Hispania Tarraconensis was one of three
Roman province
The Roman provinces (Latin: ''provincia'', pl. ''provinciae'') were the administrative regions of Ancient Rome outside Roman Italy that were controlled by the Romans under the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire. Each province was rule ...
s in
Hispania
Hispania ( la, Hispānia , ; nearly identically pronounced in Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, and Italian) was the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula and its provinces. Under the Roman Republic, Hispania was divided into two provinces: Hisp ...
. It encompassed much of the northern, eastern and central territories of modern
Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, i ...
along with modern
northern Portugal
The North Region ( pt, Região do Norte ) or Northern Portugal is the most populous region in Portugal, ahead of Lisbon Region, Lisbon, and the third most extensive by area. The region has 3,576,205 inhabitants according to the 2017 census, and its ...
. Southern Spain, the region now called
Andalusia
Andalusia (, ; es, Andalucía ) is the southernmost autonomous community in Peninsular Spain. It is the most populous and the second-largest autonomous community in the country. It is officially recognised as a "historical nationality". The t ...
was the province of
Hispania Baetica
Hispania Baetica, often abbreviated Baetica, was one of three Roman provinces in Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula). Baetica was bordered to the west by Lusitania, and to the northeast by Hispania Tarraconensis. Baetica remained one of the basic di ...
. On the Atlantic west lay the province of
Lusitania, partially coincident with modern-day
Portugal
Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic ( pt, República Portuguesa, links=yes ), is a country whose mainland is located on the Iberian Peninsula of Southwestern Europe, and whose territory also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of ...
.
History
Establishment
The
Phoenicians
Phoenicia () was an ancient thalassocratic civilization originating in the Levant region of the eastern Mediterranean, primarily located in modern Lebanon. The territory of the Phoenician city-states extended and shrank throughout their histor ...
and
Carthaginians
The Punic people, or western Phoenicians, were a Semitic people in the Western Mediterranean who migrated from Tyre, Phoenicia to North Africa during the Early Iron Age. In modern scholarship, the term ''Punic'' – the Latin equivalent of the ...
colonised the
Mediterranean
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western Europe, Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa ...
coast of Iberia in the 8th to 6th centuries BC. The Greeks later also established colonies along the coast. The Romans arrived in the 2nd century BC during the
Second Punic War.
The province Hispania Citerior Tarraconensis was established in the reign of
Augustus
Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...
as the direct successor of the
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic ( la, Res publica Romana ) was a form of government of Rome and the era of the classical Roman civilization when it was run through public representation of the Roman people. Beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Ki ...
an province of
Hispania Citerior ('Nearer Spain'), which had been ruled by a
propraetor
In ancient Rome a promagistrate ( la, pro magistratu) was an ex-consul or ex-praetor whose ''imperium'' (the power to command an army) was extended at the end of his annual term of office or later. They were called proconsuls and propraetors. Thi ...
.
[Livy, ''The History of Rome'', 41.8.] The roots of the Augustan reorganisation of Hispania are found in
Pompey the Great
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (; 29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), known in English as Pompey or Pompey the Great, was a leading Roman general and statesman. He played a significant role in the transformation of ...
's division of Hispania between three of his
legates
A ''legatus'' (; anglicised as legate) was a high-ranking Roman military officer in the Roman Army, equivalent to a modern high-ranking general officer. Initially used to delegate power, the term became formalised under Augustus as the office ...
at the end of the Republic, immediately before
his civil war with
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, ...
. As a result of the agreements that led to the formation of the
First Triumvirate
The First Triumvirate was an informal political alliance among three prominent politicians in the late Roman Republic: Gaius Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus and Marcus Licinius Crassus. The constitution of the Roman republic had many ve ...
in 60 BC, Pompey had received the governorship of the Iberian provinces. Since he preferred to remain in
Rome
, established_title = Founded
, established_date = 753 BC
, founder = King Romulus (legendary)
, image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg
, map_caption ...
, where he could oversee affairs in the capital, he delegated the government of Hispania to three legates:
*
Lucius Afranius in Hispania Citerior, with three legions;
*
Marcus Petreius
Marcus Petreius (110 BC – April 46 BC) was a Roman politician and general. He was a client of Pompey and like Pompey he came from Picenum a region in eastern Italy. He cornered and killed the notorious rebel Catiline at Pistoia.
Career
The ch ...
in the eastern part of
Hispania Ulterior
Hispania Ulterior (English: "Further Hispania", or occasionally "Thither Hispania") was a region of Hispania during the Roman Republic, roughly located in Baetica and in the Guadalquivir valley of modern Spain and extending to all of Lusitania ( ...
, with two legions;
*
Marcus Terentius Varro
Marcus Terentius Varro (; 116–27 BC) was a Roman polymath and a prolific author. He is regarded as ancient Rome's greatest scholar, and was described by Petrarch as "the third great light of Rome" (after Vergil and Cicero). He is sometimes calle ...
in the western part of Hispania Ulterior, with two legions.
At the end of the
civil wars
A civil war or intrastate war is a war between organized groups within the same state (or country).
The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government polici ...
, Pompey's division was consolidated by Augustus in 27 BC, when he formally established the three provinces of Hispania Citerior Tarraconensis,
Hispania Ulterior Lusitania (corresponding to modern
Portugal
Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic ( pt, República Portuguesa, links=yes ), is a country whose mainland is located on the Iberian Peninsula of Southwestern Europe, and whose territory also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of ...
, apart from the northern region of the modern country, plus Spanish
Extremadura
Extremadura (; ext, Estremaúra; pt, Estremadura; Fala: ''Extremaúra'') is an autonomous community of Spain. Its capital city is Mérida, and its largest city is Badajoz. Located in the central-western part of the Iberian Peninsula, it ...
), and
Hispania Ulterior Baetica (corresponding to the southern part of Spain, i.e.
Andalusia
Andalusia (, ; es, Andalucía ) is the southernmost autonomous community in Peninsular Spain. It is the most populous and the second-largest autonomous community in the country. It is officially recognised as a "historical nationality". The t ...
). Citerior and Lusitania were
Imperial province
An imperial province was a Roman province during the Principate where the Roman Emperor had the sole right to appoint the governor (''legatus Augusti pro praetore''). These provinces were often the strategically located border provinces.
The pro ...
s, while Baetica was a
Senatorial province
A senatorial province ( la, provincia populi Romani, province of the Roman people) was a Roman province during the Principate where the Roman Senate had the right to appoint the governor (proconsul). These provinces were away from the outer b ...
.
The creation of these new provinces was achieved in order to facilitate the incorporation of the northwestern portion of the Iberian peninsula, inhabited by the
Gallaeci
The Gallaeci (also Callaeci or Callaici; grc, Καλλαϊκοί) were a Celtic tribal complex who inhabited Gallaecia, the north-western corner of Iberia, a region roughly corresponding to what is now the Norte Region in northern Portugal, a ...
,
Cantabri
The Cantabri ( grc-gre, Καντάβροι, ''Kantabroi'') or Ancient Cantabrians, were a pre-Roman people and large tribal federation that lived in the northern coastal region of ancient Iberia in the second half of the first millennium BC. Thes ...
, and
Astures
The Astures or Asturs, also named Astyrs, were the Hispano-Celtic inhabitants of the northwest area of Hispania that now comprises almost the entire modern autonomous community of Principality of Asturias, the modern province of León, and the ...
, into the Roman empire. Tarraconensis thus served as a base for the annexation of these territories during the
Cantabrian Wars
The Cantabrian Wars (29–19 BC) (''Bellum Cantabricum''), sometimes also referred to as the Cantabrian and Asturian Wars (''Bellum Cantabricum et Asturicum''), were the final stage of the two-century long Roman conquest of Hispania, in what tod ...
(27–19 BC). Augustus himself resided from 27 to 26 BC at Segisama (modern
Sasamón,
Burgos
Burgos () is a city in Spain located in the autonomous community of Castile and León. It is the capital and most populated municipality of the province of Burgos.
Burgos is situated in the north of the Iberian Peninsula, on the confluence of ...
), and at Tarraco, where he received an embassy from
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
. During this period he was accompanied by his nephew and heir,
Marcellus, and his step-son, the future emperor
Tiberius
Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was the second Roman emperor. He reigned from AD 14 until 37, succeeding his stepfather, the first Roman emperor Augustus. Tiberius was born in Rome in 42 BC. His father ...
, both of whom served as
military tribunes
A military tribune (Latin ''tribunus militum'', "tribune of the soldiers") was an officer of the Roman army who ranked below the legatus, legate and above the centurion. Young men of Equestrian rank often served as military tribune as a stepping ...
in 25 BC in the conflict with the Cantabrians – the pair's first military commands.
The name of the province derives from its capital, ''Colonia Urbs Triumphalis Tarraco''. The provincial borders were modified in 12 BC, in order to incorporate the Galician and Asturian territories which had previously belonged to Lusitania, and perhaps to an ephemeral
Transduriana province before that, as well as the mining area around
Castulo
Castulo (Latin: ''Castulo''; Iberian: ''Kastilo'') was an Iberian town and bishopric (now Latin titular see located in the Andalusian province of Jaén, in south-central Spain, near modern Linares.
History
Evidence of human presence sin ...
that had previously been part of Baetica. This reorganisation meant that all Roman troops stationed in Hispania were henceforth under the command of a single Roman legate based at Tarraconensis and that the main mining regions, which supplied precious metals to the Imperial treasury (gold in the
Galician Massif
The Galician Massif ( es, Macizo Galaico, also known as ''Macizo Galaico-Leonés'') is a system of mountain ranges in the northwestern corner of the Iberian Peninsula. It is located in Galicia with its southeastern end reaching into the provinces o ...
, silver in
Sierra Morena
The Sierra Morena is one of the main systems of mountain ranges in Spain. It stretches for 450 kilometres from east to west across the south of the Iberian Peninsula, forming the southern border of the ''Meseta Central'' plateau and providi ...
), were under the direct control of the Imperial administration, with easy access by sea to
Italia
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the Italy (geographical region) ...
and Rome, where the Imperial mints were located.
Pacification and Romanisation under the Julio-Claudians and Flavians
In addition to creating the province and setting its borders, Augustus followed the directions left by Julius Caesar in granting many communities in the province the privileged status of ''
colonia'' or ''
municipium
In ancient Rome, the Latin term (pl. ) referred to a town or city. Etymologically, the was a social contract among ("duty holders"), or citizens of the town. The duties () were a communal obligation assumed by the in exchange for the priv ...
'' (Roman or
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
), especially along the
Levante coast, the part of Baetica transferred to the province in 12 BC, and the
Ebro Valley
, name_etymology =
, image = Zaragoza shel.JPG
, image_size =
, image_caption = The Ebro River in Zaragoza
, map = SpainEbroBasin.png
, map_size =
, map_caption = The Ebro ...
, along with some foundations on the
Meseta Central
The ''Meseta Central'' (, sometimes referred to in English as Inner Plateau) is one of the basic geographical units of the Iberian Peninsula. It consists of a plateau covering a large part of the latter's interior.
Developed during the 19th cent ...
and in the northeast. He also regularised the status of the other political entities in the province, the ''civitates stipendiaria'' (communities subject to tribute), whose affairs could be directly intervened in by the governor.
This policy was continued by Tiberius (AD 14–37), who increased the number of ''municipia'' in the northern part of the Meseta Central.
Between the reigns of Augustus and
Nero
Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68), was the fifth Roman emperor and final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 unti ...
, imperial interventions led to the regularisation of the old pre-Roman roads and their conversion into
Roman roads, which formed a framework for the provincial territory which brought the provincials into contact with Roman culture (
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
rapidly became the
common language
A lingua franca (; ; for plurals see ), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, vehicular language, or link language, is a language systematically used to make communication possible between groups ...
of the province) and gave them access to highly developed economic networks and a
monetary economy
Monetary economics is the branch of economics that studies the different competing theories of money: it provides a framework for analyzing money and considers its functions (such as medium of exchange, store of value and unit of account), and it ...
. Ceramics began to be imported in large quantities -
Arretine ware
Terra sigillata is a term with at least three distinct meanings: as a description of medieval medicinal earth; in archaeology, as a general term for some of the fine red Ancient Roman pottery with glossy surface slips made in specific areas of t ...
from Italy under Augustus and Tiberius and
Samian ware
Terra sigillata is a term with at least three distinct meanings: as a description of medieval medicinal earth; in archaeology, as a general term for some of the fine red Ancient Roman pottery with glossy surface slips made in specific areas of t ...
from
Gaul
Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans. It was inhabited by Celtic and Aquitani tribes, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy (only during ...
between the reigns of
Caligula and
Vespasian
Vespasian (; la, Vespasianus ; 17 November AD 9 – 23/24 June 79) was a Roman emperor who reigned from AD 69 to 79. The fourth and last emperor who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors, he founded the Flavian dynasty that ruled the Empi ...
.
The province was effectively at peace except for an attempt at rebellion by the Astures under
Nero
Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68), was the fifth Roman emperor and final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 unti ...
which was easily suppressed by a ''
primus pilus
The ''primus pilus'' or ''primipilus'' was the senior centurion of the first cohort in a Roman legion, a formation of five double-strength centuries of 160 men, was called the ''primus pilus''; he was a career soldier and advisor to the le ...
'' of the ''
Legio VI Victrix
Legio VI Victrix ("Victorious Sixth Legion") was a legion of the Imperial Roman army founded in 41 BC by the general Octavian (who, as Augustus, later became Rome's first emperor). It was the twin legion of VI ''Ferrata'' and perhaps held vet ...
''. As a result, it was possible to progressively reduce the military garrison of the province. In AD 42-43,
Claudius transferred the ''
Legio IV Macedonica
Legio IV Macedonica ("Macedonian Fourth Legion"), was a legion of the Imperial Roman army founded in 48 BC by Gaius Julius Caesar (dictator of Rome 49–44 BC) with Italian legionaries. The legion was disbanded in AD 70 by Emperor Vespasian. The l ...
'' to
Germania and in AD 63 Nero sent the
Legio X Gemina
Legio X ''Gemina'' ("The Twins' Tenth Legion"), was a Roman legion, legion of the Imperial Roman army. It was one of the four legions used by Julius Caesar in 58 BC, for his invasion of Gaul. There are still records of the X ''Gemina'' in Vien ...
to
Pannonia.
In AD 68,
Galba, who had governed the province since AD 61, was invited by
Vindex
Gaius Julius Vindex (c. AD 2568) was a Roman governor in the province of Gallia Lugdunensis. He was of a noble Gallic family of Aquitania (given senatorial status under Claudius) and was one of the men belonging to a faction of Empress Agripp ...
to join his rebellion against Nero. When Galba received news that Nero had decided to have him killed, he accepted Vindex's offer, justifying the decision, according to
Suetonius, by an oracle delivered by a young prophet two centuries earlier, which predicted that a new ruler of the world would arise in
Clunia
Clunia (full name ''Colonia Clunia Sulpicia'') was an ancient Roman city. Its remains are located on Alto de Castro, at more than 1000 metres above sea level, between the villages of Peñalba de Castro and Coruña del Conde, 2 km away f ...
.
Therefore, Galba proclaimed himself emperor at Clunia. After receiving the support of the governor of Lusitania, the future emperor
Otho
Marcus Otho (; born Marcus Salvius Otho; 28 April 32 – 16 April 69) was the seventh Roman emperor, ruling for three months from 15 January to 16 April 69. He was the second emperor of the Year of the Four Emperors.
A member of a noble Etr ...
, he expanded the military forces of the province, which consisted of the Legio VI Victrix, two cavalry
alae, and three infantry
cohortes, by recruiting various
auxiliaries, at least three cohorts of
Vascones
The Vascones were a pre-Roman tribe who, on the arrival of the Romans in the 1st century, inhabited a territory that spanned between the upper course of the Ebro river and the southern basin of the western Pyrenees, a region that coincides wi ...
, and the
Legio VII Galbiana, and then he set out for Rome in order to seize power. After Galba was assassinated, the province was controlled in succession by partisans of Otho, then
Vitelius, before finally coming under the control of
Vespasian
Vespasian (; la, Vespasianus ; 17 November AD 9 – 23/24 June 79) was a Roman emperor who reigned from AD 69 to 79. The fourth and last emperor who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors, he founded the Flavian dynasty that ruled the Empi ...
, the first
Flavian Flavian may refer to:
* A member of the Flavian dynasty of Roman emperors, during the late 1st century AD, or their works
* Flavian Zeija, a Ugandan lawyer, academic and judge. Principal Judge of Uganda, since December 2019.
* A person named Flavian ...
emperor.
Under Vespasian an edict seems to have been promulgated, perhaps in AD 74, which permitted many of the province's urban communities to become ''municipia'' with
Latin right
Latin rights (also Latin citizenship, Latin: ''ius Latii'' or ''ius latinum'') were a set of legal rights that were originally granted to the Latins (Latin: "Latini", the People of Latium, the land of the Latins) under Roman law in their origin ...
s over the course of his reign and that of his successors,
Titus
Titus Caesar Vespasianus ( ; 30 December 39 – 13 September 81 AD) was Roman emperor from 79 to 81. A member of the Flavian dynasty, Titus succeeded his father Vespasian upon his death.
Before becoming emperor, Titus gained renown as a mili ...
and
Domitian
Domitian (; la, Domitianus; 24 October 51 – 18 September 96) was a Roman emperor who reigned from 81 to 96. The son of Vespasian and the younger brother of Titus, his two predecessors on the throne, he was the last member of the Fl ...
. Vespasian also decided to maintain a reduced military garrison in the province, consisting of the
Legio VII Gemina Felix
__NOTOC__
Legio VII Gemina (Latin for "The Twins' Seventh Legion") was a legion of the Imperial Roman army. It was raised in AD 68 in Hispania by the general Galba to take part in his rebellion against the emperor Nero. "Gemina" means the legion w ...
and its auxiliary units, which was focused mainly on supporting the work of the provincial governor, carrying out policing, and supervising mining work in the province.
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/2479), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic ' ...
served as procurator in Tarraconensis in AD 73.
Under
Diocletian, in 293, Hispania Tarraconensis was divided in three smaller provinces:
Gallaecia
Gallaecia, also known as Hispania Gallaecia, was the name of a Roman province in the north-west of Hispania, approximately present-day Galicia (Spain), Galicia, Norte, Portugal, northern Portugal, Asturias and León (province), Leon and the lat ...
,
Carthaginensis
Hispania Carthaginensis was a Roman province segregated from Hispania Tarraconensis in the new division of Hispania by emperor Diocletian in 298.
The capital of the new province was settled in Carthago Nova, now Cartagena.
It encompassed ...
and Tarraconensis. The
Imperial province
An imperial province was a Roman province during the Principate where the Roman Emperor had the sole right to appoint the governor (''legatus Augusti pro praetore''). These provinces were often the strategically located border provinces.
The pro ...
of Hispania Tarraconensis lasted until the invasions of the 5th century, beginning in 409, when
Suebi,
Vandals
The Vandals were a Germanic people who first inhabited what is now southern Poland. They established Vandal kingdoms on the Iberian Peninsula, Mediterranean islands, and North Africa in the fifth century.
The Vandals migrated to the area betw ...
and
Alans
The Alans (Latin: ''Alani'') were an ancient and medieval Iranian nomadic pastoral people of the North Caucasus – generally regarded as part of the Sarmatians, and possibly related to the Massagetae. Modern historians have connected the A ...
crossed the Pyrenees, and ended with the establishment of a
Visigothic kingdom
The Visigothic Kingdom, officially the Kingdom of the Goths ( la, Regnum Gothorum), was a kingdom that occupied what is now southwestern France and the Iberian Peninsula from the 5th to the 8th centuries. One of the Germanic successor states to ...
.
The invasion resulted in widespread exploitation of metals, especially
gold
Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from la, aurum) and atomic number 79. This makes it one of the higher atomic number elements that occur naturally. It is a bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile me ...
,
tin
Tin is a chemical element with the symbol Sn (from la, stannum) and atomic number 50. Tin is a silvery-coloured metal.
Tin is soft enough to be cut with little force and a bar of tin can be bent by hand with little effort. When bent, t ...
and
silver
Silver is a chemical element with the symbol Ag (from the Latin ', derived from the Proto-Indo-European ''h₂erǵ'': "shiny" or "white") and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical ...
. The alluvial
gold mine Gold Mine may refer to:
* Gold Mine (board game)
*Gold Mine (Long Beach), an arena
*"Gold Mine", a song by Joyner Lucas from the 2020 album ''ADHD
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characteri ...
s at
Las Medulas show that
Roman engineers worked the deposits on a very large scale using several aqueducts up to long to tap water in the surrounding mountains. By running fast water streams on the soft rocks, they were able to extract large quantities of gold by
hydraulic mining methods (
Ruina montium
''Ruina montium'' (Latin, "wrecking of mountains") was allegedly an ancient Roman mining technique that draws on the principle of Pascal's barrel. Miners would excavate narrow cavities down into a mountain, whereby filling the cavities with wate ...
). When the gold had been exhausted, they followed the auriferous seams underground by tunnels using
fire-setting
Fire-setting is a method of traditional mining used most commonly from Prehistory, prehistoric times up to the Middle Ages. Fires were set against a rock face to heat the Rock (geology), stone, which was then doused with liquid, causing the sto ...
to break up the much harder gold-bearing rocks.
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/2479), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic ' ...
gives a good account of the methods used in Hispania, presumably based on his own observations.
Geography and political organisation
Borders and extent
At its greatest extent, the province Hispania Tarraconensis covered about two thirds of the
Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula (),
**
* Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica''
**
**
* french: Péninsule Ibérique
* mwl, Península Eibérica
* eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in southwestern Europe, def ...
. The Pyrenees mountains to the north formed the border with
Gaul
Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans. It was inhabited by Celtic and Aquitani tribes, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy (only during ...
. The border with
Lusitania to the southwest ran from the Cale (modern Oporto,
Portugal
Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic ( pt, República Portuguesa, links=yes ), is a country whose mainland is located on the Iberian Peninsula of Southwestern Europe, and whose territory also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of ...
) along the Douro river and then the Tormes river. The border with Baetica ran from Castulo (modern Linares, Jaén, Linares), through Acci (Guadix), to the bay of Almería.
With a surface area of around 380,000 km2 and an estimated population of 3-3.5 million (giving an average population density of 8-9 people/km2), at the date of its creation, Tarraconensis was probably the largest province in the Roman empire.
Administrative organisation
Under
Augustus
Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...
' division of the provinces in 27 BC, Tarraconensis was an
Imperial province
An imperial province was a Roman province during the Principate where the Roman Emperor had the sole right to appoint the governor (''legatus Augusti pro praetore''). These provinces were often the strategically located border provinces.
The pro ...
like Lusitania, while Baetica was a
Senatorial province
A senatorial province ( la, provincia populi Romani, province of the Roman people) was a Roman province during the Principate where the Roman Senate had the right to appoint the governor (proconsul). These provinces were away from the outer b ...
. Tarraconensis was of Roman consul, consular rank, while the other two were praetorian. The governor was entitled ''legatus Augusti pro praetore'', who was a Roman Senator, senator of consular rank. The capital of the province was the
colonia of Tarraco. In the time of Augustus and
Tiberius
Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was the second Roman emperor. He reigned from AD 14 until 37, succeeding his stepfather, the first Roman emperor Augustus. Tiberius was born in Rome in 42 BC. His father ...
, according to Strabo, the province was garrisoned by three Roman legion, legions - subsequently reduced to two by
Caligula, and to one by
Nero
Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68), was the fifth Roman emperor and final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 unti ...
.
Because of the scale of the province, at some point between the reigns of Tiberius and
Claudius, the province was divided into seven ''Conventus iuridicus, conventus iuridici'' (assize districts), each managed by a ''legatus iuridicus'', who was appointed by the Emperor directly. These districts were:
* ''Tarraconensis'', with its capital at ''Colonia Tarraco'' (Tarragona).
* ''Carthaginensis'', with its capital at ''Colonia Carthago Nova'' (Cartagena, Spain, Cartagena).
* ''Caesaraugustanus'', with its capital at ''Colonia Caesar Augusta'' (Zaragoza).
* ''Cluniensis'', with its capital at ''Colonia Clunia Sulpicia'' (Coruña del Conde).
* ''Asturicensis'', with its capital at ''Municipium Asturica Augusta'' (Astorga, Spain, Astorga).
* ''Lucensis'', with its capital at ''Lucus Augusti'' (Lugo).
* ''Bracarensis'', with its capital at ''Municipium Bracara Augusta'' (Braga).
In each of the conventus capitals there was an Imperial cult centre, dedicated to the Genius Augusti and the deified emperors, with its own male and female priests, the ''flamen Augusti'' and ''flamenica Augusti'', who were chosen by the elites of the privileged communities of the province (the ''coloniae'' and ''municipia''). Each year, they chose one of their number to be the ''flamen'' and ''flamenica'' (they were not required to be married to one another) of the Imperial cult for the whole province, discharging their functions in the provincial forum in Tarraco.
The fiscal administration of Tarraconensis mostly fell to an Imperial Procurator (Ancient Rome), procurator (''procurator Caesaris''), appointed by the Emperor directly from among the equestrian order. This procurator was based in the provincial capital and managed the collection of taxes for the whole province. Nevertheless, from the late first century or early second century AD, the gold mines in the northwestern part of the province were managed by a separate procurator, the ''procurator metallorum'', who was usually and Imperial freedman and was based at ''Asturica Augusta''. These procurators reported directly to the emperor, not to the provincial governor, although in practice both had to collaborate with the provincial administration.
Urban framework
The lowest level of administration in the province were the cities (Latin: ''civitates''), organised politically in the Roman manner (''Roman colony, coloniae'' and ''municipium, municipia'') or in a traditional mode retaining institutions that preceded the Roman conquest but operating under the direct supervision of the provincial governors. These communities - both Roman and indigenous - generally enjoyed a high level of autonomy, administering themselves without excessive intervention from the governors. Over time, the indigenous communities tended to adapt their institutions of self-government to match the model of the Roman ''municipia'' and ''coloniae''. The principal difference between the two types of community was the application of Roman law to them. For citizens of ''coloniae'' and ''muncipia'' it was obligatory, while for non-Romans it was optional, except in interactions with the Imperial authorities and with individual Roman citizenship, Roman citizens, in which case Roman law over-ruled local legal systems.
According to Strabo,
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/2479), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic ' ...
(who served as procurator the province), and Claudius Ptolemy, there was a substantial number of cities in Tarraconensis, especially in the Ebro Valley and on the Mediterranean coast, but fewer in number in the north and northwest, along the Cantabiran coast and in Galicia (Spain), Galicia.
Excepting the communities on the Balearic Islands, Pliny states that:
All free inhabitants of Roman ''coloniae'' held Roman citizenship. The ''coloniae'' in the province, established by
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, ...
, the Second Triumvirate, or
Augustus
Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...
, both ''coloniae'' and ''municipia'' belonged to the Roman tribe of ''Galeria'', except for Caesaraugusta, which was in ''Aniensis''. All free men who served as municipal magistrates (duoviri or aediles) in ''municipia'' would obtain Roman citizenship, being assigned to the tribe Quirina.
According to Pliny the Elder, the Emperor Vespasian extended Latin citizenship to all other inhabitants of Hispania, which meant that they were legally permitted to conduct business under Roman law (''ius commercii'') and marry Roman woman (''ius conubii''). The date of this grant is disputed, perhaps falling shortly after his accession to power in AD 69 or in AD 74. The concession of this right was used by many tributary and subordinate communities in Tarraconensis to transform themselves into ''municipia'', e.g. ''Nova Augusta'' (Lara de los Infantes, Burgos), ''Bergidum Flavium'' (Torre del Bierzo, El Bierzo, provincia de León, León), ''Segovia'', Duratón (Segovia), Duratón (provincia de Segovia, Segovia), and ''Aqua Flaviae'' (Chaves, Portugal, Chaves,
Portugal
Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic ( pt, República Portuguesa, links=yes ), is a country whose mainland is located on the Iberian Peninsula of Southwestern Europe, and whose territory also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of ...
).
The main cities in the province were:
Roman military garrisons
In order to guarantee order and security in the province after the
Cantabrian Wars
The Cantabrian Wars (29–19 BC) (''Bellum Cantabricum''), sometimes also referred to as the Cantabrian and Asturian Wars (''Bellum Cantabricum et Asturicum''), were the final stage of the two-century long Roman conquest of Hispania, in what tod ...
(26 BC–19 BC), three Roman legion, legions were established in the province:
* ''
Legio VI Victrix
Legio VI Victrix ("Victorious Sixth Legion") was a legion of the Imperial Roman army founded in 41 BC by the general Octavian (who, as Augustus, later became Rome's first emperor). It was the twin legion of VI ''Ferrata'' and perhaps held vet ...
'', in Leon, Spain, Leon until transferred to Germania Inferior;
* ''
Legio X Gemina
Legio X ''Gemina'' ("The Twins' Tenth Legion"), was a Roman legion, legion of the Imperial Roman army. It was one of the four legions used by Julius Caesar in 58 BC, for his invasion of Gaul. There are still records of the X ''Gemina'' in Vien ...
'' in Petavonium until transferred to
Pannonia in AD 63;
* ''
Legio IV Macedonica
Legio IV Macedonica ("Macedonian Fourth Legion"), was a legion of the Imperial Roman army founded in 48 BC by Gaius Julius Caesar (dictator of Rome 49–44 BC) with Italian legionaries. The legion was disbanded in AD 70 by Emperor Vespasian. The l ...
'' in Herrera de Pisuerga, Pisoraca until transferred to
Germania in AD 43.
These legions were supported by various Roman auxiliary, auxiliary units, like the ''Ala Parthorum'' and the ''Cohors IV Gallorum'', but it is very difficult to tell exactly where and when these units were garrisoned in the peninsula.
In AD 68, according to
Suetonius,
Galba removed one legion, the ''Legio VI Vitrix'', two Auxilia#Alae, cavalry ''alae'', and three Cohort (military unit), infantry ''cohortes''. In order to reinforce these troops, a new legion was recruited, the future ''Legio VII Gemina'' and a number of similar auxiliary units, notably the
Vascones
The Vascones were a pre-Roman tribe who, on the arrival of the Romans in the 1st century, inhabited a territory that spanned between the upper course of the Ebro river and the southern basin of the western Pyrenees, a region that coincides wi ...
''cohortes'', but all these units joined Galba when he invaded Italy to seize the Imperial throne.
In AD 69, Vitellius ordered the ''Legio X Gemina'' to be dispatched to the Iberian peninsula,
[Tacitus, ''Hist''. 2.58.2] accompanied by the ''Legio I Adiutrix''. We do not know exactly where they were stationed; it may have been in Baetica and the southeastern part of Tarraconensis to prevent a possible invasion from North Africa, which was controlled by Lucius Clodius Macer. In any case, both legions and the ''Legio VI Victrix'' abandoned Vitellius and declared their support for
Vespasian
Vespasian (; la, Vespasianus ; 17 November AD 9 – 23/24 June 79) was a Roman emperor who reigned from AD 69 to 79. The fourth and last emperor who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors, he founded the Flavian dynasty that ruled the Empi ...
, who quickly sent them to Germania Inferior to suppress the revolt of Gaius Julius Civilis.
Subsequently, in AD 74, Vespasian ordered the ''Legio VII Gemina'' to be garrisoned in Leon at the site of the old camp of the ''Legio VI Victrix''. The ''Legio VII Gemina'' continued to garrison the province until the beginning of the 5th century AD.
The ''Legio VII Gemina'' dispatched ''vexillationes'' to the following parts of the provinces in Hispania:
* Tarraco, serving the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis;
* Augusta Emerita, serving the governor of the province of Lusitania (Roman province), Lusitania;
* In the mining area around El Bierzo, Birgidum to supervise the extraction of mineral ore and its transportation;
* In the mining area in the north of Portugal, to supervise the extraction of gold ore and its transportation;
* In Tritium Magallum (Tricio, La Rioja) to manage the ''portorium'' of this pottery production centre;
* In Lucus Augusti (Lugo, Spain, Lugo) to manage the ''portorium'';
* In Segisama (
Sasamón, Burgos) at the ''statio'', controlling the road towards Burdigala.
By the last quarter of the 1st century AD at the latest, five auxiliary units of the ''Legio VII Gemina'' were stationed in the province:
* ''Ala II Flavia Hispanorum civium romanorum'', a cavalry ''ala'' stationed at Petavonium;
* ''Cohors I Celtiberorum Equitata civium romanorum'', a cavalry ''cohors'', based at Sobrado dos Monxes (A Coruña), in the territory of the ''Municipum Flavium Brigantia'';
* ''Cohors I Galica Equitata civium romanorum'', encamped at Pisoraca (Herrera de Pisuerga, Palencia);
* ''Cohors III Lucensium'', based at Lucus Augusti (Lugo);
* ''Cohors II Galica'', located at the unknown site, ''ad cohortem Galicam''
This arrangement endured from the 2nd century through to the fifth century AD, with the maximum garrison of Roman troops in Hispanis never exceeding a total of 7712 soldiers.
See also
*List of Roman governors of Hispania Tarraconensis
*Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula
References
External links
World of the Imperium Romanum: Hispania*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080528061612/http://traianus.rediris.es/ Spanish site dedicated to Roman technology, especially aqueducts and mines]
*
{{Coord, 41.1165, N, 1.2552, E, source:wikidata, display=title
Hispania Tarraconensis,
Provinces of the Roman Empire
Roman provinces in Hispania
History of Cantabria
Basque history
States and territories established in the 1st century BC
29 BC establishments
459 disestablishments
States and territories disestablished in the 5th century
450s disestablishments in the Roman Empire