The ''History of the Peloponnesian War'' is a historical account of the

Peloponnesian War The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) was an ancient Greek war fought between Athens and Sparta and their respective allies for the hegemony of the Greek world. The war remained undecided for a long time until the decisive intervention of th ...

(431–404 BC), which was fought between the Peloponnesian League (led by

Sparta Sparta ( Doric Greek: Σπάρτα, ''Spártā''; Attic Greek: Σπάρτη, ''Spártē'') was a prominent city-state in Laconia, in ancient Greece. In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon (, ), while the name Sparta referre ...

) and the Delian League (led by

Athens Athens ( ; el, Αθήνα, Athína ; grc, Ἀθῆναι, Athênai (pl.) ) is both the capital and largest city of Greece. With a population close to four million, it is also the seventh largest city in the European Union. Athens dominates ...

). It was written by

Thucydides Thucydides (; grc, , }; BC) was an Athenian historian and general. His ''History of the Peloponnesian War'' recounts the fifth-century BC war between Sparta and Athens until the year 411 BC. Thucydides has been dubbed the father of "scientifi ...

, an

Athenian Athens ( ; el, Αθήνα, Athína ; grc, Ἀθῆναι, Athênai (pl.) ) is both the capital and largest city of Greece. With a population close to four million, it is also the seventh largest city in the European Union. Athens dominates ...

historian who also served as an Athenian general during the war. His account of the conflict is widely considered to be a classic and regarded as one of the earliest scholarly works of history. The ''History'' is divided into eight books. Analyses of the ''History'' generally occur in one of two camps. On the one hand, some scholars such as

J. B. Bury John Bagnell Bury (; 16 October 1861 – 1 June 1927) was an Anglo-Irish historian, classical scholar, Medieval Roman historian and philologist. He objected to the label "Byzantinist" explicitly in the preface to the 1889 edition of his ''Lat ...

view the work as an objective and scientific piece of history. The judgment of Bury reflects this traditional interpretation of the ''History'' as "severe in its detachment, written from a purely intellectual point of view, unencumbered with platitudes and moral judgments, cold and critical." On the other hand, in keeping with more recent interpretations that are associated with

reader-response criticism Reader-response criticism is a School of thought, school of literary theory that focuses on Reading (process), the reader (or "audience") and their experience of a literary work, in contrast to other schools and theories that focus attention primar ...

, the ''History'' can be read as a piece of literature rather than an objective record of the historical events. This view is embodied in the words of W. R. Connor, who describes Thucydides as "an artist who responds to, selects and skillfully arranges his material, and develops its symbolic and emotional potential."

Historical method

Thucydides is considered to be one of the key figures in the development of Western history, thus making his methodology the subject of much analysis in area of

historiography Historiography is the study of the methods of historians in developing history as an academic discipline, and by extension is any body of historical work on a particular subject. The historiography of a specific topic covers how historians ha ...

Chronology

Thucydides is one of the first western historians to employ a strict standard of chronology, recording events by year, with each year consisting of the summer campaign season and a less active winter season. This method contrasts sharply with

Herodotus Herodotus ( ; grc, , }; BC) was an ancient Greek historian and geographer from the Greek city of Halicarnassus, part of the Persian Empire (now Bodrum, Turkey) and a later citizen of Thurii in modern Calabria ( Italy). He is known f ...

Speeches

Thucydides also makes extensive use of speeches in order to elaborate on the event in question. While the inclusion of long first-person speeches is somewhat alien to modern

historical method Historical method is the collection of techniques and guidelines that historians use to research and write histories of the past. Secondary sources, primary sources and material evidence such as that derived from archaeology may all be drawn ...

, in the context of

ancient Greek Ancient Greek includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Dark Ages (), the Archaic peri ...

oral culture Oral tradition, or oral lore, is a form of human communication wherein knowledge, art, ideas and cultural material is received, preserved, and transmitted orally from one generation to another. Vansina, Jan: ''Oral Tradition as History'' (1985) ...

speeches are expected. These include addresses given to troops by their generals before battles and numerous political speeches, both by Athenian and Spartan leaders, as well as debates between various parties. Of the speeches, the most famous is the funeral oration of Pericles, which is found in Book Two. Being an Athenian general in the war, Thucydides heard some of these speeches himself. For the other speeches, he relied on eyewitness accounts. These speeches are suspect in the eyes of Classicists, however, inasmuch as it is not clear to what degree Thucydides altered these speeches in order to elucidate better the crux of the argument presented. Some of the speeches are probably fabricated according to his expectations of, as he puts it, "what was called for in each situation" (1.22.1).

Neutrality

Despite being an Athenian and a participant in the conflict, Thucydides is often regarded as having written a generally

unbiased Bias is a disproportionate weight ''in favor of'' or ''against'' an idea or thing, usually in a way that is closed-minded, prejudicial, or unfair. Biases can be innate or learned. People may develop biases for or against an individual, a group, ...

account of the conflict with respect to the sides involved in it. In the introduction to the piece he states, "my work is not a piece of writing designed to meet the taste of an immediate public, but was done to last for ever" (1.22.4). There are scholars, however, who doubt this.

Ernst Badian Ernst Badian (8 August 1925 – 1 February 2011) was an Austrian-born classical scholar who served as a professor at Harvard University from 1971 to 1998. Early life and education Badian was born in Vienna in 1925 and in 1938 fled the Nazis wit ...

, for example, has argued that Thucydides has a strong pro-Athenian bias. In keeping with this sort of doubt, other scholars claim that Thucydides had an ulterior motive in his Histories, specifically to create an epic comparable to those of the past such as the works of

Homer Homer (; grc, Ὅμηρος , ''Hómēros'') (born ) was a Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Homer is considered one of the ...

, and that this led him to create a nonobjective dualism favoring the Athenians. The work does display a clear bias against certain people involved in the conflict, such as

Cleon Cleon (; grc-gre, Κλέων, ; died 422 BC) was an Athenian general during the Peloponnesian War. He was the first prominent representative of the commercial class in Athenian politics, although he was an aristocrat himself. He strongly advocat ...

Role of religion

The gods play no active role in Thucydides' work. This is very different from Herodotus, who frequently mentions the role of the gods, as well as a nearly ubiquitous divine presence in the centuries-earlier poems of

. Instead, Thucydides regards history as being caused by the choices and actions of human beings. Despite the absence of actions of the gods, religion and piety play critical roles in the actions of the Spartans, and to a lesser degree, the Athenians. Thus natural occurrences such as earthquake and eclipses were viewed as religiously significant (1.23.3; 7.50.4)

Rationalization of myth

Despite the absence of the gods from Thucydides' work, he still draws heavily from the Greek mythos, especially from

, whose works are prominent in Greek mythology. Thucydides references Homer frequently as a source of information, but always adds a distancing clause, such as "Homer shows this, if that is sufficient evidence," and "assuming we should trust Homer's poetry in this case too." However, despite Thucydides' skepticism in secondhand information such as Homer's, he does use the poet's epics to infer facts about the

Trojan War In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans (Greeks) after Paris of Troy took Helen from her husband Menelaus, king of Sparta. The war is one of the most important events in Greek mythology and has ...

. For instance, while Thucydides considered the number of over 1,000 Greek ships sent to

Troy Troy ( el, Τροία and Latin: Troia, Hittite language, Hittite: 𒋫𒊒𒄿𒊭 ''Truwiša'') or Ilion ( el, Ίλιον and Latin: Ilium, Hittite language, Hittite: 𒃾𒇻𒊭 ''Wiluša'') was an ancient city located at Hisarlik in prese ...

to be a poetic exaggeration, he uses Homer's Catalog of Ships to determine the approximate number of Greek soldiers who were present. Later, Thucydides claims that since Homer never makes reference to a united Greek state, the pre- Hellenic nations must have been so disjointed that they could not organize properly to launch an effective campaign. In fact, Thucydides claims that Troy could have been conquered in half the time had the Greek leaders allocated resources properly and not sent a large portion of the army on raids for supplies. Thucydides makes sure to inform his reader that he, unlike Homer, is not a poet prone to exaggeration, but instead a historian, whose stories may not give "momentary pleasure," but "whose intended meaning will be challenged by the truth of the facts." By distancing himself from the storytelling practices of Homer, Thucydides makes it clear that while he does consider mythology and epics to be evidence, these works cannot be given much credibility, and that it takes an impartial and empirically minded historian, such as himself, to accurately portray the events of the past.

Subject matter of the ''History''

The first book of the History, after a brief review of early Greek history and some programmatic historiographical commentary, seeks to explain why the Peloponnesian War broke out when it did and what its causes were. Except for a few short excursuses (notably 6.54–58 on the Tyrant Slayers), the remainder of the History (books 2 through 8) rigidly maintains its focus on the

to the exclusion of other topics. While the ''History'' concentrates on the

military A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. It is typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with its members identifiable by their distinct ...

aspects of the Peloponnesian War, it uses these events as a medium to suggest several other themes closely related to the war. It specifically discusses in several passages the socially and culturally degenerative effects of war on humanity itself. The ''History'' is especially concerned with the lawlessness and atrocities committed by Greek citizens to each other in the name of one side or another in the war. Some events depicted in the ''History'', such as the

Melian dialogue The siege of Melos occurred in 416 BC during the Peloponnesian War, which was a war fought between Athens and Sparta. Melos is an island in the Aegean Sea roughly east of mainland Greece. Though the Melians had ancestral ties to Sparta, they we ...

, describe early instances of

realpolitik ''Realpolitik'' (; ) refers to enacting or engaging in diplomatic or political policies based primarily on considerations of given circumstances and factors, rather than strictly binding itself to explicit ideological notions or moral and ethical ...

power politics Power politics is a theory in international relations which contends that distributions of power and national interests, or changes to those distributions, are fundamental causes of war and of system stability. The concept of power politics pro ...

. Noteworthy, there is a possibility that translation mistakes influenced the deductions of realists with regards to the work of

. The ''History'' is preoccupied with the interplay of

justice Justice, in its broadest sense, is the principle that people receive that which they deserve, with the interpretation of what then constitutes "deserving" being impacted upon by numerous fields, with many differing viewpoints and perspective ...

and power in political and military decision-making. Thucydides' presentation is decidedly ambivalent on this theme. While the ''History'' seems to suggest that considerations of justice are artificial and necessarily capitulate to power, it sometimes also shows a significant degree of empathy with those who suffer from the exigencies of the war. For the most part, the ''History'' does not discuss topics such as the

art Art is a diverse range of human activity, and resulting product, that involves creative or imaginative talent expressive of technical proficiency, beauty, emotional power, or conceptual ideas. There is no generally agreed definition of wha ...

and

architecture Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving, planning, designing, and constructing building ...

of Greece.

Military technology

The ''History'' emphasizes the development of military technologies. In several passages (1.14.3, 2.75–76, 7.36.2–3), Thucydides describes in detail various innovations in the conduct of

siegeworks A siege is a military blockade of a city, or fortress, with the intent of conquering by attrition, or a well-prepared assault. This derives from la, sedere, lit=to sit. Siege warfare is a form of constant, low-intensity conflict characterize ...

or naval warfare. The ''History'' places great importance upon naval supremacy, arguing that a modern empire is impossible without a strong navy. He states that this is the result of the development of piracy and coastal settlements in earlier Greece. Important in this regard was the development, at the beginning of the classical period (c. 500 BC), of the

trireme A trireme( ; derived from Latin: ''trirēmis'' "with three banks of oars"; cf. Greek ''triērēs'', literally "three-rower") was an ancient vessel and a type of galley that was used by the ancient maritime civilizations of the Mediterranean S ...

, the supreme naval ship for the next several hundred years. In his emphasis on sea power, Thucydides resembles the modern naval theorist

Alfred Thayer Mahan Alfred Thayer Mahan (; September 27, 1840 – December 1, 1914) was a United States naval officer and historian, whom John Keegan called "the most important American strategist of the nineteenth century." His book '' The Influence of Sea Powe ...

, whose influential work ''

The Influence of Sea Power upon History ''The Influence of Sea Power upon History: 1660–1783'' is a history of naval warfare published in 1890 by the American naval officer and historian Alfred Thayer Mahan. It details the role of sea power during the seventeenth and eighteenth cent ...

'' helped set in motion the naval arms race prior to World War I.

Empire

The ''History'' explains that the primary cause of the Peloponnesian War was the "growth in power of Athens, and the alarm which this inspired in Sparta" (1.23.6). Thucydides traces the development of Athenian power through the growth of the

Athenian empire The Delian League, founded in 478 BC, was an association of Greek city-states, numbering between 150 and 330, under the leadership of Athens, whose purpose was to continue fighting the Persian Empire after the Greek victory in the Battle of Plat ...

in the years 479 BC to 432 BC in book one of the ''History'' (1.89–118). The legitimacy of the empire is explored in several passages, notably in the speech at 1.73–78, where an anonymous Athenian legation defends the empire on the grounds that it was freely given to the Athenians and not taken by force. The subsequent expansion of the empire is defended by these Athenians, "...the nature of the case first compelled us to advance our empire to its present height; fear being our principal motive, though honor and interest came afterward." (1.75.3) The Athenians also argue that, "We have done nothing extraordinary, nothing contrary to human nature in accepting an empire when it was offered to us and then in refusing to give it up." (1.76) They claim that anyone in their position would act in the same fashion. The

ns represent a more traditional, circumspect, and less expansive power. Indeed, the Athenians are nearly destroyed by their greatest act of imperial overreach, the Sicilian expedition, described in books six and seven of the ''History''.

Earth science

Thucydides correlates, in his description of the

426 BC Malian Gulf tsunami The 426 BC Malian Gulf tsunami devastated the coasts of the Malian and Euboean Gulfs, Greece, in the summer of 426 BC. Thucydides inquired into its causes, and concluded that the tsunami must have been caused by an earthquake.Thucydides"A Histo ...

, for the first time in the recorded history of

natural science Natural science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatab ...

, quakes and waves in terms of cause and effect.

Some difficulties of interpretation

Thucydides' ''History'' is extraordinarily dense and complex. His particular ancient Greek prose is also very challenging, grammatically, syntactically, and semantically. This has resulted in much scholarly disagreement on a cluster of issues of interpretation.

Strata of composition

It is commonly thought that Thucydides died while still working on the ''History'', since it ends in mid-sentence and only goes up to 410 BC, leaving six years of war uncovered. Furthermore, there is a great deal of uncertainty whether he intended to revise the sections he had already written. Since there appear to be some contradictions between certain passages in the ''History'', it has been proposed that the conflicting passages were written at different times and that Thucydides' opinion on the conflicting matter had changed. Those who argue that the ''History'' can be divided into various levels of composition are usually called "analysts" and those who argue that the passages must be made to reconcile with one another are called "unitarians". This conflict is called the "strata of composition" debate. The lack of progress in this debate over the course of the twentieth century has caused many Thucydidean scholars to declare the debate insoluble and to side-step the issue in their work.

Sources

The ''History'' is notoriously reticent about its sources. Thucydides almost never names his informants and alludes to competing versions of events only a handful of times. This is in marked contrast to

, who frequently mentions multiple versions of his stories and allows the reader to decide which is true. Instead, Thucydides strives to create the impression of a seamless and irrefutable narrative. Nevertheless, scholars have sought to detect the sources behind the various sections of the ''History''. For example, the narrative after Thucydides' exile (4.108''ff.'') seems to focus on Peloponnesian events more than the first four books, leading to the conclusion that he had greater access to Peloponnesian sources at that time. Frequently, Thucydides appears to assert knowledge of the thoughts of individuals at key moments in the narrative. Scholars have asserted that these moments are evidence that he interviewed these individuals after the fact. However, the evidence of the

Sicilian Expedition The Sicilian Expedition was an Athenian military expedition to Sicily, which took place from 415–413 BC during the Peloponnesian War between Athens on one side and Sparta, Syracuse and Corinth on the other. The expedition ended in a devas ...

argues against this, since

discusses the thoughts of the generals who died there and whom he would have had no chance to interview. Instead it seems likely that, as with the speeches, Thucydides is looser than previously thought in inferring the thoughts, feelings, and motives of principal characters in his ''History'' from their actions, as well as his own sense of what would be appropriate or likely in such a situation.

Critical evaluations

The historian

writes that the work of Thucydides "marks the longest and most decisive step that has ever been taken by a single man towards making history what it is today.” Historian H. D. Kitto feels that Thucydides wrote about the Peloponnesian War not because it was the most significant war in antiquity but because it caused the most suffering. Indeed, several passages of Thucydides' book are written "with an intensity of feeling hardly exceeded by Sappho herself." In his '' Open Society and Its Enemies'',

Karl R. Popper Sir Karl Raimund Popper (28 July 1902 – 17 September 1994) was an Austrian-British philosopher, academic and social commentator. One of the 20th century's most influential philosophers of science, Popper is known for his rejection of the cl ...

writes that Thucydides was the "greatest historian, perhaps, who ever lived." Thucydides' work, however, Popper goes on to say, represents "an interpretation, a point of view; and in this we need not agree with him." In the war between Athenian democracy and the "arrested oligarchic tribalism of Sparta," we must never forget Thucydides' "involuntary bias," and that "his heart was not with Athens, his native city:"

"Although he apparently did not belong to the extreme wing of the Athenian oligarchic clubs who conspired throughout the war with the enemy, he was certainly a member of the oligarchic party, and a friend neither of the Athenian people, the demos, who had exiled him, nor of its imperialist policy."

Influence

Thucydides' ''History'' has been enormously influential in both ancient and modern

. It was embraced by many of the author's contemporaries and immediate successors with enthusiasm; indeed, many authors sought to complete the unfinished history. For example,

Xenophon Xenophon of Athens (; grc, wikt:Ξενοφῶν, Ξενοφῶν ; – probably 355 or 354 BC) was a Greek military leader, philosopher, and historian, born in Athens. At the age of 30, Xenophon was elected commander of one of the biggest Anci ...

wrote his '' Hellenica'' as a continuation of Thucydides' work, beginning at the exact moment that Thucydides' ''History'' leaves off. Xenophon's work, however, is sometimes considered inferior in style and accuracy compared with Thucydides'. In later antiquity, Thucydides' reputation suffered somewhat, with critics such as Dionysius of Halicarnassus rejecting the ''History'' as turgid and excessively austere.

Lucian Lucian of Samosata, '; la, Lucianus Samosatensis ( 125 – after 180) was a Hellenized Syrian satirist, rhetorician and pamphleteer Pamphleteer is a historical term for someone who creates or distributes pamphlets, unbound (and therefore ...

also parodies it (among others) in his satire ''The True Histories''.

Woodrow Wilson Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856February 3, 1924) was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th president of the United States from 1913 to 1921. A member of the Democratic Party, Wilson served as the president of ...

read the ''History'' on his voyage across the Atlantic to the

Versailles Peace Conference The Palace of Versailles ( ; french: Château de Versailles ) is a former royal residence built by King Louis XIV located in Versailles, about west of Paris, France. The palace is owned by the French Republic and since 1995 has been managed, u ...

. In the 17th century, English philosopher

Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes ( ; 5/15 April 1588 – 4/14 December 1679) was an English philosopher, considered to be one of the founders of modern political philosophy. Hobbes is best known for his 1651 book ''Leviathan'', in which he expounds an influ ...

wrote about Thucydides as follows:

It hath been noted by divers, that Homer in poesy, Aristotle in philosophy, Demosthenes in eloquence, and others of the ancients in other knowledge, do still maintain their primacy: none of them exceeded, some not approached, by any in these later ages. And in the number of these is justly ranked also our Thucydides; a workman no less perfect in his work, than any of the former; and in whom (I believe with many others) the faculty of writing history is at the highest.

Manuscripts

The most important manuscripts include: Codex Parisinus suppl. Gr. 255, Codex Vaticanus 126, Codex Laurentianus LXIX.2, Codex Palatinus 252, Codex Monacensis 430, Codex Monacensis 228, and Codex Britannicus II, 727. Grenfell and Hunt discovered about 20 papyrus fragments copied some time between the 1st and 6th centuries AD in Oxyrhynchus, including

Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 16 Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 16 (P. Oxy. 16) is a fragment of the fourth book of the ''History of the Peloponnesian War'' by Thucydides (chapters 36-41) in Greek. It was discovered by Grenfell and Hunt in 1897 in Oxyrhynchus. The fragment is dated to the ...

and 17.

Outline of the work

* Book 1 ** The state of Greece from the earliest times to the commencement of the

, also known as the Archaeology. 1.1–1.19. ** Methodological excursus. 1.20–1.23 ** Causes of the war (433–432 BC) 1.24–1.66 *** The Affair of

Epidamnus The ancient Greek city of Epidamnos or Epidamnus ( grc-gre, Ἐπίδαμνος), ( sq, Epidamni) later the Roman Dyrrachium (Δυρράχιον) ( sq, Dyrrahu) (modern Durrës, Albania), was founded in 627 BC in Illyria by a group of colonists ...

. 1.24–1.55 *** The Affair of

Potidaea __NOTOC__ Potidaea (; grc, Ποτίδαια, ''Potidaia'', also Ποτείδαια, ''Poteidaia'') was a colony founded by the Corinthians around 600 BC in the narrowest point of the peninsula of Pallene, the westernmost of three peninsulas at ...

. 1.56–1.66 ** Congress of the Peloponnesian League at

Lacedaemon Sparta ( Doric Greek: Σπάρτα, ''Spártā''; Attic Greek: Σπάρτη, ''Spártē'') was a prominent city-state in Laconia, in ancient Greece. In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon (, ), while the name Sparta referre ...

. 1.67–1.88 *** The Speech of the Corinthians. 1.68–1.71 *** The Speech of the Athenian envoys. 1.73–1.78 *** The Speech of Archidamus. 1.80–1.85 *** The Speech of Sthenelaidas. 1.86 ** From the end of the Persian War to the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, also known as the Pentecontaetia. 1.89–1.117 *** The progress from supremacy to empire. ** Second congress at Lacedaemon and the Corinthian Speech. 1.119–1.125 ** Diplomatic maneuvering. 1.126–1.139 *** Excursus on Cylon. 1.126–1.127 *** Excursus on

Pausanias Pausanias ( el, Παυσανίας) may refer to: *Pausanias of Athens, lover of the poet Agathon and a character in Plato's ''Symposium'' *Pausanias the Regent, Spartan general and regent of the 5th century BC * Pausanias of Sicily, physician of t ...

and

Themistocles Themistocles (; grc-gre, Θεμιστοκλῆς; c. 524–459 BC) was an Athenian politician and general. He was one of a new breed of non-aristocratic politicians who rose to prominence in the early years of the Athenian democracy. As ...

. 1.128–1.138 **

Pericles Pericles (; grc-gre, Περικλῆς; c. 495 – 429 BC) was a Greek politician and general during the Golden Age of Athens. He was prominent and influential in Athenian politics, particularly between the Greco-Persian Wars and the Pelo ...

' first speech. 1.140–1.145 * Book 2 (431–428 BC) ** War begins with Thebes' attempt to subvert Plataea. 2.1–2.6 ** Account of the mobilization of and list of the allies of the two combatants. 2.7–2.9 ** First invasion of

Attica Attica ( el, Αττική, Ancient Greek ''Attikḗ'' or , or ), or the Attic Peninsula, is a historical region that encompasses the city of Athens, the capital of Greece and its countryside. It is a peninsula projecting into the Aegean Se ...

. 2.10–2.23 *** Archidamus leads the Peloponnesian army into Attica. 2.10–2.12 *** Athenian preparations and abandonment of the countryside. 2.13–2.14 *** Excursus on Athenian

synoikism Synoecism or synecism ( ; grc, συνοικισμóς, ''sunoikismos'', ), also spelled synoikism ( ), was originally the amalgamation of villages in Ancient Greece into ''poleis'', or city-states. Etymologically the word means "dwelling toge ...

. 2.15–2.16 *** Difficult conditions in

for refugees from countryside. 2.17 *** Archidamus ravages Oenoe and

Acharnai Acharnae or Acharnai (; grc, Ἀχαρναί) was a ''deme'' of ancient Athens. It was part of the phyle Oineis. Acharnae, according to Thucydides, was the largest deme in Attica. In the fourth century BCE, 22 of the 500 members of the A ...

. 2.18–2.20 *** Athenian fury and anger at

. 2.21–2.22 ** Athenian naval counterattacks along coast of

Peloponnese The Peloponnese (), Peloponnesus (; el, Πελοπόννησος, Pelopónnēsos,(), or Morea is a peninsula and geographic regions of Greece, geographic region in southern Greece. It is connected to the central part of the country by the Isthmu ...

and islands. 2.23–2.32 **

Pericles' Funeral Oration "Pericles's Funeral Oration" (Ancient Greek: Περικλέους Επιτάφιος) is a famous speech from Thucydides' '' History of the Peloponnesian War''. The speech was supposed to have been delivered by Pericles, an eminent Athenian poli ...

. 2.34–2.46 ** The

plague of Athens The Plague of Athens ( grc, Λοιμὸς τῶν Ἀθηνῶν}, ) was an epidemic that devastated the city-state of Athens in ancient Greece during the second year (430 BC) of the Peloponnesian War when an Athenian victory still seemed within r ...

. 2.47–2.54 ** Second invasion of

and Athenian naval counterattacks. 2.55–2.58 **

' third speech, defending his position and policy. 2.59–2.64 **

' estimate of

' qualities and the causes for

' eventual defeat. 2.65 ** Diplomacy and skirmishes in

Thrace Thrace (; el, Θράκη, Thráki; bg, Тракия, Trakiya; tr, Trakya) or Thrake is a geographical and historical region in Southeast Europe, now split among Bulgaria, Greece, and Turkey, which is bounded by the Balkan Mountains to t ...

, the islands, and the Northeast. 2.66–2.69 ** Fall of Potidaea. 2.70 ** Investment of Plataea. 2.71–2.78 ** Naval victories of

Phormio Phormio ( el, Φορμίων ''Phormion'', ''gen''.: Φορμίωνος), the son of Asopius, was an Athenian general and admiral before and during the Peloponnesian War. A talented naval commander, Phormio commanded at several famous Athenian v ...

in the Northeast. 2.80–2.92 ** Threat of raid on the

Piraeus Piraeus ( ; el, Πειραιάς ; grc, Πειραιεύς ) is a port city within the Athens urban area ("Greater Athens"), in the Attica region of Greece. It is located southwest of Athens' city centre, along the east coast of the Saronic ...

. 2.93–2.94 **

Thracian The Thracians (; grc, Θρᾷκες ''Thrāikes''; la, Thraci) were an Indo-European speaking people who inhabited large parts of Eastern and Southeastern Europe in ancient history.. "The Thracians were an Indo-European people who occupied t ...

campaign in

Macedon Macedonia (; grc-gre, Μακεδονία), also called Macedon (), was an ancient kingdom on the periphery of Archaic and Classical Greece, and later the dominant state of Hellenistic Greece. The kingdom was founded and initially ruled by ...

ia under

Sitalces Sitalces (Sitalkes) (; Ancient Greek: Σιτάλκης, reigned 431–424 BC) was one of the great kings of the Thracian Odrysian state. The Suda called him Sitalcus (Σίταλκος). He was the son of Teres I, and on the sudden death o ...

. 2.95–2.101 * Book 3 (428–425 BC) ** Annual invasion of

. 3.1 ** Revolt of Mytilene. 3.2–3.50 *** Speech of Mytilenian envoys to

at Olympia, asking for help. 3.9–3.14 *** Sparta accepts

Lesbos Lesbos or Lesvos ( el, Λέσβος, Lésvos ) is a Greek island located in the northeastern Aegean Sea. It has an area of with approximately of coastline, making it the third largest island in Greece. It is separated from Asia Minor by the nar ...

as an ally and prepares to counter the Athenians. 3.15 ***

Mytilene Mytilene (; el, Μυτιλήνη, Mytilíni ; tr, Midilli) is the capital of the Greek island of Lesbos, and its port. It is also the capital and administrative center of the North Aegean Region, and hosts the headquarters of the University o ...

surrenders to Athens despite Spartan support. 3.28 ***

Mytilenian Debate The Mytilenean Debate (also spelled "Mytilenaean Debate") was the Athenian Assembly concerning reprisals against the city-state of Mytilene, which had attempted unsuccessfully to shake off Athenian hegemony during the Peloponnesian War. The Debat ...

. 3.37–3.50 ** Fall of Plataea. 3.20–3.24, 3.52–68 *** Some Plataeans escape. 3.20–3.24. *** Plataea surrenders. 3.52. *** Trial and execution of the Plataeans. 3.53–3.68. **** Speech of Plataeans, 3.53–3.59 **** Speech of the Thebans. 3.61–3.67 ** Revolution at

Corcyra Corfu (, ) or Kerkyra ( el, Κέρκυρα, Kérkyra, , ; ; la, Corcyra.) is a Greek island in the Ionian Sea, of the Ionian Islands, and, including its small satellite islands, forms the margin of the northwestern frontier of Greece. The isl ...

. 3.70–3.85 ***

' account of the evils of civil strife. 3.82–3.84 ** Athenian campaigns in

Sicily (man) it, Siciliana (woman) , population_note = , population_blank1_title = , population_blank1 = , demographics_type1 = Ethnicity , demographics1_footnotes = , demographi ...

. 3.86, 3.90, 3.99, 3.103, 3.115–3.116 ** Tsunami and inquiry into its causes 3.89.2–5 ** Campaigns of

Demosthenes Demosthenes (; el, Δημοσθένης, translit=Dēmosthénēs; ; 384 – 12 October 322 BC) was a Greek statesman and orator in ancient Athens. His orations constitute a significant expression of contemporary Athenian intellectual pr ...

in western Greece. 3.94–3.98, 3.100–3.102, 3.105–3.114 ** Spartans establish

Heraclea in Trachis Heraclea (Herakleia) in Trachis ( grc, Ἡράκλεια ἡ ἐν Τραχῖνι), also called Heraclea Trachinia (), was a colony founded by the Spartans in 426 BC, the sixth year of the Peloponnesian War. It was also a polis (city-state). Situ ...

. 3.92–3.93 ** Athenians purify Delos. 3.104 * Book 4 (425–423 BC) ** Annual invasion of Attica. 4.2 ** Athenians en route to

Sicily (man) it, Siciliana (woman) , population_note = , population_blank1_title = , population_blank1 = , demographics_type1 = Ethnicity , demographics1_footnotes = , demographi ...

occupy Pylos in the

. 4.2–4.6 *** King

Agis Agis or AGIS may refer to: People * Agis I (died 900 BC), Spartan king * Agis II (died 401 BC), Spartan king * Agis III (died 331 BC), Spartan king * Agis IV (265–241 BC), Spartan king * Agis (Paeonian) (died 358 BC), King of the Paeonians * Ag ...

cuts short the invasion of

to return to the

. 4.6 ** Concerted Spartan attack on the Athenian fort at Pylos. 4.8–4.15 *** The Athenian general

coordinates the defense of Pylos and rouses the troops with a speech. 4.9–4.10 *** The Spartan commander

Brasidas Brasidas ( el, Βρασίδας, died 422 BC) was the most distinguished Spartan officer during the first decade of the Peloponnesian War who fought in battle of Amphipolis and Pylos. He died during the Second Battle of Amphipolis while winning ...

distinguishes himself for bravery. 4.11–4.12 ** The Athenians defeat the Spartan assault on Pylos and cut off a garrison of

Spartiates A Spartiate (cf. its plural Spartiatae 'Spartans') �spärshēˈātē(z)or Spartiate �spärshēˌāt(from respectively the Latin and French forms corresponding to Classical- el, and pl. Σπᾰρτῐᾱ́ται) or ''Homoios'' (pl. ''Homoioi ...

on the adjacent island of

Sphacteria Sphacteria ( el, Σφακτηρία - ''Sfaktiria'') also known as Sphagia (Σφαγία) is a small island at the entrance to the bay of Pylos in the Peloponnese, Greece. It was the site of three battles: *the 425 BC Battle of Sphacteria in the ...

. 4.13–4.14 ** The Spartans, concerned for the men on the island, conclude an immediate armistice and send an embassy to

to negotiate peace. 4.13–4.22 *** The speech of the Spartan ambassadors offers to peace and alliance to

in exchange for the return of the men on

. 4.17–4.20 *** The Athenian

, speaking in the Assembly, encourages the Athenians to demand the return of the territories surrendered by Athens at the conclusion of the

First Peloponnesian War The First Peloponnesian War (460–445 BC) was fought between Sparta as the leaders of the Peloponnesian League and Sparta's other allies, most notably Thebes, Greece, Thebes, and the Delian League led by Athens with support from Ancient Argos, ...

. 4.21–4.22 ** Events in Sicily. 4.24–4.25 ** Siege of the Spartiates on Sphacteria continues without result. 4.26–4.27 **

takes command at Pylos. 4.27–4.29 **

Battle of Sphacteria The Battle of Sphacteria was a land battle of the Peloponnesian War, fought in 425 BC between Athens and Sparta. Following the Battle of Pylos and subsequent peace negotiations, which failed, a number of Spartans were stranded on the island of ...

results in the capture of all the

trapped there. 4.29–4.41 **

Nicias Nicias (; Νικίας ''Nikias''; c. 470–413 BC) was an Athenian politician and general during the period of the Peloponnesian War. Nicias was a member of the Athenian aristocracy and had inherited a large fortune from his father, which was inve ...

leads an Athenian attack on

Corinth Corinth ( ; el, Κόρινθος, Kórinthos, ) is the successor to an ancient city, and is a former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese, which is located in south-central Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform, it has been part o ...

. 4.42–4.45 ** End of Corcyraean revolution. 4.46–4.48 ** Athenians capture Cythera, an island off the

, and Thyrea, a town in the

is hemmed in on all sides and desperate. 4.53–4.57 ** Sicilian cities make peace in conference at

Gela Gela (Sicilian and ; grc, Γέλα) is a city and (municipality) in the Autonomous Region of Sicily, Italy; in terms of area and population, it is the largest municipality on the southern coast of Sicily. Gela is part of the Province of Ca ...

, frustrating Athenian designs on the island. 4.58–65 *** Speech of Hermocrates at Gela. 4.59–4.64 ** Athenian attack on Megara. 4.66–4.74 *** Capture of

Nisaea Nisaea or Nisaia ( grc, Νίσαια or Νισαία) was the Saronic port town of the ancient polis Megara. In Greek mythology, Nisaea was founded by one of Pandion II's sons, Nisos, who named the region given to him by his father Nisaea, after ...

. 4.69 *** Inconclusive engagements at Megara. 4.73 *** Megara eludes Athenian capture. 4.74 ** Invasion of

Boeotia Boeotia ( ), sometimes Latinized as Boiotia or Beotia ( el, Βοιωτία; modern: ; ancient: ), formerly known as Cadmeis, is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the region of Central Greece. Its capital is Livadeia, and its lar ...

. 4.76, 4.89–4.101.2 ***

Battle of Delium The Battle of Delium (or Delion, a city in Boeotia) took place in 424 BC, during the Peloponnesian War. It was fought between the Athenians and the Boeotians, who were allies of the Spartans, and ended with the siege of Delium in the following we ...

results in Athenian retreat into a temple, which the Boeotians attack and burn down. 4.90–4.100 **

marches through

Thessaly Thessaly ( el, Θεσσαλία, translit=Thessalía, ; ancient Thessalian: , ) is a traditional geographic and modern administrative region of Greece, comprising most of the ancient region of the same name. Before the Greek Dark Ages, Thes ...

and begins to cause Athenian subject cities to revolt. 4.78–4.88 *** Speech of Brasidas to the Acanthians. 4.85–4.87 ** Fall of Amphipolis to

. 4.102–4.108 ** Continued successes of

. 4.111–4.135 ***

secures the revolt of the garrison of

Torone Toroni ( grc, Τορώνη, ''Toróne'', modern pronunciation ''Toróni'') is an ancient Greek city and a former municipality in the southwest edge of Sithonia peninsula in Chalkidiki, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of ...

. 4.110–4.116 *** One–year armistice between Athenians and Spartans. 4.117–4.118 ***

Scione Scione or Skione ( grc, Σκιώνη) was an ancient Greek city in Pallene, the westernmost headland of Chalcidice, on the southern coast east of the modern town of Nea Skioni. Scione was founded by settlers from Achaea; the Scionaeans claimed ...

revolts from Athens to

. 4.120–4.123 *** Truce breaks down. 4.122–4.123. *** Athenians retake Mende and besiege

. 4.129–4.131. * Book 5 (422–415 BC) ** Death of

and Brasidas. 5.10 **

Peace of Nicias The Peace of Nicias was a peace treaty signed between the Greek city-states of Athens and Sparta in March 421 BC that ended the first half of the Peloponnesian War. In 425 BC, the Spartans had lost the battles of Pylos and Sphacteria, a severe ...

. 5.13–5.24 ** Feeling against Sparta in the

** League of the

Mantinea Mantineia (also Mantinea ; el, Μαντίνεια; also Koine Greek ''Antigoneia'') was a city in ancient Arcadia, Greece, which was the site of two significant battles in Classical Greek history. In modern times it is a former municipality in ...

ns,

Elean Elis () or Eleia ( el, Ήλιδα, Ilida, grc-att, Ἦλις, Ēlis ; Elean: , ethnonym: ) is an ancient district in Greece that corresponds to the modern regional unit of Elis. Elis is in southern Greece on the Peloponnese, bounded on ...

Argives Argos (; el, Άργος ; grc, label=Ancient and Katharevousa, Ἄργος ) is a city in Argolis, Peloponnese, Greece and is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, and the oldest in Europe. It is the largest city in A ...

, and Athenians. 5.27–5.48 ** Battle of Mantinea and breaking up of the League. 5.63–5.81 ** The

Melian Dialogue The siege of Melos occurred in 416 BC during the Peloponnesian War, which was a war fought between Athens and Sparta. Melos is an island in the Aegean Sea roughly east of mainland Greece. Though the Melians had ancestral ties to Sparta, they we ...

. 5.84–5.113 ** Fate of Melos. 5.116 * Book 6 (415–414 BC) ** The

. 6.8–6.52 *** Early history of Sicily. 6.1–6.6 *** Speeches of Nicias and Alcibiades. 6.8–6.26 *** Affair of the

Hermae A herma ( grc, ἑρμῆς, pl. ''hermai''), commonly herm in English, is a sculpture with a head and perhaps a torso above a plain, usually squared lower section, on which male genitals may also be carved at the appropriate height. Hermae we ...

. 6.27–6.29, 6.53 *** Departure of the expedition to

Sicily (man) it, Siciliana (woman) , population_note = , population_blank1_title = , population_blank1 = , demographics_type1 = Ethnicity , demographics1_footnotes = , demographi ...

. 6.30–6.32 *** Speeches of

Hermocrates Hermocrates (; grc-gre, Ἑρμοκράτης, c. 5th century – 407 BC) was an ancient Syracusan general during the Athenians' Sicilian Expedition in the midst of the Peloponnesian War. He is also remembered as a character in the '' Timaeus'' ...

and Athenagoras at Syracuse. 6.33–41 *** Arrival of Athenians in Sicily. 6.42–52 ** Digression on Harmodius and Aristogiton. 6.53–6.58 ** Recall and flight of Alcibiades. 6.60–6.61 ** Athenian victory at Syracuse. 6.62–6.71 *** Debate between Hermocrates and Euphemus at

Camarina Kamarina ( grc, Καμάρινα, Latin, Italian, & scn, Camarina) was an ancient city on the southern coast of Sicily in southern Italy. The ruins of the site and an archaeological museum are located south of the modern town of Scoglitti, a ...

. 6.72–6.88 ** Alcibiades at Sparta. 6.88–6.93 ** Athenian victories at Syracuse. 6.94–103 *** Spartans dispatch

Gylippus Gylippus (; el, Γύλιππος) was a Spartan general ( strategos) of the 5th century BC; he was the son of Cleandridas, who was the adviser of King Pleistoanax and had been expelled from Sparta for accepting Athenian bribes in 446 BC and fled t ...

to Sicily and clash with Athens at Argos. 6.104–105 * Book 7 (414–413 BC) ** Arrival of Gylippus at Syracuse. 7.1–7.3 ** Fortification of

Decelea Decelea ( grc, Δεκέλεια, ), ''Dekéleia''), was a deme and ancient village in northern Attica serving as a trade route connecting Euboea with Athens, Greece. It was situated near the entrance of the eastern pass across Mount Parnes, which ...

. 7.19–7.30 ** Successes of the Syracusans. ** Arrival of

** Defeat of the Athenians at Epipolae. 7.42–7.59 ** Folly and obstinacy of Nicias ** Battles in the Great Harbour ** Retreat and annihilation of the Athenian army. 7.72–7.87 * Book 8 (413–411 BC) ** Disbelief and despair in Athens. 8.1 ** Allies revolt. 8.2–4 ** Persians offer support to Sparta. 8.5 ** Isthmian Festival. 8.9 ** Alcamenes. 8.10 ** Alcibiades encourages Endius to revolt. 8.12 ** Alcibiades encourages Chios to revolt. 8.14 ** Athens reverses law on reserve funds. 8.15 ** Sparta and Persian alliance. 8.18 ** Chians encourage revolt. 8.19 ** Samos commons overthrow upper classes. 8.21 ** Chians and Spartans v Athens and Argos; Ionians defeat Dorians. 8.25 ** Hermocrates prepares “finishing blow” to Athens, Alcibiades in Teichiussa. 8.26 ** Phrynichus = a “man of sense” retreats. 8.27 ** Tissaphernes distributes pay to Spartans. 8.29 ** The Spartan treaty with Persia. 8.37 ** Conflict between Pedaitus and Astyochus. 8.39 ** Slaves desert Chios. 8.40 ** Lichas tries to renegotiate treaty with Persia. The Spartans give not liberty but a “Median master” to the Greeks. 8.43 ** Rhodes revolts. 8.44 ** Astyochus is ordered to kill Alcibiades, who flees from Sparta to Tissaphernes. 8.45 ** Alcibiades advises Tissaphernes to let Athens and Sparta wear each other out. 8.46 ** Alcibiades plots his return to Athens. 8.47–8.48 ** Pissander to pave way for Alcibiades’ return. 8.49 ** Alcibiades betrays Phrynichus. 8.50 ** Phrynichus fortifies Samos. 8.51 ** Alcibiades encourages Tissaphernes to befriend Athens. 8.52 ** Pisander in Athens proposes deal: alliance with Persia, end of democracy, return of Alcibiades. 8.53–8.54 ** Athens defeats Chians, Pedaritus. 8.55 ** Alcibiades’ plans w/ Tissaphernes unravel. 8.56 ** Tissaphernes resolves to keep both sides equal, pays Sparta. 8.57 ** another treaty bet Persia and Sparta. 8.58–8.59 ** Pisander est. oligarchy in Athens, confusion in Samos. 8.63 ** Oligarchy in Athens, popular leaders are killed. “government of the 5,000.” 8.65 ** Oligarchy triumphant. 8.65 ** Popular party suspicious of each other. 8.66 ** Commissioners to frame a new constitution = tyranny of the four hundred. 8.67 ** Pisander, Phrynichus, Theramenes = leaders of the oligarchy. 8.68 ** The 400 with daggers dismiss the council (Boule) . 8.69 ** Oligarchs offer to make peace with Sparta. 8.70 ** Spartan forces move to Athens’ walls. Oligarchs again offer peace w/ Sparta. 8.71 ** Seamen at Samos reject oligarchy. 8.72 ** Turmoil at Samos, the Athenian crews est democracy, kill 30 oligarchs. 8.73 ** Exaggerated report at Samos of horrors at Athens. 8.74 ** Thrasybullus and Thrasyllus leaders of the democratic faction in Samos. 8.75 ** The army replaces oligarchy in Samos, Alcibiades promises alliance with Persia. 8.76 ** Debate in Samos. 8.77 ** Pelop soldiers anxious to fight, Astyochus unwilling to fight at sea. Tissaphernes fleet never arrives. 8.78 ** Athenians reinforced, Pelop unwilling to fight. 8.79 ** Revolt of Byzantium. 8.80 ** Alcibiades recalled, promises Persian aid. 8.81 ** Alcibiades elected general, “put all their affairs in his hands. 8.82 ** Tissaphernes fails to pay Spartan soldiers. 8.83 ** Pelop sailors threaten Astyochus, who is recalled and replaced by Mindarus. 8.84 ** Hermocrates is banished from Syracuse, he opposes Sparta’s alliance with Persia. 8.85 ** Alcibiades prevents Samian soldiers’ attack on Athens, calls for end to the 400. 8.86 ** Tissaphernes/Persia continues policy of letting Athens and Sparta wear each other out. 8.87 ** Alcibiades knew Tissaphernes would never send ships to support Sparta. 8.88 ** Oligarchs in Athens break ranks, Thermenes and Aristocrates fear Alcibiades power in Samos. 8.89 ** Phrynichus, Aristarchus, Pisander, and Antiphon most opposed to Democracy, again appeal to Sparta. Fortify the Piraeus. 8.90 ** The oligarchs’ plans. 8.91 ** The oligarchy collapses. 8.92 ** Oligarchs and soldiers meet on Acropolis and agree to reforms. 8.93 ** Pelop ships appear. 8.94 ** Pelop ships defeat Athenians, Euboea revolts. 8.95 ** Athens despairs. “Lacedaemonians proved the most convenient people in the world for the Athenians to be at war with.” 8.96 ** The 400 are deposed, the 5000 the “best government” in Thuc's lifetime. A “hoplite democracy,” no pay for public service (i.e. no thetes). 8.97 ** Pisander and Alexicles withdraw to Decelea, Aristarchus takes barbarian archers to Oenoe. The oligarchy is over. 8.98 ** Thrasybulus and Thrasyllus victory at sea renews Athens’ hope. 8.103–8.106 ** Alcibiades returns. 8.108 ** Abrupt ending of the history. 8.109

Selected translations

* Laurentius Valla, Treviso: J. Rubeus Vercellensis, 1483
Full text
–

, 1628 * William Smith, 1753 * Johann David Heilmann, 1760
Full text
–

Richard Crawley Richard Crawley (26 December 1840 – 30 March 1893) was a Welsh writer and academic, best known for his translation of Thucydides's ''History of the Peloponnesian War''. Life Crawley was born at a Bryngwyn rectory on 26 December 1840, the e ...

, 1874
Full text
–

Benjamin Jowett Benjamin Jowett (, modern variant ; 15 April 1817 – 1 October 1893) was an English tutor and administrative reformer in the University of Oxford, a theologian, an Anglican cleric, and a translator of Plato and Thucydides. He was Master of B ...

, 1881
Full text
–

, 1881 (archival copy) * Edgar C. Marchant, 1900 * Charles Forster Smith, 1919–23
Loeb
*

Rex Warner Rex Warner (9 March 1905 – 24 June 1986) was an English classicist, writer, and translator. He is now probably best remembered for ''The Aerodrome'' (1941).Chris Hopkins, ''English Fiction in the 1930s: Language, Genre, History'' Continuum Inte ...

, 1954 * John H. Finley, Jr., 1963 * Walter Blanco, 1998 * Steven Lattimore, 1998 * Bryn Maw
review of Lattimore's translation
which discusses the other major translations as well. *

Martin Hammond Martin Hammond (born 15 November 1944) is an English classical scholar and former public school headmaster. Early life Hammond was educated at Rossall Junior School, Winchester College and Balliol College, Oxford, where he took his first degree ...

*Jeremy Mynott, 2013

References

Citations

Bibliography

* Connor, W. Robert, ''Thucydides''. Princeton: Princeton University Press (1984). . * Crane, Gregory
''Thucydides and the Ancient Simplicity: the Limits of Political Realism''
Berkeley: University of California Press (1998). * Hornblower, Simon, ''A Commentary on Thucydides''. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon (1991–1996). (vol. 1), (vol. 2). * Hornblower, Simon, ''Thucydides''. London: Duckworth (1987). . * Orwin, Clifford, ''The Humanity of Thucydides''. Princeton: Princeton University Press (1994). . * Pade, Marianne
"Thucydides"
'' Catalogus Translationum et Commentariorum'', 8, pp. 104–81. Last accessed 1 March 2016 * Romilly, Jacqueline de, ''Thucydides and Athenian Imperialism''. Oxford: Basil Blackwell (1963). . * Rood, Tim, ''Thucydides: Narrative and Explanation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press (1998). . * Strassler, Robert B, ed. ''The Landmark Thucydides: A Comprehensive Guide to the Peloponnesian War''. New York: Free Press (1996). . * Thucydides
''Thucydidis, olori fil, De bello peloponnesiacoa libri VIII''
Versione Latina, (London 1819)

External links

* * * {{Authority control History books about ancient Greece Books about military history 5th-century BC history books Unfinished books Ancient Greek works Peloponnesian War Ancient Greek military books

Historical method

Chronology

Speeches

Neutrality

Role of religion

Rationalization of myth

Subject matter of the ''History''

Military technology

Empire

Earth science

Some difficulties of interpretation

Strata of composition

Sources

Critical evaluations

Influence

Manuscripts

Outline of the work

Selected translations

See also

References

Citations

Bibliography

External links