phycology
Phycology () is the scientific study of algae. Also known as algology, phycology is a branch of life science.
Algae are important as primary producers in aquatic ecosystems. Most algae are eukaryotic, photosynthetic organisms that live in a w ...
is the history of the scientific study of
algae
Algae (; singular alga ) is an informal term for a large and diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. It is a polyphyletic grouping that includes species from multiple distinct clades. Included organisms range from unicellular mic ...
. Human interest in
plants
Plants are predominantly Photosynthesis, photosynthetic eukaryotes of the Kingdom (biology), kingdom Plantae. Historically, the plant kingdom encompassed all living things that were not animals, and included algae and fungi; however, all curr ...
as food goes back into the origins of the species, and knowledge of algae can be traced back more than two thousand years. However, only in the last three hundred years has that knowledge evolved into a rapidly developing science.
Early days
The study of
botany
Botany, also called , plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist, plant scientist or phytologist is a scientist who specialises in this field. The term "botany" comes from the Ancient Greek w ...
goes back into pre-history as plants were the food of people from the beginning of the human race. The first attempts at plant cultivation are believed to have been made shortly before 10,000 BC in Western Asia (Morton, 1981)Morton, A.G. 1981 ''History of Botanical Science.'' Academic Press Inc. (London) Ltd. and the first references to algae are to be found in early Chinese literature. Records as far back as 3000 BC indicate that algae were used by the emperor of China as food (Huisman, 2000 p. 13).Huisman, J.M. 2000. ''Marine Plants of Australia.'' University of Western Australia Press, Australia. The use of ''
Porphyra
''Porphyra'' is a genus of coldwater seaweeds that grow in cold, shallow seawater. More specifically, it belongs to red algae phylum of laver species (from which comes laverbread), comprising approximately 70 species.Brodie, J.A. and Irvine, ...
'' in China dates back to at least A.D. 533–44 (Mumfard and Miura, 1988),Mumford, T.F. and Miura, A. 1988. 4. p.87–117. ''Porphyra'' as food: cultivation and economics. in Lembi, C.A. and Waaland, J.R. 1988. ''Algae and Human Affairs.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge there are also references in Roman and Greek literature. The Greek word for algae was "Phycos" whilst in
Roman
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
*Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a letter ...
times the name became ''
Fucus
''Fucus'' is a genus of brown algae found in the intertidal zones of rocky seashores almost throughout the world.
Description and life cycle
The thallus is perennial with an irregular or disc-shaped holdfast or with haptera. The erect portion o ...
''. There are early references to the use of algae for
manure
Manure is organic matter that is used as organic fertilizer in agriculture. Most manure consists of animal feces; other sources include compost and green manure. Manures contribute to the fertility of soil by adding organic matter and nutri ...
. The first
coralline algae
Coralline algae are red algae in the order Corallinales. They are characterized by a thallus that is hard because of calcareous deposits contained within the cell walls. The colors of these algae are most typically pink, or some other shade of re ...
to be recognized as living organisms were probably ''Corallina'', by
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/2479), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic '' ...
in the 1st century AD (Irvine and Chamberlain, 1994 p. 11).
The classification of plants suffered many changes since
Theophrastus
Theophrastus (; grc-gre, Θεόφραστος ; c. 371c. 287 BC), a Greek philosopher and the successor to Aristotle in the Peripatetic school. He was a native of Eresos in Lesbos.Gavin Hardy and Laurence Totelin, ''Ancient Botany'', Routledge ...
(372–287 B.C.) and
Aristotle
Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of phil ...
(384–322 B.C.) grouped them as "
trees
In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem, or trunk, usually supporting branches and leaves. In some usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, including only woody plants with secondary growth, plants that are u ...
", "
shrubs
A shrub (often also called a bush) is a small-to-medium-sized perennial woody plant. Unlike herbaceous plants, shrubs have persistent woody stems above the ground. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen. They are distinguished from trees ...
" and "
herbs
In general use, herbs are a widely distributed and widespread group of plants, excluding vegetables and other plants consumed for macronutrients, with savory or aromatic properties that are used for flavoring and garnishing food, for medicinal ...
" (Smith, 1955 p. 1).Smith, G.M. 1955. ''Cryptogamic Botany. Volume 1. Algae and Fungi.'' McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.,
Little is known of botany during the
Middle Ages
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
— it was the Dark Ages of botany.
The development of the study of phycology runs in a pattern comparable with, and parallel to, other biological fields but at a different rate. After the invention of the
printing-press
A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium (such as paper or cloth), thereby transferring the ink. It marked a dramatic improvement on earlier printing methods in which the ...
in the 15th century (with the publication of the first printed book: Gutenberg's ''Bible'' of 1488) Hawksworth, D.L and Seaward, M.R.D. 1977. ''Lichenology in the British Isles 1568 - 1975'' The Richmond Publishing Co. Ltd. education enabled people to read and knowledge to spread.
Exploration of the world and the advance of knowledge
Written accounts of the algae of
South Africa
South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the southernmost country in Africa. It is bounded to the south by of coastline that stretch along the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans; to the north by the neighbouring countri ...
were made by the Portuguese explorers of the 15th and 16th centuries, however it is not clear to which species reference was being made (Huisman, 2000 p. 7).
17th Century
In the 17th Century there was a great awakening of scientific interest all over Europe, and after the invention of the printing-press books on botany were published. Among them was the work of John Ray who wrote in 1660: ''Catalogus Plantarum circa Cantabrigiam.'', this initiated a new era in the study of Botany (Smith, 1975 p. 4).Smith, A.L. 1975. ''Lichens''. The Richmond Publishing Co. Ltd. England Ray "influenced both the theory and the practice of botany more decisively than any other single person in the latter half of the seventeenth century" (Morton, 1981).
However no real progress was made in the scientific study of algae until the invention of the
microscope
A microscope () is a laboratory instrument used to examine objects that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. Microscopy is the science of investigating small objects and structures using a microscope. Microscopic means being invisibl ...
— in about 1600. It was
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek ( ; ; 24 October 1632 – 26 August 1723) was a Dutch microbiologist and microscopist in the Golden Age of Dutch science and technology. A largely self-taught man in science, he is commonly known as " the F ...
(1632–1723) who discovered
bacteria
Bacteria (; singular: bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one biological cell. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria were among ...
and saw the cell structure of plants. His unsystematic glimpses of plant structure, reported to the
Royal Society
The Royal Society, formally The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, is a learned society and the United Kingdom's national academy of sciences. The society fulfils a number of roles: promoting science and its benefits, re ...
between 1678 and his death in 1723, produced no significant advances (Morton, 1981 p. 180).
As adventurers explored the world more species of all animals and plants were discovered, this demanded efforts to bring order out of this quickly accumulating knowledge.
The first
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
n marine plant recorded in print was collected from
Shark Bay
Shark Bay (Malgana: ''Gathaagudu'', "two waters") is a World Heritage Site in the Gascoyne region of Western Australia. The http://www.environment.gov.au/heritage/places/world/shark-bay area is located approximately north of Perth, on the ...
on the Western Australian coast by
William Dampier
William Dampier (baptised 5 September 1651; died March 1715) was an English explorer, pirate, privateer, navigator, and naturalist who became the first Englishman to explore parts of what is today Australia, and the first person to circumnav ...
who described many new species of Australian wildlife in the 17th century (Huisman, 2000 p. 7).
18th century
Before
Carl von Linné
Carl Linnaeus (; 23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after his ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné Blunt (2004), p. 171. (), was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, taxonomist, and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the ...
(1707–1778) animals and plants had names, but it took him to arrange the names and group the plants of this
Earth
Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbor life. While large volumes of water can be found throughout the Solar System, only Earth sustains liquid surface water. About 71% of Earth's surfa ...
in some sort of order.
Carl Linnaeus
Carl Linnaeus (; 23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after his ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné Blunt (2004), p. 171. (), was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, taxonomist, and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the ...
(Carl von Linné was a Swedish botanist, the son of a pastor of the Lutheran church, a physician and
zoologist
Zoology ()The pronunciation of zoology as is usually regarded as nonstandard, though it is not uncommon. is the branch of biology that studies the Animal, animal kingdom, including the anatomy, structure, embryology, evolution, Biological clas ...
. He laid the foundations of modern biological
systematics
Biological systematics is the study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and the relationships among living things through time. Relationships are visualized as evolutionary trees (synonyms: cladograms, phylogenetic tre ...
and
nomenclature
Nomenclature (, ) is a system of names or terms, or the rules for forming these terms in a particular field of arts or sciences. The principles of naming vary from the relatively informal naming conventions, conventions of everyday speech to the i ...
in his ''Species Plantarum'' (1753).Linnaeus, C. 1753 ''Species plantarum...,'' 2 vols. Salvius, Stackholm. He adopted and popularized a
binomial
Binomial may refer to:
In mathematics
*Binomial (polynomial), a polynomial with two terms
* Binomial coefficient, numbers appearing in the expansions of powers of binomials
*Binomial QMF, a perfect-reconstruction orthogonal wavelet decomposition
...
(or binary) system of designation (Morton, 1981) using one name as the
genus
Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus com ...
and a second name as the
species
In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...
name both in Latin or ''Latinised''. This specific name he
referred to as a trivial name ''nomen triviale'' consisting of a single word, normally a Latin adjective, but any single word would suffice, to identify a particular species, but not intended to describe it. He developed a coherent system for naming organisms and divided the plant kingdom into 25 classes (according to Smith p. 1 and p. 24 according to Dixon, 1973) (Smith, 1955 p. 1),Dixon, P.S. 1973. ''Biology of the Rhodophyta.'' Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh. one of which, the ''Cryptogamia'', included all plants with ''concealed'' reproductive organs. He divided the
Cryptogam
A cryptogam (scientific name Cryptogamae) is a plant (in the wide sense of the word) or a plant-like organism that reproduces by spores, without flowers or seeds. The name ''Cryptogamae'' () means "hidden reproduction", referring to the fact ...
ia into four orders:
Filices
A fern (Polypodiopsida or Polypodiophyta ) is a member of a group of vascular plants (plants with xylem and phloem) that reproduce via spores and have neither seeds nor flowers. The polypodiophytes include all living pteridophytes except th ...
(ferns), Musci (
mosses
Mosses are small, non-vascular flowerless plants in the taxonomic division Bryophyta (, ) ''sensu stricto''. Bryophyta (''sensu lato'', Schimp. 1879) may also refer to the parent group bryophytes, which comprise liverworts, mosses, and horn ...
), Algae (including
lichens
A lichen ( , ) is a composite organism that arises from algae or cyanobacteria living among hypha, filaments of multiple fungus, fungi species in a mutualism (biology), mutualistic relationship.liverworts
The Marchantiophyta () are a division of non-vascular land plants commonly referred to as hepatics or liverworts. Like mosses and hornworts, they have a gametophyte-dominant life cycle, in which cells of the plant carry only a single set of ge ...
), and
fungi
A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately from ...
(Smith, 1955 p. 1).
Examination for the reproductive structures had already started. In 1711, R.A.F de Réaumur gave an account of ''
Fucus
''Fucus'' is a genus of brown algae found in the intertidal zones of rocky seashores almost throughout the world.
Description and life cycle
The thallus is perennial with an irregular or disc-shaped holdfast or with haptera. The erect portion o ...
'' in which noted the two types of external openings in the thallus: the non-sexual cryptostromata (sterile surface cavities) and the
conceptacles
Conceptacles are specialized cavities of marine and freshwater algae that contain the reproductive organs. They are situated in the receptacle and open by a small ostiole.Boney, A.D. (1969). ''A Biology of Marine Algae''. Hutchinson Educational Lt ...
(fertile cavities, immersed but with a surface opening) containing the sexual organs, which he thought were female flowers. With a lens he was able to see the oogonoa (the female sex organs) and the antheridia (the male sex organs) within the conceptacles, but he interpreted these as seeds (Morton, 1981 p. 245).
Johann Hedwig
Johann Hedwig (8 December 1730 – 18 February 1799), also styled as Johannes Hedwig, was a German botanist notable for his studies of mosses. He is sometimes called the "father of bryology". He is known for his particular observations of sexual r ...
(1730–1799) provided further evidence of the sexual process in algae, and figured conjugation in ''
Spirogyra
''Spirogyra'' (common names include water silk, mermaid's tresses, and blanket weed) is a genus of filamentous charophyte green algae of the order Zygnematales, named for the helical or spiral arrangement of the chloroplasts that is characteris ...
'' Hedwig in 1797. He also illustrated '' Chara'' (''
Charales
Charales is an order of freshwater green algae in the division Charophyta, class Charophyceae, commonly known as stoneworts. Depending on the treatment of the genus ''Nitellopsis'', living (extant) species are placed into either one family ( Ch ...
'') and identified the antheridia and oogonia as male and female sexual organs (Morton, 1981 p. 323 & 357).
Harvey commented on ''...motion, apparently spontaneous, among the seeds at the period of germination.'' Some found it ''difficult...to account for these anomalous motions.'' ''...that the seeds becomes (how is not said) a perfect animalcule, which after enjoying an animal existence for a time ceases to live animally, and, reverting to its original nature, gives birth to a vegetable. Thus, this seed was first vegetable, then animal, and then again vegetable,...'' .Harvey, W.H. 1841. ''A Manual of the British Algae:'' London: John van Voorst During the 18th Century there was a stormy controversy as to whether coralline algae were plants or animals. Up to the mid-18th century coralline algae (and coral animals) were generally treated as plants. By 1768 many, but by no means all authorities, considered them animal. Five years later, Harvey concluded that they were certainly of vegetable material he noted: "The question of the vegetable nature of Corallines, among which the ''Melobesia'' take rank, may now be considered as finally set at rest, by the researches of Kützing, Phillipi and Decaisne." (Harvey, 1847, pl. 73).Harvey, W.H. 1847. ''Phycologia Britannica.'' Vol. 1, Fasc.13 (plates 73–78) Reeve & Benham, London, London.Woelkerling, Wm. J. 1988 ''The Coralline Red Algae:...'' British Museum (Natural History), Oxford University Press.
The first scientific species description of a South African seaweed accepted for most nomenclatural purposes is that of ''Ecklonia maxima'', published in 1757 as ''Fucus maximus'' (Stegenga ''et al.'', 1997).Stegenga, H., Bolton, J.J. and Anderson, R.J. 1997. ''Seaweeds of the South African West Coast.'' Bolus Herbarium, University of Cape Town.
Knowledge of North American Pacific algae begins with the 1791–95 expedition of Captain
George Vancouver
Captain George Vancouver (22 June 1757 – 10 May 1798) was a British Royal Navy officer best known for his 1791–1795 expedition, which explored and charted North America's northwestern Pacific Coast regions, including the coasts of what a ...
(Papenfuss, 1976 p. 21).Papenfuss, G.F. pp.21–46 Landmarks in Pacific North American Marine Phycology in Abbott, I.A. and Hollenberg, G.J. 1976. ''Marine Algae of California.'' Stanford University Press, California.
Archibald Menzies
Archibald Menzies ( ; 15 March 1754 – 15 February 1842) was a Scottish surgeon, botanist and naturalist. He spent many years at sea, serving with the Royal Navy, private merchants, and the Vancouver Expedition. He was the first recorded Euro ...
(1754–1842) was the appointed botanist on the expedition led by Captain George Vancouver in the ships ''Discovery'' and ''Chatham'' of 1791–1795 to the Pacific coast of North America and south-western Australia. The algae collected by Menzies were passed to Dawson Turner (1775–1858) who described and illustrated them in a four-volumed work published in 1808–1819. However Turner only referred to the
taxa
In biology, a taxon (back-formation from ''taxonomy''; plural taxa) is a group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms seen by taxonomists to form a unit. Although neither is required, a taxon is usually known by a particular nam ...
referable to ''
Fucus
''Fucus'' is a genus of brown algae found in the intertidal zones of rocky seashores almost throughout the world.
Description and life cycle
The thallus is perennial with an irregular or disc-shaped holdfast or with haptera. The erect portion o ...
''; either Menzies collected very few or he gave only a few to Turner. Three of these species described by Turner later became the types of new
genera
Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nomenclat ...
(Papenfuss, 1976) and (Huisman, 2000) Turner also received plants from Robert Brown (1773–1858) the botanist who accompanied Captain Matthew Flinders on the ''Investigator'' (1801–1805). This collection also included many plants from Australia (Huisman, 2000).
The real awakening of interest in American algae resulted from a visit by
William Henry Harvey
William Henry Harvey, FRS FLS (5 February 1811 – 15 May 1866) was an Irish botanist and phycologist who specialised in algae.
Biography
Harvey was born at Summerville near Limerick, Ireland, in 1811, the youngest of 11 children. His father ...
in 1849–1850 when he visited areas from Florida to
Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia ( ; ; ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada. It is one of the three Maritime provinces and one of the four Atlantic provinces. Nova Scotia is Latin for "New Scotland".
Most of the population are native Eng ...
and produced three volumes of ''Nereis Boreali-Americana.'' These gave an incentive to others to study algae (Taylor, 1972 p. 21).Taylor,W.R. 1972 ''Marine Algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America.'' Ann Arbor, Mich
The first collector of marine algae in
Greenland
Greenland ( kl, Kalaallit Nunaat, ; da, Grønland, ) is an island country in North America that is part of the Kingdom of Denmark. It is located between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Greenland is t ...
waters seems to have been J.M.Vahl who lived in Greenland from 1828 to 1836. Vahl's East Greenland species were not recorded until 1893 when
Rosenvinge Rosenvinge is a surname, and may refer to:
* Rosenvinge (noble family), a Danish and Norwegian noble family since 1505
* Carina Rosenvinge Christiansen (born 1991), Danish archer
* Christina Rosenvinge (born 1964), Spanish singer-songwriter
* Janu ...
included them in his work of 1893 together with the species collected by Sylow (Lund, 1959).Lund,S. 1959. The Marine Algae of East Greenland I. Taxonomic part. ''
Meddelelser om Grønland
''Meddelelser om Grønland'' ("''Communications on Greenland''") is a Danish scientific periodical which publishes scientific results from all fields of research on Greenland. It was established by Frederik Johnstrup and published as a single seri ...
'' 156: 1–248F.R.Kjellman records only 12 species from East Greenland 4 of which are doubtful, these records are based on Zeller's list (Lund, 1959).
Early 19th Century
Carl Adolph Agardh
Carl Adolph Agardh (23 January 1785 in Båstad, Sweden – 28 January 1859 in Karlstad) was a Swedish botanist specializing in algae, who was eventually appointed bishop of Karlstad.
Biography
In 1807 he was appointed teacher of mathematics a ...
was one of the most prominent algologists of all time, he was born in Sweden on 23 January 1785 and died on 28 January 1859. He was Professor of Botany at the
University of Lund
, motto = Ad utrumque
, mottoeng = Prepared for both
, established =
, type = Public research university
, budget = SEK 9 billion Bishop
A bishop is an ordained clergy member who is entrusted with a position of authority and oversight in a religious institution.
In Christianity, bishops are normally responsible for the governance of dioceses. The role or office of bishop is ca ...
of Karlstad Diocese (Papenfuss, 1976). Many species still show his name as the authority of the scientific name. He traveled widely in Europe visiting Germany,
Poland
Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It is divided into 16 administrative provinces called voivodeships, covering an area of . Poland has a population of over 38 million and is the fifth-most populous ...
,
Denmark
)
, song = ( en, "King Christian stood by the lofty mast")
, song_type = National and royal anthem
, image_map = EU-Denmark.svg
, map_caption =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Danish Realm, Kingdom of Denmark
...
, the
Netherlands
)
, anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands
, established_title = Before independence
, established_date = Spanish Netherl ...
,
Belgium
Belgium, ; french: Belgique ; german: Belgien officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Northwestern Europe. The country is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast, France to th ...
, France and
Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical re ...
and was the first to emphasize the importance of the reproductive characters of algae and use them to distinguish the different genera and families. His son,
Jacob Georg Agardh
Jacob Georg Agardh (8 December 1813 in Lund, Sweden – 17 January 1901 in Lund, Sweden) was a Sweden, Swedish botanist, phycologist, and taxonomist.
He was the son of Carl Adolph Agardh, and from 1854 until 1879 was professor of botany at Lund ...
(1813–1901), who became Professor of Botany at
Lund
Lund (, , ) is a city in the southern Swedish provinces of Sweden, province of Scania, across the Øresund, Öresund strait from Copenhagen. The town had 91,940 inhabitants out of a municipal total of 121,510 . It is the seat of Lund Municipali ...
in 1839, made a study of the life-histories of algae, described many new genera and species. It was to him that many workers sent specimens for determination and as donations. Because of this the herbarium at Lund is the most important algal
herbarium
A herbarium (plural: herbaria) is a collection of preserved plant specimens and associated data used for scientific study.
The specimens may be whole plants or plant parts; these will usually be in dried form mounted on a sheet of paper (called ...
in the world (Papenfuss, 1976).
The first records of algae from the
Faroe Islands
The Faroe Islands ( ), or simply the Faroes ( fo, Føroyar ; da, Færøerne ), are a North Atlantic island group and an autonomous territory of the Kingdom of Denmark.
They are located north-northwest of Scotland, and about halfway bet ...
were made by
Jørgen Landt Jørgen Landt (c. 1751–1804) was a Danish priest, botanist and author, who published descriptions of the people and geography of the Faroe Islands.
Landt was born in the town of Vissenbjerg, on the island of Fünen
Funen ( da, Fyn, ), wit ...
in his book of 1800 where he mentions about 30 species. Following this,
Hans Christian Lyngbye Hans Christian Lyngbye (29 June 1782 – 18 May 1837) was a Danish priest and botanist, specialising in algae.
Life
Hans Christian Lyngbye was born in Aalborg, Denmark, in 1782, the son of a teacher, Jens Michelsen Lyngbye. He attended the Latin sc ...
visited the
Faroe Islands
The Faroe Islands ( ), or simply the Faroes ( fo, Føroyar ; da, Færøerne ), are a North Atlantic island group and an autonomous territory of the Kingdom of Denmark.
They are located north-northwest of Scotland, and about halfway bet ...
in 1817 and published his work in 1819. In this, he described several new genera and species, some 100 new species were listed.
Emil Rostrup
Frederik Georg Emil Rostrup (28 January 1831 – 16 January 1907) was a Danish botanist, mycologist and plant pathologist. Biography
Emil Rostrup was born at the village of Stokkemarke on the Danish island of Lolland. Rostrup completed his polyt ...
who visited the
Faroe Islands
The Faroe Islands ( ), or simply the Faroes ( fo, Føroyar ; da, Færøerne ), are a North Atlantic island group and an autonomous territory of the Kingdom of Denmark.
They are located north-northwest of Scotland, and about halfway bet ...
in 1867 listed ten new species and a total not far from 100. In 1895, ''Herman G. Simmons'' mentioned 125 species. In that year F. Børgesen (1866–1956) started work and in 1902 published his work (Børgesen, 1902).'' Børgesen, F.'' 1902. Marine algæ (of the Færöes). Botany of the Færöes (ed. E. Warming), Vol. II, pp. 339-532.'' Part II. Copenhagen
Jean Vincent Félix Lamouroux (1779–1825) was the first, in 1813, to separate the algae into groups on the basis of colour (Dixon and Irvine, 1977 p. 59).Dixon, P.S. and Irvine, L.M. 1977. ''Seaweeds of the British Isles. Vol.1. Rhodophyta. Part 1.'' British Museum atural History London. At this time all coralline algae were considered animals, it was R. Philippi who in 1837 published his paper in which he finally recognized that coralline algae were not animals and he proposed the generic names ''
Lithophyllum
''Lithophyllum'' is a genus of thalloid red algae belonging to the family Corallinaceae.
Fossil record
This genus is known in the fossil record from the Silurian to the Quaternary (from about 418.7 to 0.0 million years ago). Fossils of sp ...
'' and ''
Lithothamnion
''Lithothamnion'' is a genus of thalloid red alga comprising 103 species. Its members are known by a number of common names.Recorded common names are griuán, maërl, punalevä-suku, stenhinna and maerl. The monomerous, crustose thalli are compos ...
'' (Irvine and Chamberlain, 1994 p. 11).Irvine, L.M. and Chamberlain, Y.M. 1994. ''Seaweeds of the British Isles Vol.1. Part 2B.'' Natural History Museum, London.
Freshwater algae are commonly treated separately from marine algae and may be considered not correctly placed in phycology.
Lewis Weston Dillwyn
Lewis Weston Dillwyn, FRS (21 August 1778 – 31 August 1855) was a British porcelain manufacturer, naturalist and Whig Member of Parliament (MP).
Biography
He was born in Walthamstow, Essex, the eldest son of William Dillwyn (1743–1824) and ...
(1778–1855) "British Confervae" (1809) was one of the earliest attempts to bring together all that was then known on the British Freshwater algae .West, G.S. and Fritsch, F.E. 1927. ''A Treastise on the British Freshwater Algae.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Specimens of Anne E. Ball (1808–1872) have been found in both the
Herbarium
A herbarium (plural: herbaria) is a collection of preserved plant specimens and associated data used for scientific study.
The specimens may be whole plants or plant parts; these will usually be in dried form mounted on a sheet of paper (called ...
of the
Irish National Botanic Gardens
The National Botanic Gardens (Irish: ''Garraithe Náisiúnta na Lus'') is a botanical garden in Glasnevin, 5 km north-west of Dublin city centre, Ireland. The 19.5 hectares are situated between Glasnevin Cemetery and the River Tolka where ...
, Dubli and the
Ulster Museum
The Ulster Museum, located in the Botanic Gardens in Belfast, has around 8,000 square metres (90,000 sq. ft.) of public display space, featuring material from the collections of fine art and applied art, archaeology, ethnography, treasure ...
(BEL). A.E.Ball was an Irish algologist who corresponded with W.H. Harvey and whose records appear in his ''Phycologia Britannica.'' The specimens in Dublin do not contain any unusual or rare items. However, they are well documented.Parkes, H.M. and Scannell, M.J.P. 1970. Anne E. Ball, two volumes of algae in Herbarium. National Botanic Gardens, Dublin. ''Irish Naturalists' Journal'' 16: 349
Herbarium
A herbarium (plural: herbaria) is a collection of preserved plant specimens and associated data used for scientific study.
The specimens may be whole plants or plant parts; these will usually be in dried form mounted on a sheet of paper (called ...
and professor in
botany
Botany, also called , plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist, plant scientist or phytologist is a scientist who specialises in this field. The term "botany" comes from the Ancient Greek w ...
at
Trinity College, Dublin
, name_Latin = Collegium Sanctae et Individuae Trinitatis Reginae Elizabethae juxta Dublin
, motto = ''Perpetuis futuris temporibus duraturam'' (Latin)
, motto_lang = la
, motto_English = It will last i ...
, was one of the most distinguished algologists of his time (Papenfuss, 1976 p. 26). Apart from
Ireland
Ireland ( ; ga, Éire ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean, in Northwestern Europe, north-western Europe. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel (Grea ...
he visited South Africa, the Atlantic seaboard of
America
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
as far south as the
Florida Keys
The Florida Keys are a coral cay archipelago located off the southern coast of Florida, forming the southernmost part of the continental United States. They begin at the southeastern coast of the Florida peninsula, about south of Miami, and e ...
on the east coast of North America and Australia (1854–1856). Between 1853 and 1856 he visited
Ceylon
Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...
, Australia and
New Zealand
New Zealand ( mi, Aotearoa ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and over 700 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island count ...
and various parts of the South Pacific (Huisman, 2000 & Papenfuss, 1976). His collection in Australia resulted in one of the most extensive collections of marine plants and it inspired others (Huisman, 2000). He published: ''Nereis Australis Or Algae of the Southern Ocean'' in 1847–1849 and in 1846–51 his ''Phycologia Britannica'' appeared. His ''Nereis Boreali-Americana'' was published in three parts (1852–1858) this was the first, and still is (1976) is the only marine algal flora of North America as it includes taxa from the Pacific coast (Papenfuss, 1976 p. 27). His five-volume '' Phycologia Australica'' was published in 1858 to 1863. These volumes remain to this day a most important reference to Australian algae (Huisman, 2000). His primary herbarium is in Trinity College, Dublin (TCD). However large collections of Harvey material are to be found in the Ulster Museum (BEL) (Morton, 1977; Morton, 1981);Morton, O. 1977. A note on W.H.Harvey's algae in the Ulster Museum. ''Irish Naturalists' Journal.'' 19:26Morton, O. 1981. American algae collected by W.H.Harvey and others, in the Ulster Museum Herbarium. ''Taxon'': 30:867–868
University of St Andrews
(Aien aristeuein)
, motto_lang = grc
, mottoeng = Ever to ExcelorEver to be the Best
, established =
, type = Public research university
Ancient university
, endowment ...
(STA) and National Herbarium of Victoria (MEL), Melbourne, Australia (May, 1977).May, V. 1977 Harvey's Australian Algae at the National Herbarium of New South Wales (NSW), Sydney, Australia. ''Taxon'': 26: 496 Many of the collectors of this period sent, and exchanged, specimens freely one to another, as a result Harvey's books show a remarkable knowledge of the distribution of algae elsewhere in the world. His ''Phycologia Britannica'' lists species recorded and collected from various parts of the
British Isles
The British Isles are a group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north-western coast of continental Europe, consisting of the islands of Great Britain, Ireland, the Isle of Man, the Inner and Outer Hebrides, the Northern Isles, ...
John Templeton
Sir John Marks Templeton (29 November 1912 – 8 July 2008) was an American-born British investor, banker, fund manager, and philanthropist. In 1954, he entered the mutual fund market and created the Templeton Growth Fund, which averaged grow ...
(1766–1825) and D. Landsborough (1779–1854) who collected, as he did, from distinct sites in
Ireland
Ireland ( ; ga, Éire ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean, in Northwestern Europe, north-western Europe. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel (Grea ...
. The collections of these botanists, and many others, are represented separately by collections in the
Ulster Museum
The Ulster Museum, located in the Botanic Gardens in Belfast, has around 8,000 square metres (90,000 sq. ft.) of public display space, featuring material from the collections of fine art and applied art, archaeology, ethnography, treasure ...
(BEL).
Sir
William Jackson Hooker
Sir William Jackson Hooker (6 July 178512 August 1865) was an English botanist and botanical illustrator, who became the first director of Kew when in 1841 it was recommended to be placed under state ownership as a botanic garden. At Kew he ...
(1785–1865) was a lifelong friend of Harvey (Papenfuss, 1976 p. 26), he was appointed Professor of Botany at
Glasgow University
, image = UofG Coat of Arms.png
, image_size = 150px
, caption = Coat of arms
Flag
, latin_name = Universitas Glasguensis
, motto = la, Via, Veritas, Vita
, ...
in 1820 and became director in
Kew
Kew () is a district in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames. Its population at the 2011 census was 11,436. Kew is the location of the Royal Botanic Gardens ("Kew Gardens"), now a World Heritage Site, which includes Kew Palace. Kew is a ...
1841–1865. Hooker recognized the talent in Harvey and lent him books, encouraged and invited him to write the section on algae in his ''British Flora.'' as well as the section on algae for ''The Botany of Captain Beechey's Voyage'' (Papenfuss, 1976). Margaret Gatty (1809–1873) (née Margaret Scott) (author of ''British Seaweeds'', 1863), and others, corresponded with William Henry Harvey (Desmond, 1977 and Evans, 2003).Desmond,R. 1977. ''Dictionary of British and Irish Botanists and Horticulturists.'' Taylor and Francis Ltd., London Evans, F. 2003. Mrs Alfred Gatty (1809–1873), author of ''British Seaweeds'' ''The Phycologist'' No.65: 14–17
Late 19th century
Much work was done in this period by many workers and the many specimens became very valuable. Harvey's specimens, are to be found in at least several herbaria as well as those of other phycologists whose names are to be found in historic publications.
In the same period
Friedrich Traugott Kützing
Friedrich Traugott Kützing (8 December 1807 in Kalbsrieth, Ritteburg – 9 September 1893) was a German pharmacist, botanist and phycologist.
Despite his limited background in regard to higher education, Kützing made significant scientific con ...
(1807–1893) in Germany described more new genera than anyone either before or after (Chapman, 1968 p. 13).Chapman, V.J. 1968. ''The Algae.'' Mackmillan, New York His publications span the period 1841 to 1869 and added materially to knowledge of algae of cold waters of the Arctic seas. Some of his specimens are stored in the Ulster Museum Herbarium (BEL) catalogued: F1171; F10281–F10318. In 1883
Frans Reinhold Kjellman
Frans Reinhold Kjellman (4 November 1846 – 22 April 1907) was a Swedish botanist who specialized in marine phycology and is known in particular for his work on Arctic algae.
Kjellman became a Ph.D. and docent of botany at the Universit ...
, professor of botany at
Uppsala University
Uppsala University ( sv, Uppsala universitet) is a public university, public research university in Uppsala, Sweden. Founded in 1477, it is the List of universities in Sweden, oldest university in Sweden and the Nordic countries still in opera ...
, published ''The Algae of the Arctic Sea''. He divided the "Arctic Sea" into different regions which surround the North Pole (Kjellman, 1883).Kjellman, F.R. Reprint 1971. The Algae of the Arctic Sea.''K. Svenska VetenskAkad. Handl.'' 20(5): 1–351 Further research work on the marine algae of the world included: Charles Lewis Anderson (1827–1910) who collaborated with
William Gilson Farlow
William Gilson Farlow (December 17, 1844 – June 3, 1919) was an American botanist, born in Boston, Massachusetts, and educated at Harvard (A.B., 1866; M.D., 1870), where, after several years of European study, he became adjunct professor of ...
and with Professor
Daniel Cady Eaton
Daniel Cady Eaton (September 12, 1834 – June 29, 1895) was an American botanist and author. After studies at the Rensselaer Institute in Troy and Russell's military school in New Haven,"Daniel Cady Eaton", ''American Journal of Science'', A ...
to produce on the first exsiccatae of North American Algae (Papenfuss, 1976). Edward Morell Holmes (1843–1930), was an expert on
seaweeds
Seaweed, or macroalgae, refers to thousands of species of macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae. The term includes some types of '' Rhodophyta'' (red), ''Phaeophyta'' (brown) and ''Chlorophyta'' (green) macroalgae. Seaweed species such as ...
,
mosses
Mosses are small, non-vascular flowerless plants in the taxonomic division Bryophyta (, ) ''sensu stricto''. Bryophyta (''sensu lato'', Schimp. 1879) may also refer to the parent group bryophytes, which comprise liverworts, mosses, and horn ...
, liverworts and
lichens
A lichen ( , ) is a composite organism that arises from algae or cyanobacteria living among hypha, filaments of multiple fungus, fungi species in a mutualism (biology), mutualistic relationship.British Isles
The British Isles are a group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north-western coast of continental Europe, consisting of the islands of Great Britain, Ireland, the Isle of Man, the Inner and Outer Hebrides, the Northern Isles, ...
, as well as from
Norway
Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe, the mainland territory of which comprises the western and northernmost portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and t ...
,
Sweden
Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic country located on ...
, Florida,
Tasmania
)
, nickname =
, image_map = Tasmania in Australia.svg
, map_caption = Location of Tasmania in AustraliaCoordinates:
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdi ...
, France,
Cape of Good Hope
The Cape of Good Hope ( af, Kaap die Goeie Hoop ) ;''Kaap'' in isolation: pt, Cabo da Boa Esperança is a rocky headland on the Atlantic coast of the Cape Peninsula in South Africa.
A common misconception is that the Cape of Good Hope is t ...
,
Ceylon
Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...
and Australia. He also exchanged specimens (Furley, 1989).Furley, D.D. 1989 Notes on the correspondence of W.M.Holmes (1843–1930).''The Linnean'' 5: 23–30 and some are in the herbarium of the Ulster Museum (BEL).
George Clifton (1823–1913) an Australian phycologist is mentioned in
Harvey
Harvey, Harveys or Harvey's may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
* ''Harvey'' (play), a 1944 play by Mary Chase about a man befriended by an invisible anthropomorphic rabbit
* Harvey Awards ("Harveys"), one of the most important awards ...
's Memoirs, as the superintendent of the Water Police in Perth, West Australia sent algal specimens to Harvey (Blackler, H.1977).Blackler, H. 1977. Harvey's Australian Algae in the Herbarium of Mrs Margaret Gatty in the Department of Botany of the University of St. Andrew's (STA), Scotland. ''Taxon'': 26: 495–496 In these years there were many workers in this field: W.G. Farlow, mentioned above, who was appointed in 1879 Professor of Cryptogamic Botany at
University of Harvard
Harvard University is a private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1636 as Harvard College and named for its first benefactor, the Puritan clergyman John Harvard, it is the oldest institution of higher l ...
(U.S.A.) in 1879 and published, among other works, the ''Marine algae of New England and Adjacent Coasts.''; in 1876 John Erhard Areschoug, a Swedish Professor of Botany at Upsalla University, reported on some
brown algae
Brown algae (singular: alga), comprising the class Phaeophyceae, are a large group of multicellular algae, including many seaweeds located in colder waters within the Northern Hemisphere. Brown algae are the major seaweeds of the temperate and po ...
collected in California by Gustavus A. Eisen (Papenfuss. 1976). George W.Traill (1836–1897) was a clerk in the Standard Life Company in
Edinburgh
Edinburgh ( ; gd, Dùn Èideann ) is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 Council areas of Scotland, council areas. Historically part of the county of Midlothian (interchangeably Edinburghshire before 1921), it is located in Lothian ...
where he worked long hours, yet he was one of the greatest authorities on Scottish algae. Despite bad health he was an indefatigable collector. In 1892 he gave his collection to the Herbarium of the Edinburgh Botanic Gardens (Furley, 1989).
Mikael Heggelund Foslie (
M.Foslie
Mikael Heggelund Foslie (21 October 1855 – 9 November 1909) was a Norwegian botanist and algaeologist. Foslie was curator of the Royal Norwegian Scientific Society Museum (now NTNU University Museum) in Trondheim.
Biography
He was born a ...
) (1855–1905) published 69 papers between 1887 and 1909. During this time he increased the number of species and forms (of corallines) from 175 to 650 (Irvine and Chamberlain, 1994). After his death his collection of specimens was purchased by the Museum of the Royal Norwegian Society for Sciences and Letters (Thor ''et al.'', 2005) Thor, E., Johansen, S and Nielsen, L.S. 2005. The collection of botanical letters to Michael H.Foslie in the Gunnerus Library: a Catalogue ''Gurreria'' 78: 7–22 and there is a small collection of his in the Ulster Museum Herbarium: (Collection No. 42) entitled: ''Algae Norvegicae'' (Ulster Museum Herbarium catalogue (BEL): F10319–F10334). F.Heydrich also described 84 taxa and was a bitter foe of Foslie. This left a legacy of complicated and still unresolved problems.
It was in the 19th Century that the true nature of
lichens
A lichen ( , ) is a composite organism that arises from algae or cyanobacteria living among hypha, filaments of multiple fungus, fungi species in a mutualism (biology), mutualistic relationship. It was in this period (1859) that
Charles Darwin
Charles Robert Darwin ( ; 12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist, geologist, and biologist, widely known for his contributions to evolutionary biology. His proposition that all species of life have descended fr ...
(1809–1882) published his book on
evolution
Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. These characteristics are the expressions of genes, which are passed on from parent to offspring during reproduction. Variation ...
:''On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection,...''.
20th century
In 1895 Børgesen started his study of the
Faeroe Islands
The Faroe Islands ( ), or simply the Faroes ( fo, Føroyar ; da, Færøerne ), are a North Atlantic island group and an autonomous territory of the Kingdom of Denmark.
They are located north-northwest of Scotland, and about halfway betwee ...
algæ
Algae (; singular alga ) is an informal term for a large and diverse group of photosynthesis, photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. It is a polyphyletic grouping that includes species from multiple distinct clades. Included organisms range from u ...
-vegetation of the Færöese coasts, with remarks on the phyto-geography In: Botany of the Færöes (ed. E. Warming) Vol. III, pp. 683-834. Copenhagen and London. Later between 1920 and 1936 he published his research on the algae of the
Canary Islands
The Canary Islands (; es, Canarias, ), also known informally as the Canaries, are a Spanish autonomous community and archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, in Macaronesia. At their closest point to the African mainland, they are west of Morocc ...
.Børgesen, F. 1925. Marine algae from the Canary Islands especially from Teneriffe and Grand Cararia. I. Chlorophyceae. ''Biologiske Meddelelser /
Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab
{{Infobox organization
, name = The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters
, full_name =
, native_name = Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab
, native_name_lang =
, logo = Royal ...
'' 5 (3): 1–123Børgesen, F. 1926. Marine algae from the Canary Islands especially from Teneriffe and Grand Canaria. II. Phaeophyceae. ''Biologiske Meddelelser /
Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab
{{Infobox organization
, name = The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters
, full_name =
, native_name = Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab
, native_name_lang =
, logo = Royal ...
'' 6: 1–112Børgesen, F. 1927. Marine algae from the Canary Islands especially from Teneriffe and Gran Canary. III, Rhodophyceae. Part I, Bangiales and Nemalionales. ''Biologiske Meddelelser /
Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab
{{Infobox organization
, name = The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters
, full_name =
, native_name = Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab
, native_name_lang =
, logo = Royal ...
'' 6 (6): 1–97Børgesen, F. 1929. Marine algae from the Canary Islands especially from Teneriffe and Gran Canaria. III. Rhodophyceae. 2, Cryptonemiales, Gigartinales and Rhodymeniales. ''Biologiske Meddelelser /
Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab
{{Infobox organization
, name = The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters
, full_name =
, native_name = Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab
, native_name_lang =
, logo = Royal ...
'' 8 (1):1–97Børgesen, F. 1930. Marine algae from the Canary Islands especially from Teneriffe and Gran Canaria. III. Rhodophyceae. 3, Ceramiales. ''Biologiske Meddelelser /
Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab
{{Infobox organization
, name = The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters
, full_name =
, native_name = Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab
, native_name_lang =
, logo = Royal ...
'' 9 (1):1–?Børgesen, F. & Frémy, P. 1936. Marine algae from the Canary Islands especially Teneriffe and Gran Canaria. IV. Cyanophyceæ. ''Biologiske Meddelelser /
Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab
{{Infobox organization
, name = The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters
, full_name =
, native_name = Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab
, native_name_lang =
, logo = Royal ...
'' 12 (5): 1–?
In 1935 and 1945
Felix Eugen Fritsch
Felix Eugen Fritsch FRS (26 April 1879 – 2 May 1954) was a British biologist.
Fritssch was born in Hampstead in London in 1879 where his father owned and operated a school.
Fritsch started his career at the University of Munich before mov ...
(1879–1954) published in two volumes his treatise: ''The Structure and Reproduction of the Algae''. These two volumes detail virtually all that was then known about the morphology and reproduction of the algae. However knowledge of algae has so greatly increased since then it would be impossible for these to be brought up-to-date. Nevertheless, reference is often made to them. Other valuable works published in the 1950s include ''Cryptogamic Botany.'' written by Gilbert Morgan Smith (1885–1959), the algal volume (no.1) was published in 1955. In the following year (1956), ''Die Gattungen der Rhodophyceen.'' by Johan Harald Kylin (1879–1949) was published posthumously. Other phycologists who contributed massively to the knowledge of algae include: Elmer Yale Dawson (1918–1966) who published over 60 papers on the algae of the North American Pacific seas (Papenfuss, 1976).
Development of public awareness
The number of books published in the mid to late 19th century shows how interest in the natural world developed. Books on algae were written by:
Isabella Gifford
Isabella Gifford (1825–1891) was a Welsh-born botanist. In 1848, she published ''The Marine Botanist,'' a book which focuses on Phycology, algology. Some of her specimens are in the Ulster Museum.
Biography
Isabella Gifford was born at Defy ...
(1853) ''The Marine Botanist...'', some of her specimens are in the Ulster Museum; D. Landsborough (c.1779–1854) ''A Popular History of British Seaweeds,...'' third edition published in 1857; Louisa Lane Clarke (c.1812–1883) ''The Common Seaweeds of the British Coast and Channel Islands;...'' in 1865; S.O.Gray (1828–1902) ''British Seaweeds:...'' published 1867 and W.H.Grattann ''British Marine Algae:...''published about 1874. These books were for the ''common'' people.
In 1902 Edward Arthur Lionel Batters (1860–1907) published "A catalogue of the British Marine algae." (Batters, 1902).Batters, E.A.L. 1902. A catalogue of the British Marine Algae. ''Journal Botanical London'' 40(Suppl.): 1–107 In this he detailed records of algae found on the shores of the British Isles with the localities. This was the start of a new approach, the bringing together of records, detailed keys, checklists and mapping schemes.
The process accelerated in the 20th century.
Lily Newton
Lily Newton (26 January 1893 – 26 March 1981) was professor of botany and vice-principal at the University of Wales.
Early life and education
Newton was born at Pensford in Somerset in 1893, the daughter of George and Melinda Batten. She a ...
(1893–1981), professor in botany at the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, and professor emeritus in 1931 wrote: ''A Handbook of the British Seaweeds.''Newton, L. 1931. ''A Handbook of the British Seaweeds.'' British Museum, London This was the first, and for quite a time, the only book for identification of seaweeds in the
British Isles
The British Isles are a group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north-western coast of continental Europe, consisting of the islands of Great Britain, Ireland, the Isle of Man, the Inner and Outer Hebrides, the Northern Isles, ...
using a
botanical key
In biology, an identification key, taxonomic key, or biological key is a printed or computer-aided device that aids the identification of biological entities, such as plants, animals, fossils, microorganisms, and pollen grains. Identification ke ...
. In 1962
Eifion Jones
__NOTOC__
William Eifion Jones (1925 – March 2004) was a Welsh marine botanist, noted for his study of marine algae.
He was born and brought up in Aberystwyth and studied botany at the University of Wales under Professor Lilly Newton. He m ...
published: ''A key to the genera of the British seaweeds''.Jones, W.Eifion 1964. A Key to the Genera of the British Seaweeds. ''Field Studies,'' 1: 1–32 This small booklet provided a valuable source in the period before the valuable series ''Seaweeds of the British Isles'' was produced by the British Museum (Natural History) or The
Natural History Museum
A natural history museum or museum of natural history is a scientific institution with natural history collections that include current and historical records of animals, plants, fungi, ecosystems, geology, paleontology, climatology, and more. ...
.
Research advanced so quickly that the need for an up-to-date checklist became apparent.
Mary Parke
Mary Winifred Parke, FRS, (23 March 1908 – 17 July 1989) was a British marine botanist and Fellow of the Royal Society (1972) specialising in phycology, the study of algae.
Scientific work
Mary Parke contributed a great deal to the study of ...
(1902–1981), who was a founder member of the British Phycological Society, produced a preliminary checklist of British marine algae in 1953, corrections and additions of this were published in 1956, 1957 and 1959. In 1964 M.Parke and Peter Stanley Dixon (1929–1993) published a revised check-list, a second revision of this was produced in 1968 and a third revision in 1976. Distribution was added to the checklist in 1986 with G.R.South and I.Tittley's ''A Checklist and Distributional Index of the Benthic Marine Algae of the North Atlantic Ocean''. In 2003 ''A Check-list and Atlas of the Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland'' was published by Gavin Hardy and Michael Guiry with a revised edition in 2006. This shows how rapidly knowledge of algae, at least in the
British Isles
The British Isles are a group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north-western coast of continental Europe, consisting of the islands of Great Britain, Ireland, the Isle of Man, the Inner and Outer Hebrides, the Northern Isles, ...
, advanced. First efforts had been made by interested biologists and people capable of identifying the algae, this required books using the botanical names. Botanical keys to identify the plants then developed, followed by checklists. As more information was brought to light by interested workers, some volunteers, the checklists were improved and eventually a mapping scheme brought together all this information. The same pattern of knowledge developed with birds,
mammal
Mammals () are a group of vertebrate animals constituting the class Mammalia (), characterized by the presence of mammary glands which in females produce milk for feeding (nursing) their young, a neocortex (a region of the brain), fur or ...
s and
flowering plant
Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (), commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words ('container, vessel') and ('seed'), and refers to those plants th ...
s, though to a different time-scale and knowledge in other parts of the world has developed to this degree.
Numbers and checklists
As records were collected the need to draw all the information together advanced. Checklists and annotated checklists were produced and updated so the actual numbers of different species became more precise. At first this was quite local. Threlkeld, in 1726, produced the first attempt at an enumeration of Irish Algae and in 1802 William Tighe published his "Marine plants observed at the County of Wexford," it included 58 marine and 2 freshwater species. In 1804 Wade published ''Plantae Rariores in Hibernia Inventae,'' in which 51 species of marine and 4 species of freshwater algae were enumerated. In the north of Ireland
John Templeton
Sir John Marks Templeton (29 November 1912 – 8 July 2008) was an American-born British investor, banker, fund manager, and philanthropist. In 1954, he entered the mutual fund market and created the Templeton Growth Fund, which averaged grow ...
and William Thompson were at work publishing on the algae of Ireland. In 1836 Mackay published his ''Flora Hibernica'' including 296 species. Adams, in his synopsis of 1908, listed a total of marine species reaching 843.Adams,J. 1908. A synopsis of Irish algae, freshwater and marine. ''Progressive Royal Irish. Academie'' 27B: 11–60
In more localised lists Adams (in 1907) listed the species of County Antrim Adams, J. 1907. The Seaweeds of the Antrim Coast. ''Scient. Pap. Ulster Fish. Biol. Ass.,'' 1: 29–37 noted that of the 747 species included in "Batter's List" he recorded 211 species from the Co. Antrim coast. In 1907 a list of marine algae from
Lambay Island
Lambay Island ( ga, Reachrainn), often simply Lambay, is an island in the Irish Sea off the coast of north County Dublin, Ireland. The largest island off the east coast of Ireland, it is offshore from the headland at Portrane, and is the eas ...
(County Dublin) was published by Batters.Batters, A.L. 1907. A preliminary list of the marine algae. ''Irish Naturalist'' 16:107–110 In 1960 A preliminary list of the marine algae of Galloway coast was published.Burrows, E.M. 1960. A preliminary list of the marine algae of the Galloway coast. ''British psychological Bulletin'' 2: 23–25
At the international level there are well over 3,000 species of alga in Australia.
Identification
As the study and identification of the different species became more extensive it became clear that identification was not at all easy. Harvey's 1846–51 ''Phycologia Britannica'' along with his other publications makes no effort to provide "keys" to help in the identification. In 1931 Newton's Handbook which gave the first key to assist in the identification of algae of the British Isles, in the same year Knight and Park gave a key in their "Manx Algae."Knight,M. and Park, M.W. 1931. Manx algae. An algal survey of the south end of the Isle of Man, ''Proc. Trans. L'pool biol. Soc.'' 45(Appendix II): 1 155
Eifion Jones
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William Eifion Jones (1925 – March 2004) was a Welsh marine botanist, noted for his study of marine algae.
He was born and brought up in Aberystwyth and studied botany at the University of Wales under Professor Lilly Newton. He m ...
in 1962, wrote a key to the genera of British seaweeds.Jones,W.E. 1964. A Key to the Genera of the British Seaweeds. ''Field Studies'' 1: 1–32 Others soon followed: Dickinson wrote one entitled ''British Seaweeds.''Dickinson, C.I. 1963 ''British Seaweeds.''The Kew Series Eyre & Spottiswood and Adey and Adey (1973) gave keys to the identification of the Corallinaceae of the British Isles.Adey, W.H. and Adey, P.J. 1973. Studies on the Biosystematics and ecology of the epilithic crustose Corallinaceae of the British Isles. ''Br.phycol.J.'' 8: 343–407 Abott and Hollenberg, in 1976, published keys to the identification of algae of California.Abbott, I.A. and Hollenberg, G.J. 1976. ''Marine Algae of California.'' Stanford University Press, California.
Evolution of classification in the algae
Linnaeus's "sexual system" (Linnaeus, 1754) Linnaeus, C. 1754. Genera plantarum. Holmiae. in which he grouped plants according to the number of stamens and carpels in their flowers, although wholly artificial was advantageous in that a newly discovered plant could be fitted in amongst those already known. He divided the plant kingdom into 25 classes, one of which was the Cryptogamia — plants with "concealed reproductive organs" (see above) (Smith, 1955). Linnaeus accepted 14 genera of algae of which only four, Conferva, ''
Ulva
Ulva (; gd, Ulbha) is a small island in the Inner Hebrides of Scotland, off the west coast of Mull. It is separated from Mull by a narrow strait, and connected to the neighbouring island of Gometra by a bridge. Much of the island is formed from ...
,'' ''
Fucus
''Fucus'' is a genus of brown algae found in the intertidal zones of rocky seashores almost throughout the world.
Description and life cycle
The thallus is perennial with an irregular or disc-shaped holdfast or with haptera. The erect portion o ...
'' and '' Chara,'' contained organisms now regarded as algae (Dixon, 1973 p. 231).Dixon, P.S. 1973, ''Biology of the
Rhodophyta
Red algae, or Rhodophyta (, ; ), are one of the oldest groups of eukaryotic algae. The Rhodophyta also comprises one of the largest phyla of algae, containing over 7,000 currently recognized species with taxonomic revisions ongoing. The majority ...
.'' Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh. As a consequence of the great increase in the number of species the artificiality of the Linnaean system was appreciated so that during the 18th Century and early 19th Century considerable numbers of new genera were described. J.V.F.Lamouroux in 1813 Lamouroux, J.V.F. 1813. Essai sur les genres de la famille de Thalassiophytes, non articulées. ''Annls Mus. natn. Hit. nat., Paris,'' 20: 115–139; 267–294 was the first to separate the groups on the basis of colour, however this was not taken up by other botanists and it was Harvey who, in 1836, divided the algae into four major divisions solely on the basis of their pigmentation: Rhodospermae (red algae), Melanospermae (brown algae), Chlorospermae (green algae) and Diatomaceae (Dixon, 1973 p. 232).
In 1883 and 1897 Schmitz separated the Rhodophyceae into two main groups. The first contained the Bangiales and the second the Nemoniales, Cryptonemiales, Gigartinales and Rhodymeniales (Newton, 1931). The Rhodophyta are now arranged in the Orders: Porphyridiales, Goniotrichales, Erythropeltidales, Bangiales, Acrochaetiales, Colaconematales, Palmariales, Ahnfeltiales, Nemaliales, Gelidiales, Gracilariales, Bonnemaisoniales, Cryptonemiales, Hildenbrandiales, Corallinales, Gigartinales, Plocamiales, Rhodymeniales and Ceramiales. The Chlorophyta are arranged in the Orders: Chlorococcales, Microsporales, Chaetophorales, Phaeophilales, Ulvales, Prasiolales, Acrosiphoniales, Cladiphorales, Bryopsidales, Chlorocystidales, Klebsormidiales and Ulotrichales. The Heterokontophyta: Sphacelariales, Dictyotales, Ectocarpales, Ralfsiales, Utleriales, Sporochniales, Tilopteridales, Desmarestiales, Laminariales and the Fucales (Hardy and Guiry, 2006).Hardy, F.G. and Guiry, M.D. 2006. ''A Check-list and Atlas of the Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland'' (Hardy and Guiry, 2006). British Phycological Society, London.
Recently (1990s) The Kingdom:
Protoctista
A protist () is any eukaryotic organism (that is, an organism whose cells contain a cell nucleus) that is not an animal, plant, or fungus. While it is likely that protists share a common ancestor (the last eukaryotic common ancestor), the exclu ...
has been recommended,Margulis, L., Corliss. John, Melkonian, M. and Chapman, D.J. 1990. ''Handbook of Protoctista.'' Jones and Bartlett, Boston. however, this has not been accepted by many authors.
See also
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Miscellaneous Notes
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Máirin de Valéra
Máirin de Valéra MRIA (12 April 1912 – 8 August 1984) was an Irish phycologist. She was the first chair and professor of Botany at University College Galway.
Early life and education
Máirin de Valéra was born 12 April 1912 in Dublin, th ...
(1912–1984). Professor of Botany at University College, Galway (1962–1978).
Publications:-
De Valéra, M. 1958. ''A topographical guide to the seaweed of Co. Galway Bay with some brief notes on other districts on the west coast of Ireland.'' Institute for Industrial Standards and Research Dublin, Dublin.
De Valéra, M. 1959. The Third International Seaweed Symposium at University College, Galway. 1958, ''Irish Naturalists' Journal'' 13: 18–19.
De Valéra, M. 1960. Interesting seaweeds from the shores of the Burren. ''Irish Naturalists' Journal.'' 13: 168.
De Valéra, M. * Cooke, P.J. 1979. Seaweed in Burren grykes. ''Irish Naturalists' Journal.'' 19: 435–436.
De Valéra, M., Pybus, C., Casley, B. & Webster, A. 1979. 1979. Littoral and benthic investigations on the west coast of Ireland.X. Marine algae of the northern shores of the Burren, C. Clare. ''Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.'' 79B: 259–269.
* Edward Batters (1860–1907). B.A.; FLS 1883
* Elmer Yale Dawson (1918–1966). American phycologist
* Kathleen M. Drew-Baker (...1925–1927...). University of Manchester. President of the British Phycological Society 1953.
* Margaret Constance Helen Blackler (1902–1981). Assistant Keeper of Botany, Liverpool Museum (1933–1945). In 1947 joined staff University St Andrews.
* Peter Stanley Dixon (1929–1993). Professor Emeritus of Biology at University of California.
* William Dwyn Isaac (1905–1995).
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Harald Kylin
Johan Harald Kylin (5 February 1879 – 16 December 1949) was a Swedish botanist specializing in phycology and a professor at Lund University. He was also editor of the Botaniska Notiser
''Botaniska Notiser'' was a Swedish scientific periodica ...
(...1906–1949...). Author: ''Die Gattengen der Rhodophyceen.'' 1956 CWK Gleerups Förlag,Lund. Specimens in Ulster Museum....
* George Russell (...1983–1984...). President of British Phycological Society 1983–1984.
References
Further reading
* Caldwell, I. 2008. John Stackhouse (1742–1819) and the Linnean Society. ''The Linnean.'' 24:37 – 51.
* Darwin, C. R. 1859. ''On the Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection,...'' London: John Murray, London.
* Farlow, W.G. 1881. The marine algae of New England. ''Report of U.S. Fish Commission'' ''1879'' :Appendix A-1, 1–210.
* Fritsch, F.E. 1935. ''The Structure and Reproduction of the Algae''. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
* Fritsch, F.E. 1945. ''The Structure and Reproduction of the Algae''. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
* Gatty, M. 1863. ''British Seaweeds.'' London.
* Gifford, I. 1853. ''The Marine Botanist;...'' Longman and Co., London.
* Grattan, W.H. (1874?) ''British Marine Algae:'' London.
* Gray, S.O. 1867. ''British Seaweeds:...'' London.
* Hardy, F.G. and Guiry, M.D. 2003. ''A Checklist and Atlas of the Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland.'' British Phycological, London.
* Hardy, F.G. and Guiry, M.D. 2006. ''A Checklist and Atlas of the Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland - Revised Edition.'' British Phycological, London.
* Harvey, W.H. 1833. Algae, in W.J.Hooker and G.A.W.Arnott, ''The Botany of Captain Beechey's Voyage''... London. pp. 163–165.
* Harvey, W.H. 1846–1851. ''Phycologia Britannica,...'' London.
* Harvey, W.H. 1847–1849. ''Nereis Australis Or Algae Of the Southern Ocean''. Reeve, London.
* Harvey, W.H. 1852–1858. Pt 1–111 ... Nereis boreali-americana... ''Smithsonian Contr. to Knoweledge.''
* Hooker, W.J. 1833. Cryptomaia Algae p. 264–322in. Hooker, W.J. ''The English Flora of Sir James Edward Smith.'' Class xxiv, Cryptogamia. Vol V, Part 1.
* Landsborough, D. 1857. ''A Popular History of British Seaweeds,...'' London: Reeve, Benham & Reeve.
* Parke, M. 1953. A preliminary check-list of British marine algae. ''J.Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K.'' 32: 497–520.
* Parke, M. and Dixon, P.S. 1964. A revised check-list of British marine algae. ''J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U. K.'' 44: 499–542.
* Parke, M. and Dixon, P.S. 1968. Check-list of British marine algae – second revision. ''J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U. K.'' 48: 783–832.
* Parke, M. and Dixon, P.S. 1976. Check-list of British marine algae – third revision. ''J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K.'' 56: 527–594.
* Ross, H.C.G. and Nash, R. 1985. The development of natural history in early nineteenth century Ireland. ''From Linnaeus to Darwin: commentaries on the history of biology and geology.'' Society of Natural History, London. 1985.
* South, G.R. and Tittley, I. 1986. ''A Checklist and Distributional Index of the Benthic Marine Algae of the North Atlantic Ocean.'' St Andrews and London.
External links
* https://web.archive.org/web/20070219082352/http://users.ugent.be/phycology/harvey/ W.H.H. Phycologia Australica
* http://www.botanicgardens.ie/ National Botanic Gardens of Ireland.
* http://www2.nrm.se/fbo/hist/linnaeus/linnaeus.html.en Carl Linnaeus Botanical History
* http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/linnaeus.html Carl Linnaeus
* http://www.algaebase.org/ listing the world's algae
* http://www.seaweed.ie/ Seaweed Site
* http://www.mba.ac.uk/ Marine Biological Assoc. of UK
* http://www.brphycsoc.org/ British Phycological Society
* http://www.intphycsoc.org/ International Phycological Society
* http://www.schweizerbart.de/j/algological-studies/ Algological Studies is an international journal of phycological
* http://www.psaalgae.org/ Phycological Society of America
* http://www.phycology.net/ The Phycology.Net
* http://www.tcd.ie/botany/herbarium
{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Phycology
Phycology, history ofPhycologyHistory of botany