, and cavalry troops to fight against
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany (lit. "National Socialist State"), ' (lit. "Nazi State") for short; also ' (lit. "National Socialist Germany") (officially known as the German Reich from 1933 until 1943, and the Greater German Reich from 1943 to 1945) was ...
. Under Soviet command a number of units distinguished themselves and received Tuvan medals.
Annexation to the Soviet Union
![Tuva-1953 Tuva-2008](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Tuva-1953_Tuva-2008.png)
The
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen national ...
annexed Tuva outright on 11 October 1944, apparently with the approval of Tuva's
Little Khural The Little Khural ( mn, Бага Хурал, ''Baga Khural'') or State Little Khural ( mn, Улсын Бага Хурал, ''Ulsyn Baga Khural'') was the presidium of the Mongolian People's Republic from 1924 until 1951 and then the standing legisla ...
(parliament), though there was no
referendum
A referendum (plural: referendums or less commonly referenda) is a direct vote by the electorate on a proposal, law, or political issue. This is in contrast to an issue being voted on by a representative. This may result in the adoption of a ...
on the issue. The exact circumstances surrounding Tannu-Tuva's annexation into the USSR in 1944 remain obscure.
Salchak Toka
Salchak Kalbakkhorekovich Toka (russian: Салчак Калбакхорекович Тока, – 11 May 1973) was a Tuvan and later, Soviet politician. He was General Secretary of the Tuvinian department of the CPSU from 1944 to 1973; previou ...
, the leader of the
Tuvan People's Revolutionary Party
Tuvan People's Revolutionary Party ( mn, ᠲᠠᠩᠨᠦ ᠲᠤᠧᠠ ᠢᠢᠨ ᠠᠷᠠᠳ ᠤᠨ ᠬᠤᠪᠢᠰᠭᠠᠯ ᠳᠤ ᠨᠠᠮ, Tangnu Tuva-yin arad-un qubisγal-tu nam) was a political party in Tuva, founded in 1921. When the ...
, was given the title of
First Secretary First Secretary may refer to:
* First minister, a leader of a government
* Secretary (title), a leader of a political party (especially Communist parties), trade union, or other organization
* First Secretary (diplomatic rank), a role within an emba ...
of the
Tuvan Communist Party Tuvan or Tuvinian can refer to:
*Of or pertaining to Tuva, a federal subject of Russia
**Tuvans or Tuvinians, a Turkic ethnic group living in southern Siberia
**Tuvan language, also known as Tuvinian, Tyvan or Tuvin, a Turkic language spoken in the ...
, and became the
de facto
''De facto'' ( ; , "in fact") describes practices that exist in reality, whether or not they are officially recognized by laws or other formal norms. It is commonly used to refer to what happens in practice, in contrast with ''de jure'' ("by la ...
ruler of Tuva until his death in 1973. Tuva was made the
Tuvan Autonomous Oblast
The Tuvan Autonomous Oblast was an autonomous oblast of the Soviet Union, created on 11 October 1944 following the annexation of the Tuvan People's Republic by the Soviet Union. On 10 October 1961, it was transformed into the Tuvan Autonomous ...
and then became the
on 10 October 1961. The Soviet Union kept Tuva closed to the outside world for nearly fifty years.
Modern history
In February 1990, the
Tuvan Democratic Movement was founded by
Kaadyr-ool Bicheldei, a philologist at
Kyzyl University. The party aimed to provide much needed jobs and housing, and also to improve the status of
Tuvan language
Tuvan or Tyvan (Tuvan: , ''tyva dyl'', ) is a Turkic language spoken in the Republic of Tuva in South-Central Siberia in Russia. The language has borrowed a great number of roots from the Mongolian language, Tibetan and the Russian language. ...
and culture. Later on in the year there was a wave of attacks against Tuva's sizeable Russian community, resulting in 168 deaths. Russian troops eventually were called in. Many Russians moved out of the republic during this period. To this day, Tuva remains remote and difficult to access.
Tuva was a signatory to the 31 March 1992 treaty that created the Russian Federation. A new constitution for the republic was drawn up on 22 October 1993. This created a 32-member parliament (Supreme Khural) and a
Grand Khural, which is responsible for foreign policy and any possible changes to the constitution, and ensures that Tuvan law is given precedence. The constitution also allowed for a referendum if Tuva ever sought independence. This constitution was passed by 53.9% (or 62.2%, according to source) of Tuvans in a referendum on 12 December 1993.
[BBC Monitoring Service, 15 December 1993 “Figures from Ingushetia, Tyva, Yaroslavl and parts of Urals and Siberia”]
See also
*
Aldy-Bel culture
The Aldy-Bel culture (russian: Алды-бельская культура ''Aldy-Bel'skaya'' kul'tura, the part of Uyuksk culture, russian: Уюкская культура культура ''Uyukskaya'' kul'tura) is an Iron Age culture of Scytho- ...
References
{{History of Russia navbar