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Historiography is the study of the methods of
historian A historian is a person who studies and writes about the past and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race; as well as the stu ...
s in developing
history History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the History of writing#Inventions of writing, invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbr ...
as an academic discipline, and by extension is any body of historical work on a particular subject. The historiography of a specific topic covers how historians have studied that topic using particular sources, techniques, and theoretical approaches. Scholars discuss historiography by topic—such as the
historiography of the United Kingdom The historiography of the United Kingdom includes the historical and archival research and writing on the history of the United Kingdom, Great Britain, England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. For studies of the overseas empire see historiography ...
, that of WWII,
the British Empire The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts esta ...
, early Islam, and
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
—and different approaches and genres, such as
political history Political history is the narrative and survey of political events, ideas, movements, organs of government, voters, parties and leaders. It is closely related to other fields of history, including diplomatic history, constitutional history, social ...
and
social history Social history, often called the new social history, is a field of history that looks at the lived experience of the past. In its "golden age" it was a major growth field in the 1960s and 1970s among scholars, and still is well represented in his ...
. Beginning in the nineteenth century, with the development of
academic history An academic history can be a large, multivolume work such as the ''Cambridge Modern History'', written collaboratively under some central editorial control. In the 19th century the idea appeared in universities that a definitive history could b ...
, there developed a body of historiographic literature. The extent to which historians are influenced by their own groups and loyalties—such as to their nation state—remains a debated question. In the
ancient world Ancient history is a time period from the beginning of writing and recorded human history to as far as late antiquity. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with the Sumerian cuneiform script. Ancient history cove ...
, chronological
annal Annals ( la, annāles, from , "year") are a concise historical record in which events are arranged chronologically, year by year, although the term is also used loosely for any historical record. Scope The nature of the distinction between anna ...
s were produced in civilizations such as ancient Egypt and
Mesopotamia Mesopotamia ''Mesopotamíā''; ar, بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن or ; syc, ܐܪܡ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ, or , ) is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the F ...
. However, the discipline of historiography was first established in the 5th century BC with the '' Histories'' of
Herodotus Herodotus ( ; grc, , }; BC) was an ancient Greek historian and geographer from the Greek city of Halicarnassus, part of the Persian Empire (now Bodrum, Turkey) and a later citizen of Thurii in modern Calabria ( Italy). He is known f ...
, the founder of historiography. The
Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of ancient Rome *''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a letter ...
statesman
Cato the Elder Marcus Porcius Cato (; 234–149 BC), also known as Cato the Censor ( la, Censorius), the Elder and the Wise, was a Roman soldier, senator, and historian known for his conservatism and opposition to Hellenization. He was the first to write histo ...
produced the first history in Latin, the ''
Origines (, "Origins") is the title of a lost work on Roman and Italian history by Cato the Elder, composed in the early-2nd centuryBC. Contents According to Cato's biographer Cornelius Nepos, the ''Origins'' consisted of seven books. Book I was the hi ...
'', in the 2nd century BC. His near contemporaries
Sima Tan Sima Tan (; 165–110 BCE) was a Chinese astrologer and historian during the Western Han dynasty. His work ''Records of the Grand Historian'' was completed by his son Sima Qian, who is considered the founder of Chinese historiography. Ed ...
and
Sima Qian Sima Qian (; ; ) was a Chinese historian of the early Han dynasty (206AD220). He is considered the father of Chinese historiography for his ''Records of the Grand Historian'', a general history of China covering more than two thousand years b ...
in the
Han Empire The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...
of
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
established
Chinese historiography Chinese historiography is the study of the techniques and sources used by historians to develop the recorded history of China. Overview of Chinese history The recording of events in Chinese history dates back to the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 ...
with the compiling of the ''
Shiji ''Records of the Grand Historian'', also known by its Chinese name ''Shiji'', is a monumental history of China that is the first of China's 24 dynastic histories. The ''Records'' was written in the early 1st century by the ancient Chinese hist ...
'' (''Records of the Grand Historian''). During the
Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
,
medieval historiography This is a list of historians only for those with a biographical entry in Wikipedia. Major chroniclers and annalists are included. Names are listed by the person's historical period. The entries continue with the specializations, not nationality. ...
included the works of
chronicle A chronicle ( la, chronica, from Greek ''chroniká'', from , ''chrónos'' – "time") is a historical account of events arranged in chronological order, as in a timeline. Typically, equal weight is given for historically important events and lo ...
s in
medieval Europe In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
, Islamic histories by
Muslim historians :''This is a subarticle of Islamic scholars, List of Muslim scholars and List of historians.'' The following is a list of Muslim historians writing in the Islamic historiographical tradition, which developed from hadith literature in the time of ...
, and the
Korean Korean may refer to: People and culture * Koreans, ethnic group originating in the Korean Peninsula * Korean cuisine * Korean culture * Korean language **Korean alphabet, known as Hangul or Chosŏn'gŭl **Korean dialects and the Jeju language ** ...
and
Japanese Japanese may refer to: * Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia * Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan * Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture ** Japanese diaspor ...
historical writings based on the existing Chinese model. During the 18th-century
Age of Enlightenment The Age of Enlightenment or the Enlightenment; german: Aufklärung, "Enlightenment"; it, L'Illuminismo, "Enlightenment"; pl, Oświecenie, "Enlightenment"; pt, Iluminismo, "Enlightenment"; es, La Ilustración, "Enlightenment" was an intel ...
, historiography in the Western world was shaped and developed by figures such as
Voltaire François-Marie Arouet (; 21 November 169430 May 1778) was a French Age of Enlightenment, Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher. Known by his ''Pen name, nom de plume'' M. de Voltaire (; also ; ), he was famous for his wit, and his ...
,
David Hume David Hume (; born David Home; 7 May 1711 NS (26 April 1711 OS) – 25 August 1776) Cranston, Maurice, and Thomas Edmund Jessop. 2020 999br>David Hume" ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved 18 May 2020. was a Scottish Enlightenment philo ...
, and
Edward Gibbon Edward Gibbon (; 8 May 173716 January 1794) was an English historian, writer, and member of parliament. His most important work, ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', published in six volumes between 1776 and 1788, is k ...
, who among others set the foundations for the modern discipline. The research interests of historians change over time, and there has been a shift away from traditional diplomatic, economic, and political history toward newer approaches, especially social and
cultural studies Cultural studies is an interdisciplinary field that examines the political dynamics of contemporary culture (including popular culture) and its historical foundations. Cultural studies researchers generally investigate how cultural practices re ...
. From 1975 to 1995 the proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history increased from 31 to 41 percent, while the proportion of political historians decreased from 40 to 30 percent.Diplomatic dropped from 5 to 3 percent, economic history dropped from 7 to 5 percent, and cultural history grew from 14 to 16 percent. Based on the number of full-time professors in U.S. history departments. Stephen H. Haber, David M. Kennedy, and Stephen D. Krasner, "Brothers under the Skin: Diplomatic History and International Relations", ''International Security'', Vol. 22, No. 1 (Summer, 1997), pp. 34–43 at p. 4
online at JSTOR
In 2007, of 5,723 faculty in the departments of history at British universities, 1,644 (29 percent) identified themselves with social history and 1,425 (25 percent) identified themselves with political history. Since the 1980s there has been a special interest in the memories and commemoration of past events—the histories as remembered and presented for popular celebration.


Terminology

In the early modern period, the term ''historiography'' meant "the writing of history", and ''historiographer'' meant "
historian A historian is a person who studies and writes about the past and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race; as well as the stu ...
". In that sense certain official historians were given the title "
Historiographer Royal Historiographer Royal is the title of an appointment as official chronicler or historian of a court or monarch. It was initially particularly associated with the French monarchy, where the post existed from at least 1550, but in the later 16th and 1 ...
" in
Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic country located on ...
(from 1618),
England England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to its west and Scotland to its north. The Irish Sea lies northwest and the Celtic Sea to the southwest. It is separated from continental Europe b ...
(from 1660), and
Scotland Scotland (, ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Covering the northern third of the island of Great Britain, mainland Scotland has a border with England to the southeast and is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the ...
(from 1681). The Scottish post is still in existence. Historiography was more recently defined as "the study of the way history has been and is written – the history of historical writing", which means that, "When you study 'historiography' you do not study the events of the past directly, but the changing interpretations of those events in the works of individual historians."


Antiquity

Understanding the past appears to be a universal human need, and the "telling of history" has emerged independently in civilizations around the world. What constitutes history is a philosophical question (see
philosophy of history Philosophy of history is the philosophical study of history and its discipline. The term was coined by French philosopher Voltaire. In contemporary philosophy a distinction has developed between ''speculative'' philosophy of history and ''crit ...
). The earliest chronologies date back to
Mesopotamia Mesopotamia ''Mesopotamíā''; ar, بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن or ; syc, ܐܪܡ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ, or , ) is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the F ...
and ancient Egypt, in the form of
chronicle A chronicle ( la, chronica, from Greek ''chroniká'', from , ''chrónos'' – "time") is a historical account of events arranged in chronological order, as in a timeline. Typically, equal weight is given for historically important events and lo ...
s and
annal Annals ( la, annāles, from , "year") are a concise historical record in which events are arranged chronologically, year by year, although the term is also used loosely for any historical record. Scope The nature of the distinction between anna ...
s. However, no historical writers in these early civilizations were known by name. By contrast, the term "historiography" is taken to refer to written history recorded in a narrative format for the purpose of informing future generations about events. In this limited sense, "ancient history" begins with the early historiography of
Classical Antiquity Classical antiquity (also the classical era, classical period or classical age) is the period of cultural history between the 8th century BC and the 5th century AD centred on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ...
, in about the 5th century BC.


Europe


Greece

The earliest known systematic historical thought emerged in
ancient Greece Ancient Greece ( el, Ἑλλάς, Hellás) was a northeastern Mediterranean civilization, existing from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of classical antiquity ( AD 600), that comprised a loose collection of cult ...
, a development which would be an important influence on the writing of history elsewhere around
the Mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the e ...
region. Greek historians greatly contributed to the development of historical methodology. The earliest known critical historical works were '' The Histories'', composed by
Herodotus of Halicarnassus Herodotus ( ; grc, , }; BC) was an ancient Greek historian and geographer from the Greek city of Halicarnassus, part of the Persian Empire (now Bodrum, Turkey) and a later citizen of Thurii in modern Calabria (Italy). He is known for having ...
(484–425 BC) who became known as the "father of history". Herodotus attempted to distinguish between more and less reliable accounts, and personally conducted research by travelling extensively, giving written accounts of various Mediterranean cultures. Although Herodotus' overall emphasis lay on the actions and characters of men, he also attributed an important role to divinity in the determination of historical events. The generation following Herodotus witnessed a spate of local histories of the individual
city-state A city-state is an independent sovereign city which serves as the center of political, economic, and cultural life over its contiguous territory. They have existed in many parts of the world since the dawn of history, including cities such as ...
s (''
poleis ''Polis'' (, ; grc-gre, πόλις, ), plural ''poleis'' (, , ), literally means "city" in Greek. In Ancient Greece, it originally referred to an administrative and religious city center, as distinct from the rest of the city. Later, it also ...
''), written by the first of the
local historians Local may refer to: Geography and transportation * Local (train), a train serving local traffic demand * Local, Missouri, a community in the United States * Local government, a form of public administration, usually the lowest tier of administra ...
who employed the written archives of city and sanctuary.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dionysius of Halicarnassus ( grc, Διονύσιος Ἀλεξάνδρου Ἁλικαρνασσεύς, ; – after 7 BC) was a Greek historian and teacher of rhetoric, who flourished during the reign of Emperor Augustus. His literary sty ...
characterized these historians as the forerunners of Thucydides, and these local histories continued to be written into
Late Antiquity Late antiquity is the time of transition from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages, generally spanning the 3rd–7th century in Europe and adjacent areas bordering the Mediterranean Basin. The popularization of this periodization in English ha ...
, as long as the city-states survived. Two early figures stand out:
Hippias of Elis Hippias of Elis (; el, Ἱππίας ὁ Ἠλεῖος; late 5th century BC) was a Greek sophist, and a contemporary of Socrates. With an assurance characteristic of the later sophists, he claimed to be regarded as an authority on all subjects, ...
, who produced the lists of winners in the
Olympic Games The modern Olympic Games or Olympics (french: link=no, Jeux olympiques) are the leading international sporting events featuring summer and winter sports competitions in which thousands of athletes from around the world participate in a var ...
that provided the basic chronological framework as long as the pagan classical tradition lasted, and
Hellanicus of Lesbos Hellanicus (or Hellanikos) of Lesbos (Greek: , ''Ἑllánikos ὁ Lésvios''), also called Hellanicus of Mytilene (Greek: , ''Ἑllánikos ὁ Mutilēnaῖos'') was an ancient Greek logographer who flourished during the latter half of the 5th cen ...
, who compiled more than two dozen histories from civic records, all of them now lost.
Thucydides Thucydides (; grc, , }; BC) was an Athenian historian and general. His ''History of the Peloponnesian War'' recounts the fifth-century BC war between Sparta and Athens until the year 411 BC. Thucydides has been dubbed the father of "scientifi ...
largely eliminated divine causality in his account of the war between Athens and Sparta, establishing a rationalistic element which set a precedent for subsequent Western historical writings. He was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, while his successor
Xenophon Xenophon of Athens (; grc, wikt:Ξενοφῶν, Ξενοφῶν ; – probably 355 or 354 BC) was a Greek military leader, philosopher, and historian, born in Athens. At the age of 30, Xenophon was elected commander of one of the biggest Anci ...
( – 355 BC) introduced autobiographical elements and character studies in his ''
Anabasis Anabasis (from Greek ''ana'' = "upward", ''bainein'' = "to step or march") is an expedition from a coastline into the interior of a country. Anabase and Anabasis may also refer to: History * ''Anabasis Alexandri'' (''Anabasis of Alexander''), a ...
''. The proverbial
Philippic A philippic ()http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/English/philippic is a fiery, damning speech, or tirade, delivered to condemn a particular political actor. The term is most famously associated with two noted orators of the ancient world: ...
attacks of the
Athenian Athens ( ; el, Αθήνα, Athína ; grc, Ἀθῆναι, Athênai (pl.) ) is both the capital and largest city of Greece. With a population close to four million, it is also the seventh largest city in the European Union. Athens dominates ...
orator
Demosthenes Demosthenes (; el, Δημοσθένης, translit=Dēmosthénēs; ; 384 – 12 October 322 BC) was a Greek statesman and orator in ancient Athens. His orations constitute a significant expression of contemporary Athenian intellectual prow ...
(384–322 BC) on Philip II of Macedon marked the height of ancient political agitation. The now lost history of
Alexander's Alexander's is a real estate investment trust that owns 7 properties in New York metropolitan area, including 731 Lexington Avenue, the headquarters of Bloomberg L.P. It is controlled by Vornado Realty Trust. It was founded by George Farkas and ...
campaigns by the
diadoch The Diadochi (; singular: Diadochus; from grc-gre, Διάδοχοι, Diádochoi, Successors, ) were the rival generals, families, and friends of Alexander the Great who fought for control over his empire after his death in 323 BC. The Wa ...
Ptolemy I (367–283 BC) may represent the first historical work composed by a ruler.
Polybius Polybius (; grc-gre, Πολύβιος, ; ) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic period. He is noted for his work , which covered the period of 264–146 BC and the Punic Wars in detail. Polybius is important for his analysis of the mixed ...
( – 120 BC) wrote on the rise of Rome to world prominence, and attempted to harmonize the Greek and Roman points of view. The
Chaldea Chaldea () was a small country that existed between the late 10th or early 9th and mid-6th centuries BCE, after which the country and its people were absorbed and assimilated into the indigenous population of Babylonia. Semitic-speaking, it was ...
n priest
Berossus Berossus () or Berosus (; grc, Βηρωσσος, Bērōssos; possibly derived from akk, , romanized: , " Bel is his shepherd") was a Hellenistic-era Babylonian writer, a priest of Bel Marduk and astronomer who wrote in the Koine Greek langu ...
( BC) composed a Greek-language ''History of
Babylonia Babylonia (; Akkadian: , ''māt Akkadī'') was an ancient Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in the city of Babylon in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq and parts of Syria). It emerged as an Amorite-ruled state c. ...
'' for the
Seleucid The Seleucid Empire (; grc, Βασιλεία τῶν Σελευκιδῶν, ''Basileía tōn Seleukidōn'') was a Greek state in West Asia that existed during the Hellenistic period from 312 BC to 63 BC. The Seleucid Empire was founded by the ...
king Antiochus I, combining
Hellenistic In Classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Mediterranean history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire, as signified by the Battle of Actium in ...
methods of historiography and
Mesopotamia Mesopotamia ''Mesopotamíā''; ar, بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن or ; syc, ܐܪܡ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ, or , ) is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the F ...
n accounts to form a unique composite. Reports exist of other near-eastern histories, such as that of the
Phoenicia Phoenicia () was an ancient thalassocratic civilization originating in the Levant region of the eastern Mediterranean, primarily located in modern Lebanon. The territory of the Phoenician city-states extended and shrank throughout their histor ...
n historian
Sanchuniathon Sanchuniathon (; Ancient Greek: ; probably from Phoenician: , "Sakon has given"), also known as Sanchoniatho the Berytian, was a Phoenician author. His three works, originally written in the Phoenician language, survive only in partial paraphras ...
; but he is considered semi-legendary and writings attributed to him are fragmentary, known only through the later historians
Philo of Byblos Philo of Byblos ( grc, Φίλων Βύβλιος, ''Phílōn Býblios''; la, Philo Byblius;  – 141), also known as Herennius Philon, was an antiquarian writer of grammatical, lexical and historical works in Greek. He is chiefly known for ...
and
Eusebius Eusebius of Caesarea (; grc-gre, Εὐσέβιος ; 260/265 – 30 May 339), also known as Eusebius Pamphilus (from the grc-gre, Εὐσέβιος τοῦ Παμφίλου), was a Greek historian of Christianity, exegete, and Christian ...
, who asserted that he wrote before even the
Trojan war In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans (Greeks) after Paris of Troy took Helen from her husband Menelaus, king of Sparta. The war is one of the most important events in Greek mythology and has ...
.


Rome

The Romans adopted the Greek tradition, writing at first in Greek, but eventually chronicling their history in a freshly non-Greek language. While early Roman works were still written in Greek, the ''
Origines (, "Origins") is the title of a lost work on Roman and Italian history by Cato the Elder, composed in the early-2nd centuryBC. Contents According to Cato's biographer Cornelius Nepos, the ''Origins'' consisted of seven books. Book I was the hi ...
'', composed by the Roman statesman
Cato the Elder Marcus Porcius Cato (; 234–149 BC), also known as Cato the Censor ( la, Censorius), the Elder and the Wise, was a Roman soldier, senator, and historian known for his conservatism and opposition to Hellenization. He was the first to write histo ...
(234–149 BC), was written in
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
, in a conscious effort to counteract Greek cultural influence. It marked the beginning of Latin historical writings. Hailed for its lucid style,
Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, and ...
's (103–44 BC) ''
de Bello Gallico ''Commentarii de Bello Gallico'' (; en, Commentaries on the Gallic War, italic=yes), also ''Bellum Gallicum'' ( en, Gallic War, italic=yes), is Julius Caesar's firsthand account of the Gallic Wars, written as a third-person narrative. In it Ca ...
'' exemplifies autobiographical war coverage. The politician and orator
Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the estab ...
(106–43 BCE) introduced rhetorical elements in his political writings.
Strabo Strabo''Strabo'' (meaning "squinty", as in strabismus) was a term employed by the Romans for anyone whose eyes were distorted or deformed. The father of Pompey was called "Pompeius Strabo". A native of Sicily so clear-sighted that he could see ...
(63 BC –  AD) was an important exponent of the
Greco-Roman The Greco-Roman civilization (; also Greco-Roman culture; spelled Graeco-Roman in the Commonwealth), as understood by modern scholars and writers, includes the geographical regions and countries that culturally—and so historically—were di ...
tradition of combining geography with history, presenting a descriptive history of peoples and places known to his era.
Livy Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Ancient Rome, Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditiona ...
(59 BC – 17 AD) records the rise of
Rome , established_title = Founded , established_date = 753 BC , founder = King Romulus (legendary) , image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg , map_caption ...
from
city-state A city-state is an independent sovereign city which serves as the center of political, economic, and cultural life over its contiguous territory. They have existed in many parts of the world since the dawn of history, including cities such as ...
to
empire An empire is a "political unit" made up of several territories and peoples, "usually created by conquest, and divided between a dominant center and subordinate peripheries". The center of the empire (sometimes referred to as the metropole) ex ...
. His speculation about what would have happened if
Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, wikt:Ἀλέξανδρος, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek kingdom of Maced ...
had marched against Rome represents the first known instance of
alternate history Alternate history (also alternative history, althist, AH) is a genre of speculative fiction of stories in which one or more historical events occur and are resolved differently than in real life. As conjecture based upon historical fact, altern ...
. Biography, although popular throughout antiquity, was introduced as a branch of history by the works of
Plutarch Plutarch (; grc-gre, Πλούταρχος, ''Ploútarchos''; ; – after AD 119) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''P ...
( – 125 CE) and
Suetonius Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (), commonly referred to as Suetonius ( ; c. AD 69 – after AD 122), was a Roman historian who wrote during the early Imperial era of the Roman Empire. His most important surviving work is a set of biographies ...
( – after 130 CE) who described the deeds and characters of ancient personalities, stressing their human side.
Tacitus Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historiography, Roman historians by modern scholars. The surviving portions of his t ...
( CE) denounces Roman immorality by praising
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) **Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ger ...
virtues, elaborating on the
topos In mathematics, a topos (, ; plural topoi or , or toposes) is a category that behaves like the category of sheaves of sets on a topological space (or more generally: on a site). Topoi behave much like the category of sets and possess a notion ...
of the
Noble savage A noble savage is a literary stock character who embodies the concept of the indigene, outsider, wild human, an "other" who has not been "corrupted" by civilization, and therefore symbolizes humanity's innate goodness. Besides appearing in man ...
.


East Asia


China

The
Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...
eunuch A eunuch ( ) is a male who has been castrated. Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2nd millennium ...
Sima Qian Sima Qian (; ; ) was a Chinese historian of the early Han dynasty (206AD220). He is considered the father of Chinese historiography for his ''Records of the Grand Historian'', a general history of China covering more than two thousand years b ...
(around 100 BCE) was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing. His work superseded the older style of the ''
Spring and Autumn Annals The ''Spring and Autumn Annals'' () is an ancient Chinese chronicle that has been one of the core Chinese classics since ancient times. The ''Annals'' is the official chronicle of the State of Lu, and covers a 241-year period from 722 to 481 ...
'', compiled in the 5th century BC, the ''
Bamboo Annals The ''Bamboo Annals'' (), also known as the ''Ji Tomb Annals'' (), is a chronicle of ancient China. It begins in the earliest legendary time (the age of the Yellow Emperor) and extends to 299 BC, with the later centuries focusing on the history ...
'' and other court and dynastic
annals Annals ( la, annāles, from , "year") are a concise historical record in which events are arranged chronologically, year by year, although the term is also used loosely for any historical record. Scope The nature of the distinction between ann ...
that recorded history in a
chronological Chronology (from Latin ''chronologia'', from Ancient Greek , ''chrónos'', "time"; and , ''-logia'') is the science of arranging events in their order of occurrence in time. Consider, for example, the use of a timeline or sequence of events. It ...
form that abstained from
analysis Analysis ( : analyses) is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts in order to gain a better understanding of it. The technique has been applied in the study of mathematics and logic since before Aristotle (38 ...
. Sima's ''
Shiji ''Records of the Grand Historian'', also known by its Chinese name ''Shiji'', is a monumental history of China that is the first of China's 24 dynastic histories. The ''Records'' was written in the early 1st century by the ancient Chinese hist ...
'' (''
Records of the Grand Historian ''Records of the Grand Historian'', also known by its Chinese name ''Shiji'', is a monumental history of China that is the first of China's 24 dynastic histories. The ''Records'' was written in the early 1st century by the ancient Chinese hist ...
'') pioneered the "Annals-biography" format, which would become the standard for prestige history writing in China. In this genre a history opens with a chronological outline of court affairs, and then continues with detailed biographies of prominent people who lived during the period in question. The scope of his work extended as far back as the 16th century BC, and included many treatises on specific subjects and individual biographies of prominent people. He also explored the lives and deeds of commoners, both contemporary and those of previous eras. Whereas Sima's had been a universal history from the beginning of time down to the time of writing, his successor
Ban Gu Ban Gu (AD32–92) was a Chinese historian, politician, and poet best known for his part in compiling the ''Book of Han'', the second of China's 24 dynastic histories. He also wrote a number of '' fu'', a major literary form, part prose ...
wrote an annals-biography history limiting its coverage to only the
Western Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by th ...
, the
Book of Han The ''Book of Han'' or ''History of the Former Han'' (Qián Hàn Shū,《前汉书》) is a history of China finished in 111AD, covering the Western, or Former Han dynasty from the first emperor in 206 BCE to the fall of Wang Mang in 23 CE. I ...
(96 AD). This established the notion of using dynastic boundaries as start- and end-points, and most later Chinese histories would focus on a single dynasty or group of dynasties. The Records of the Grand Historian and Book of Han were eventually joined by the
Book of the Later Han The ''Book of the Later Han'', also known as the ''History of the Later Han'' and by its Chinese name ''Hou Hanshu'' (), is one of the Twenty-Four Histories and covers the history of the Han dynasty from 6 to 189 CE, a period known as the Later ...
(488 CE) (replacing the earlier, and now only partially extant, Han Records from the Eastern Pavilion) and the
Records of the Three Kingdoms The ''Records or History of the Three Kingdoms'', also known by its Chinese name as the Sanguo Zhi, is a Chinese historical text which covers the history of the late Eastern Han dynasty (c. 184–220 AD) and the Three Kingdoms period (220– ...
(297 CE) to form the "Four Histories". These became mandatory reading for the
Imperial Examinations The imperial examination (; lit. "subject recommendation") refers to a civil-service examination system in Imperial China, administered for the purpose of selecting candidates for the state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureaucrats by ...
and have therefore exerted an influence on Chinese culture comparable to the
Confucian Classics Chinese classic texts or canonical texts () or simply dianji (典籍) refers to the Chinese texts which originated before the imperial unification by the Qin dynasty in 221 BC, particularly the "Four Books and Five Classics" of the Neo-Confucian ...
. More annals-biography histories were written in subsequent dynasties, eventually bringing the number to between twenty-four and twenty-six, but none ever reached the popularity and impact of the first four. Traditional Chinese historiography describes history in terms of
dynastic cycle Dynastic cycle () is an important political theory in Chinese history. According to this theory, each dynasty of China rises to a political, cultural, and economic peak and then, because of moral corruption, declines, loses the Mandate of Heaven, ...
s. In this view, each new dynasty is founded by a morally righteous founder. Over time, the dynasty becomes morally corrupt and dissolute. Eventually, the dynasty becomes so weak as to allow its replacement by a new dynasty. In 281 AD the tomb of
King Xiang of Wei King Xiang of Wei () (died 296 BC), personal name Wei Si (), was king of Wei from 318 BC to 296 BC. He was the son of King Hui of Wei. In 318 BC, at the suggestion of the Wei minister, Gongsun Yan, he entered into an alliance against Qin created ...
(d. 296 BC) was opened, inside of which was found a historical text called the
Bamboo Annals The ''Bamboo Annals'' (), also known as the ''Ji Tomb Annals'' (), is a chronicle of ancient China. It begins in the earliest legendary time (the age of the Yellow Emperor) and extends to 299 BC, with the later centuries focusing on the history ...
, after the writing material. It is similar in style to the Spring and Autumn Annals and covers the time from the
Yellow Emperor The Yellow Emperor, also known as the Yellow Thearch or by his Chinese name Huangdi (), is a deity ('' shen'') in Chinese religion, one of the legendary Chinese sovereigns and culture heroes included among the mytho-historical Three Soverei ...
to 299 BC. Opinions on the authenticity of the text has varied throughout the centuries, and in any event it was re-discovered too late to gain anything like the same status as the Spring and Autumn.


Middle Ages to Renaissance


Christendom

Christian historical writing arguably begins with the narrative sections of the New Testament, particularly Luke-Acts, which is the
primary source In the study of history as an academic discipline, a primary source (also called an original source) is an artifact, document, diary, manuscript, autobiography, recording, or any other source of information that was created at the time under ...
for the
Apostolic Age Christianity in the 1st century covers the formative history of Christianity from the start of the ministry of Jesus (–29 AD) to the death of the last of the Twelve Apostles () and is thus also known as the Apostolic Age. Early Christianity ...
, though its historical reliability is disputed. The first tentative beginnings of a specifically Christian historiography can be seen in
Clement of Alexandria Titus Flavius Clemens, also known as Clement of Alexandria ( grc , Κλήμης ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς; – ), was a Christian theologian and philosopher who taught at the Catechetical School of Alexandria. Among his pupils were Origen and ...
in the second century. The growth of Christianity and its enhanced status in the Roman Empire after Constantine I (see
State church of the Roman Empire Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire when Emperor Theodosius I issued the Edict of Thessalonica in 380, which recognized the catholic orthodoxy of Nicene Christians in the Great Church as the Roman Empire's state religion. ...
) led to the development of a distinct Christian historiography, influenced by both
Christian theology Christian theology is the theology of Christianity, Christian belief and practice. Such study concentrates primarily upon the texts of the Old Testament and of the New Testament, as well as on Christian tradition. Christian theology, theologian ...
and the nature of the
Christian Bible The Bible (from Koine Greek , , 'the books') is a collection of religious texts or scriptures that are held to be sacred in Christianity, Judaism, Samaritanism, and many other religions. The Bible is an anthologya compilation of texts of a ...
, encompassing new areas of study and views of history. The central role of the Bible in Christianity is reflected in the preference of Christian historians for written sources, compared to the classical historians' preference for oral sources and is also reflected in the inclusion of politically unimportant people. Christian historians also focused on development of religion and society. This can be seen in the extensive inclusion of written sources in the ''
Ecclesiastical History __NOTOC__ Church history or ecclesiastical history as an academic discipline studies the history of Christianity and the way the Christian Church has developed since its inception. Henry Melvill Gwatkin defined church history as "the spiritual ...
'' of
Eusebius of Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea (; grc-gre, Εὐσέβιος ; 260/265 – 30 May 339), also known as Eusebius Pamphilus (from the grc-gre, Εὐσέβιος τοῦ Παμφίλου), was a Greek historian of Christianity, exegete, and Christia ...
around 324 and in the subjects it covers.''Historiography''
, Concordia University Wisconsin, retrieved on 2 November 2007
Christian theology considered time as linear, progressing according to divine plan. As God's plan encompassed everyone, Christian histories in this period had a universal approach. For example, Christian writers often included summaries of important historical events prior to the period covered by the work. Writing history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the
Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
. They wrote about the history of Jesus Christ, that of the Church and that of their patrons, the dynastic history of the local rulers. In the
Early Middle Ages The Early Middle Ages (or early medieval period), sometimes controversially referred to as the Dark Ages, is typically regarded by historians as lasting from the late 5th or early 6th century to the 10th century. They marked the start of the Mi ...
historical writing often took the form of
annals Annals ( la, annāles, from , "year") are a concise historical record in which events are arranged chronologically, year by year, although the term is also used loosely for any historical record. Scope The nature of the distinction between ann ...
or
chronicle A chronicle ( la, chronica, from Greek ''chroniká'', from , ''chrónos'' – "time") is a historical account of events arranged in chronological order, as in a timeline. Typically, equal weight is given for historically important events and lo ...
s recording events year by year, but this style tended to hamper the analysis of events and causes. An example of this type of writing is the ''
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' is a collection of annals in Old English, chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The original manuscript of the ''Chronicle'' was created late in the 9th century, probably in Wessex, during the reign of Alf ...
'', which was the work of several different writers: it was started during the reign of
Alfred the Great Alfred the Great (alt. Ælfred 848/849 – 26 October 899) was King of the West Saxons from 871 to 886, and King of the Anglo-Saxons from 886 until his death in 899. He was the youngest son of King Æthelwulf and his first wife Osburh, who bot ...
in the late 9th century, but one copy was still being updated in 1154. Some writers in the period did construct a more
narrative A narrative, story, or tale is any account of a series of related events or experiences, whether nonfictional (memoir, biography, news report, documentary, travel literature, travelogue, etc.) or fictional (fairy tale, fable, legend, thriller (ge ...
form of history. These included
Gregory of Tours Gregory of Tours (30 November 538 – 17 November 594 AD) was a Gallo-Roman historian and Bishop of Tours, which made him a leading prelate of the area that had been previously referred to as Gaul by the Romans. He was born Georgius Florenti ...
and more successfully
Bede Bede ( ; ang, Bǣda , ; 672/326 May 735), also known as Saint Bede, The Venerable Bede, and Bede the Venerable ( la, Beda Venerabilis), was an English monk at the monastery of St Peter and its companion monastery of St Paul in the Kingdom o ...
, who wrote both
secular Secularity, also the secular or secularness (from Latin ''saeculum'', "worldly" or "of a generation"), is the state of being unrelated or neutral in regards to religion. Anything that does not have an explicit reference to religion, either negativ ...
and
ecclesiastical {{Short pages monitor * Parish, Peter, ed. ''Reader's Guide to American History'' (Routledge, 1997), 880 pp; detailed guide to historiography of American topic
excerpt and text search
* Popkin, Jeremy D. ''From Herodotus to H-Net: The Story of Historiography'' (Oxford UP, 2015). * Daniel Woolf, Woolf, Daniel et al. ''The Oxford History of Historical Writing'' (5 vol 2011–r12), covers all major historians since AD 600; se
listings
** ''The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 1: Beginnings to AD 600'' online at DOI:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199218158.001.0001 ** ''The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 3: 1400–1800'' online at DOI:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199219179.001.0001 ** ''The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 4: 1800–1945'' online at DOI:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199533091.001.0001


Histories of historical writing

* Arnold, John H. ''History: A Very Short Introduction'' (2000). New York: Oxford University Press. * Barnes, Harry Elmer. ''A history of historical writing'' (1962) * Barraclough, Geoffrey. ''History: Main Trends of Research in the Social and Human Sciences'', (1978) * Bauer, Stefan. ''The Invention of Papal History: Onofrio Panvinio between Renaissance and Catholic Reform'' (Oxford University Press, 2020). * Bentley, Michael. ed., ''Companion to Historiography'', Routledge, 1997, , 39 chapters by experts * Boyd, Kelly, ed. ''Encyclopedia of historians and historical writing'' (2 vol. Taylor & Francis, 1999), 1562 pp * Breisach, Ernst. ''Historiography: Ancient, Medieval and Modern'', 3rd edition, 2007, * Budd, Adam, ed. ''The Modern Historiography Reader: Western Sources.'' (Routledge, 2009). * Cline, Howard F., ed.''Latin American History: Essays on Its Study and Teaching, 1898–1965''. 2 vols. Austin: University of Texas Press 1965. * Cohen, H. Floris ''The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry'', (1994), * Conrad, Sebastian. ''The Quest for the Lost Nation: Writing History in Germany and Japan in the American Century'' (2010) * Crymble, Adam. ''Technology and the Historian: Transformations in the Digital Age'' (University of Illinois, 2021), 241 pp * Fitzsimons, M.A. et al. eds. ''The development of historiography'' (1954) 471 pages; comprehensive global coverage
online free
* Gilderhus, Mark T. ''History and Historians: A Historiographical Introduction'', 2002, * Iggers, Georg G. ''Historiography in the 20th Century: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge'' (2005) * Kramer, Lloyd, and Sarah Maza, eds. ''A Companion to Western Historical Thought'' Blackwell 2006. 520 pp; . * Arnaldo Momigliano, Momigliano, Arnaldo. ''The Classical Foundation of Modern Historiography'', 1990, * ''The Oxford History of Historical Writing'' (5 vol 2011), Volume 1: Beginnings to AD 600; Volume 2: 600–1400; Volume 3: 1400–1800; Volume 4: 1800–1945; Volume 5: Historical Writing since 194
catalog
* Rahman, M. M. ed. ''Encyclopaedia of Historiography'' (2006
Excerpt and text search
* Soffer, Reba. '' History, Historians, and Conservatism in Britain and America: From the Great War to Thatcher and Reagan'' (2009
excerpt and text search
* Thompson, James Westfall. ''A History of Historical Writing. vol 1: From the earliest Times to the End of the 17th Century'' (1942
online edition
''A History of Historical Writing. vol 2: The 18th and 19th Centuries'' (1942
online edition
* Woolf, Daniel, ed. ''A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing'' (2 vol. 1998) * Woolf, Daniel. "Historiography", in ''New Dictionary of the History of Ideas'', ed. M.C. Horowitz, (2005), vol. I. * Woolf, Daniel. ''A Global History of History'' (Cambridge University Press, 2011) * Woolf, Daniel, ed. ''The Oxford History of Historical Writing''. 5 vols. (Oxford University Press, 2011–12).2011) * Woolf, Daniel, ''A Concise History Of History'' (Cambridge University Press, 2019)


Feminist historiography

* Bonnie G. Smith, ''The Gender of History: Men, Women, and Historical Practice'', Harvard University Press 2000 * Gerda Lerner, ''The Majority Finds its Past: Placing Women in History'', New York: Oxford University Press 1979 * Judith M. Bennett, ''History Matters: Patriarchy and the Challenge of Feminism'', University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006 * Julie Des Jardins, ''Women and the Historical Enterprise in America'', University of North Carolina Press, 2002 * Donna Guy, "Gender and Sexuality in Latin America" in ''The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History'', José C. Moya, ed. New York: Oxford University Press 2011, pp. 367–81. * Asunción Lavrin, "Sexuality in Colonial Spanish America" in ''The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History'', José C. Moya, ed. New York: Oxford University Press 2011, pp. 132–54. * Mary Ritter Beard, ''Woman as force in history: A study in traditions and realities'' * Mary Spongberg, ''Writing women's history since the Renaissance'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2002 * Clare Hemmings, "Why Stories Matter: The Political Grammar of Feminist Theory", Duke University Press 2011


National and regional studies

* Berger, Stefan et al., eds. ''Writing National Histories: Western Europe Since 1800'' (1999
excerpt and text search
how history has been used in Germany, France & Italy to legitimize the nation-state against socialist, communist and Catholic internationalism * Iggers, Georg G. ''A new Directions and European Historiography'' (1975) * LaCapra, Dominic, and Stephen L. Kaplan, eds. ''Modern European Intellectual History: Reappraisals and New Perspective'' (1982)


Asia and Africa

* Cohen, Paul. ''Discovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past''. New York, London:: Columbia University Press, Studies of the East Asian Institute, 1984. 237p. Reprinted: 2010, with a New Introduction by the Author. . * R.C. Majumdar, Historiography in Modem India (Bombay, 1970) * Marcinkowski, M. Ismail. ''Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, India and Early Ottoman Turkey'' (Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003) * Martin, Thomas R. ''Herodotus and Sima Qian: The First Great Historians of Greece and China: A Brief History with Documents'' (2009) * E. Sreedharan, A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000 (2004) * Arvind Sharma, Hinduism and Its Sense of History (Oxford University Press, 2003) * Shourie, Arun (2014). Eminent historians: Their technology, their line, their fraud. Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India : HarperCollins Publishers. * Yerxa, Donald A. ''Recent Themes in the History of Africa and the Atlantic World: Historians in Conversation'' (2008
excerpt and text search


Britain

* Bann, Stephen. ''Romanticism and the Rise of History'' (Twayne Publishers, 1995) * Bentley, Michael. ''Modernizing England's Past: English Historiography in the Age of Modernism, 1870–1970'' (2006
excerpt and text search
* Cannadine, David. ''In Churchill's Shadow: Confronting the Passed in Modern Britain'' (2003) * Furber, Elizabeth, ed. ''Changing Views on British History; Essays on Historical Writing Since 1939'' (1966); 418pp; essays by scholars * * * Hale, John Rigby, ed. ''The evolution of British historiography: from Bacon to Namier'' (1967). * Howsam, Leslie. "Academic Discipline or Literary Genre?: The Establishment of Boundaries in Historical Writing." ''Victorian Literature and Culture'' (2004) 32#2 pp. 525–45
online
* Hexter, J. H. ''On Historians: Reappraisals of some of the makers of modern history'' (1979); covers Carl Becker, Wallace Ferguson, Fernan Braudel, Lawrence Stone, Christopher Hill, and J.G.A. Pocock * Howsam, Leslie. "Academic Discipline or Literary Genre?: The Establishment of Boundaries in Historical Writing." ''Victorian Literature and Culture'' 32.02 (2004): 525–545
online
* Jann, Rosemary. ''The Art and Science of Victorian History'' (1985) * Jann, Rosemary. "From Amateur to Professional: The Case of the Oxbridge Historians." ''Journal of British Studies'' (1983) 22#2 pp: 122–47. * Kenyon, John. ''The History Men: The Historical Profession in England since the Renaissance'' (1983) * Loades, David. ''Reader's Guide to British History'' (2 vol. 2003) 1700pp; 1600-word-long historiographical essays on about 1000 topics * Mitchell, Rosemary. '' Picturing the Past: English History in Text and Image 1830–1870'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000) * Philips, Mark Salber. ''Society and Sentiment: Genres of Historical Writing in Britain, 1740–1820'' (Princeton University Press, 2000). * Richardson, Roger Charles, ed. ''The debate on the English Revolution'' (2nd ed. Manchester University Press, 1998) * Schlatter, Richard, ed. ''Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing Since 1966'' (1984) 525 pp; 13 topics essays by scholars


=British Empire

= * Berger, Carl. ''Writing Canadian History: Aspects of English Canadian Historical Writing since 1900'', (2nd ed. 1986) * Bhattacharjee, J. B. ''Historians and Historiography of North East India'' (2012) * Davison, Graeme. ''The Use and Abuse of Australian History'', (2000
online edition
* Farrell, Frank. ''Themes in Australian History: Questions, Issues and Interpretation in an Evolving Historiography'' (1990) * Gare, Deborah. "Britishness in Recent Australian Historiography", ''The Historical Journal'', Vol. 43, No. 4 (Dec., 2000), pp. 1145–115
in JSTOR
* Ranajit Guha, Guha, Ranajiit. ''Dominance Without Hegemony: History and Power in Colonial India'' (Harvard UP, 1998) * Jack Granatstein, Granatstein, J. L. ''Who Killed Canadian History?'' (1998) * Mittal, S. C ''India distorted: A study of British historians on India'' (1995), on 19th century writers * Saunders, Christopher. ''The making of the South African past: major historians on race and class'', (1988) * Winks, Robin, ed. ''The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume V: Historiography'' (2001)


France

* Burke, Peter. ''The French Historical Revolution: The Annales School 1929–2014'' (John Wiley & Sons, 2015). * * Daileader, Philip and Philip Whalen, eds. ''French Historians 1900–2000: New Historical Writing in Twentieth-Century France'' (2010) 40 long essays by experts
excerpt
* Revel, Jacques, and Lynn Hunt, eds. ''Histories: French Constructions of the Past'', (1995). 654pp; 65 essays by French historians * Stoianovich, Traian. ''French Historical Method: The Annales Paradigm'' (1976)


Germany

* Fletcher, Roger. "Recent developments in West German Historiography: the Bielefeld School and its critics." ''German Studies Review'' (1984): 451–480
in JSTOR
* Hagemann, Karen, and Jean H. Quataert, eds. ''Gendering Modern German History: Rewriting Historiography'' (2008) * Iggers, Georg G. ''The German Conception of History: The National Tradition of Historical Thought from Herder to the Present'' (2nd ed. 1983) * Rüger, Jan, and Nikolaus Wachsmann, eds. ''Rewriting German history: new perspectives on modern Germany'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2015)
excerpt
* Sheehan, James J. "What is German history? Reflections on the role of the nation in German history and historiography." ''Journal of Modern History'' (1981): 2–23
in JSTOR
* Sperber, Jonathan. "Master Narratives of Nineteenth-century German History." ''Central European History'' (1991) 24#1: 69–91
online
* Stuchtey, Benedikt, and Peter Wende, eds. ''British and German historiography, 1750–1950: traditions, perceptions, and transfers'' (2000).


Latin America

* Adelman, Jeremy, ed. ''Colonial Legacies''. New York: Routledge 1999. * Coatsworth, John. "Cliometrics and Mexican History," ''Historical Methods''18:1 (Winter 1985)31–37. * * * Lockhart, James. "The Social History of Early Latin America". ''Latin American Research Review'' 1972. * Moya, José C. ''The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History''. New York: Oxford University Press 2011. * *


United States

* Hofstadter, Richard. ''The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington'' (1968) * Peter Novick, Novick, Peter. ''That Noble Dream: The "Objectivity Question" and the American Historical Profession'' (1988), * Palmer, William W. "All Coherence Gone? A Cultural History of Leading History Departments in the United States, 1970–2010", ''Journal of The Historical Society'' (2012), 12: 111–53. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-5923.2012.00360.x * Palmer, William. ''Engagement with the Past: The Lives and Works of the World War II Generation of Historians'' (2001) * Parish, Peter J., ed. ''Reader's Guide to American History'' (1997), historiographical overview of 600 topics * Wish, Harvey. ''The American Historian'' (1960), covers pre-1920


Themes, organizations, and teaching

* Carlebach, Elishiva, et al. eds. ''Jewish History and Jewish Memory: Essays in Honor of Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi'' (1998
excerpt and text search
* Charlton, Thomas L. ''History of Oral History: Foundations and Methodology'' (2007) * Darcy, R. and Richard C. Rohrs, ''A Guide to Quantitative History'' (1995) * Dawidowicz, Lucy S. ''The Holocaust and Historians''. (1981). * Ernest, John. ''Liberation Historiography: African American Writers and the Challenge of History, 1794–1861''. (2004) * Evans, Ronald W. ''The Hope for American School Reform: The Cold War Pursuit of Inquiry Learning in Social Studies''(Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 265 pages * Marc Ferro, Ferro, Marc, ''Cinema and History'' (1988) * Green, Anna, and Kathleeen Troup. ''The Houses of History: A Critical Reader in Twentieth Century History and Theory''. 2 ed. Manchester University Press, 2016. * Pat Hudson, Hudson, Pat. ''History by Numbers: An Introduction to Quantitative Approaches'' (2002) * Keita, Maghan. ''Race and the Writing of History''. Oxford UP (2000) * Leavy, Patricia. ''Oral History: Understanding Qualitative Research'' (2011
excerpt and text search
* Loewen, James W. ''Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong'', (1996) *Patrick Manning (professor), Manning, Patrick, ed. ''World History: Global And Local Interactions'' (2006) * Maza, Sarah. ''Thinking About History''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017. do
10.7208/chicago/9780226109473.001.0001
* Meister, Daniel R. "The biographical turn and the case for historical biography" ''History Compass'' (Dec. 2017) DOI: 10.1111/hic3.12436
abstract
* Morris-Suzuki, Tessa. ''The Past Within Us: Media, Memory, History'' (2005), * Ritchie, Donald A. ''The Oxford Handbook of Oral History'' (2010
excerpt and text search
* Tröhler, Daniel "History and Historiography. Approaches to Historical Research in Education" T. Fitzgerald (ed.), ''THandbook of Historical Studies in Education'' (2019)


References


External links


International Commission for the History and Theory of Historiography


short guide to Historiographical terms
Web Portal on Historiography and Historical Culture
from University of Barcelona [Dead link as of 2021-04]
Basic guide to historiography research for undergraduates

''Cromohs'' – cyber review of modern historiography open-access electronic scholarly journal


{{Authority control Historiography, Philosophy of history