![Caucasus-ethnic en](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Caucasus-ethnic_en.svg)
Hill people, also referred to as mountain people, is a general term for people who live in the
hill
A hill is a landform that extends above the surrounding terrain. It often has a distinct summit.
Terminology
The distinction between a hill and a mountain is unclear and largely subjective, but a hill is universally considered to be not a ...
s and
mountain
A mountain is an elevated portion of the Earth's crust, generally with steep sides that show significant exposed bedrock. Although definitions vary, a mountain may differ from a plateau in having a limited summit area, and is usually highe ...
s.
This includes all rugged land above and all land (including plateaus) above elevation.
The climate is generally harsh, with steep temperature drops between day and night, high winds,
runoff
Runoff, run-off or RUNOFF may refer to:
* RUNOFF, the first computer text-formatting program
* Runoff or run-off, another name for bleed, printing that lies beyond the edges to which a printed sheet is trimmed
* Runoff or run-off, a stock marke ...
from melting snow and rain that cause high levels of erosion and thin, immature soils.
Climate change is likely to place considerable stress on the mountain environment and the people who live there.
People have used or lived in the mountains for thousands of years, first as hunter-gatherers and later as farmers and
pastoralists
Pastoralism is a form of animal husbandry where domesticated animals (known as "livestock") are released onto large vegetated outdoor lands (pastures) for grazing, historically by nomadic people who moved around with their herds. The animal s ...
.
The isolated communities are often culturally and linguistically diverse.
Today about 720 million people, or 12% of the world's population, live in mountain regions, many of them economically and politically marginalized.
The mountain residents have adapted to the conditions, but in the developing world they often suffer from
food insecurity
Food security speaks to the availability of food in a country (or geography) and the ability of individuals within that country (geography) to access, afford, and source adequate foodstuffs. According to the United Nations' Committee on World ...
and poor health.
They depend on crops, livestock and forest products, and tend to be poor.
In the developed world the mountain people are generally prosperous, and the mountains may be used for tourism and outdoor recreation.
Mining is also widespread and dates back to the pre-Christian era.
In parts of the developing world the mountain communities depend on remittances from young men who have gone to work in the lowlands or overseas.
Although 70% of mountain people live in rural areas, the rest live in cities, including large cities such as Mexico City, with a population of around 21 million.
The cities attract temporary or permanent migrants from the rural areas.
The smaller cities are more connected to the mountain culture and economy than the larger ones.
Extent
Under the
World Conservation Monitoring Centre
The UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) is a collaboration centre of UN Environment Programme, based in Cambridge in the United Kingdom. UNEP-WCMC has been part of UN Environment Programme since 2000, and has ...
(WCMC) classification, mountain regions include both hills and mountains.
See "
Classes of mountain region" for the formal definition.
22% of the world's land, or is classified as mountain region, of which about half is below .
Rugged land is considered a mountain region if it is at least above sea level, but plateaus and broad valleys running through the mountains below are not considered mountain regions.
All land above is classified as mountain, including plateaus.
This accounts for 20% of the total.
Mountain regions in a 2003 study by the
Food and Agriculture Organization
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)french: link=no, Organisation des Nations unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture; it, Organizzazione delle Nazioni Unite per l'Alimentazione e l'Agricoltura is an intern ...
(FAO) of the
United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre for harmoniz ...
follow the WCMC classification.
Environment
![Jorsale village Nepal](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Jorsale_village_Nepal.jpg)
Mountain environments vary depending on their latitude and their proximity to the edge of a landmass.
The windward side will have greater rainfall than the leeward.
The mountain environment can be harsh, particularly in the
alpine regions above the tree line at higher elevations and in the drier climates outside the tropics.
No more than 3% of world's land that is highly suitable for agriculture lies in the mountain regions.
Temperatures tend to always be high on the lower slopes near the equator, and there is often heavy rainfall year-round.
Higher up and outside the tropics, temperatures can soar in the daytime and plummet at night.
Usually there are strong winds, frequent freezing and thawing at the higher levels, snow, sleet and heavy rainfall in some areas, causing steady erosion.
The thin soils on the slopes do not retain water, and only support
drought-resistant plants.
Often these plants are low and store energy in spreading roots, with relatively little vegetation above ground.
This vegetation may be cleared for cultivation or road building, or may be overgrazed, resulting in rapid soil loss through erosion.
People have both adapted to mountain conditions and modified those conditions.
For example, farmers in many areas use terracing to retain soil and water.
Contour ploughing also helps stabilize the fragile soil.
Often human activity has degraded the mountain environments.
Humans have reduced biodiversity in many of the world's mountain regions.
Areas with high biodiversity where the environment is under intense stress include
California
California is a state in the Western United States, located along the Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the most populous U.S. state and the 3rd largest by area. It is also the m ...
's montane ecoregions (
California montane chaparral and woodlands
The California montane chaparral and woodlands is an ecoregion defined by the World Wildlife Fund, spanning of mountains in the Transverse Ranges, Peninsular Ranges, and Coast Ranges of southern and central California. The ecoregion is part of ...
), the mixed forest ecoregion in the
Caucasus
The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, mainly comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia (country), Georgia, and parts of Southern Russia. The Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus range ...
, and in northwest South America the
Magdalena Valley montane forests
The Magdalena Valley montane forests (NT0136) is an ecoregion in the Andes mountains of central Colombia.
Geography Location
The ecoregion covers the higher land on both sides of the valley of the Magdalena River in the Colombian Andes.
The ri ...
,
Magdalena–Urabá moist forests and
Western Ecuador moist forests
The Western Ecuador Moist Forests (NT0178), also known as thPacific Forest of Ecuador is an ecoregion in the plains and western foothills of the Andes of southern Colombia and Ecuador.
At one time this region contained dense forests with highly div ...
.
Almost 28% of the world's forests grow on mountains.
Forests are important in regulating water flows and providing fuel and construction material.
Before humans arrived, most mountains in tropical and temperate climates would have been forested up to the tree line.
Deforestation is not new, and began 3,000 years ago in China.
Mountain forests around the Mediterranean and in Britain had been cleared 1,500 years ago.
More recently, in China and Europe there have been efforts to restore the mountain forests so as to reduce flooding and erosion.
The
impact of climate change on mountain environments is not well understood, but they seem to be more sensitive than the lowlands.
The higher-level ecosystems will be forced up the mountains as temperatures rise, shrinking in size and at some point disappearing.
Threats include environmental stress during adaptation to higher mean annual temperatures, changes to precipitation patterns and more frequent extreme weather events.
It is difficult to predict how well the mountain populations will adapt to changes in the resources on which they rely for subsistence, although it seems clear that there will be increased competition for use of the land for different purposes.
Population
Diversity
People have lived in mountain regions for thousands of years.
Some may have sought refuge from persecution or from changing climate, while others may have migrated in search of food.
The new arrivals settled and developed prosperous farming communities.
Streams, rivers and lakes that provide water for agriculture and domestic use are often found in valleys with flat ground suitable for cultivation of crops.
These are prime locations for settlements.
The streams could also be harnessed by mills to process grain.
More recently they are used for hydroelectric plants, which provide overall social benefits but can be very disruptive locally.
The difficulty of movement between valleys in the past has isolated mountain communities and contributed to high levels of cultural diversity.
Nearby communities may have different languages and dialects, traditions, costumes, cuisine and economic systems.
This is seen in the
Andes
The Andes, Andes Mountains or Andean Mountains (; ) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is long, wide (widest between 18°S – 20°S ...
and the western mountains of Canada.
In the central
Karakoram there are speakers of
Shina,
,
Waki and
Burushaski
Burushaski (; ) is a language isolate spoken by Burusho people, who reside almost entirely in northern Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan, with a few hundred speakers in northern Jammu and Kashmir, India. In Pakistan, Burushaski is spoken by people ...
.
Many distinct dialects of
French,
German
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany (of or related to)
** Germania (historical use)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law
**Ge ...
,
Italian
Italian(s) may refer to:
* Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries
** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom
** Italian language, a Romance language
*** Regional Ita ...
and
Romansch are spoken in the Alps.
The rugged mountains of the island of
Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; , ; tpi, Papua Niugini; ho, Papua Niu Gini), officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea ( tpi, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niugini; ho, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niu Gini), is a country i ...
contain fertile valleys with temperate climates that are densely farmed using traditional techniques.
The 7.6 million people of the island speak almost 1,300 languages, many of which are spoken by only a few hundred people.
The cultural groups that live in the mountains are often minorities within their countries, although they may be in the majority in their region.
This is true of the
Tibetans
The Tibetan people (; ) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Tibet. Their current population is estimated to be around 6.7 million. In addition to the majority living in Tibet Autonomous Region of China, significant numbers of Tibetans liv ...
,
Naxi,
Miao Miao may refer to:
* Miao people, linguistically and culturally related group of people, recognized as such by the government of the People's Republic of China
* Miao script or Pollard script, writing system used for Miao languages
* Miao (Unicode ...
,
Yi and
Uyghurs
The Uyghurs; ; ; ; zh, s=, t=, p=Wéiwú'ěr, IPA: ( ), alternatively spelled Uighurs, Uygurs or Uigurs, are a Turkic ethnic group originating from and culturally affiliated with the general region of Central and East Asia. The Uyghur ...
in China, the
Kurds ug:كۇردلار
Kurds ( ku, کورد ,Kurd, italic=yes, rtl=yes) or Kurdish people are an Iranian ethnic group native to the mountainous region of Kurdistan in Western Asia, which spans southeastern Turkey, northwestern Iran, northern Ira ...
in the north of
Iraq
Iraq,; ku, عێراق, translit=Êraq officially the Republic of Iraq, '; ku, کۆماری عێراق, translit=Komarî Êraq is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered by Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, the Persian Gulf and K ...
and the east of
Turkey
Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with a small portion on the Balkan Peninsula in ...
, the
Amhars in
Ethiopia
Ethiopia, , om, Itiyoophiyaa, so, Itoobiya, ti, ኢትዮጵያ, Ítiyop'iya, aa, Itiyoppiya officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country in the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the ...
and the
Quechua
Quechua may refer to:
*Quechua people, several indigenous ethnic groups in South America, especially in Peru
*Quechuan languages, a Native South American language family spoken primarily in the Andes, derived from a common ancestral language
**So ...
and
Aymara
Aymara may refer to:
Languages and people
* Aymaran languages, the second most widespread Andean language
** Aymara language, the main language within that family
** Central Aymara, the other surviving branch of the Aymara(n) family, which today ...
in the Andes.
Often the mountain people are marginalized both politically and economically.
The isolated mountain regions of the Atlas, Peru and Cuba have served as bases for guerrilla rebels.
While mountain areas are more isolated than lower or flatter lands, when measured by the percentage of the population that lives more than from a road the difference is not great as might be expected.
Thus in Ethiopia 50% of mountain people and 40% of non-mountain people live more than 5 kilometres from a road.
In Afghanistan and China 30% of mountain people live more than 5 kilometres from a road, compared to 20% of non-mountain people.
In Peru the respective ratios are 20% and 13%.
Population densities in inaccessible places are usually similar to accessible places. In Ethiopia and Afghanistan they are higher.
The mountain people want land that can be farmed using traditional methods more than ease of travel to distant places.
However, the lack of roads may be seen as evidence of discrimination.
Present situation
Today, new transport and communications technologies are bringing goods, services, infrastructure and information to even the most remote parts of the mountains.
The mountain communities are being forced to integrate with the larger global society.
The Food and Agriculture Organization estimated in their 2003 report that around 720 million, or 12% of the world population, live in the mountains.
Of these, no more than 10% are in developed countries.
About half of all mountain people are in Asia, and there are large and rapidly growing populations in South and Central America.
70% live below , and less than 10% above .
A very small number of people in the Himalayas and the Andes live permanently at elevations over .
The countries with the highest percentages of mountain people are
Bhutan
Bhutan (; dz, འབྲུག་ཡུལ་, Druk Yul ), officially the Kingdom of Bhutan,), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is situated in the Eastern Himalayas, between China in the north and India in the south. A mountainou ...
(89%),
Rwanda (75%),
Lesotho (73%),
Armenia
Armenia (), , group=pron officially the Republic of Armenia,, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of Western Asia.The UNbr>classification of world regions places Armenia in Western Asia; the CIA World Factbook , , and ' ...
(70%),
Guatemala (64%),
Costa Rica (63%) and
Yemen
Yemen (; ar, ٱلْيَمَن, al-Yaman), officially the Republic of Yemen,, ) is a country in Western Asia. It is situated on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, and borders Saudi Arabia to the Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, north and ...
(61%).
About 70% of the mountain population is rural and relies on farming, fishing and extraction from local forests.
The permanent mountain population also includes itinerant mineral prospectors, miners, loggers, construction workers and others who move from place to place.
Better roads and vehicles may allow these people to live permanently in a mountain community some distance from where they work.
Forestry and traditional agriculture is declining in the mountain areas of Japan, Europe and the eastern United States as government subsidies are withdrawn.
Outside Europe and Japan the human population in mountains is rising as they are used as refuges, sources of minerals, for tourism, and for commercial forestry, farming and animal husbandry.
Colonization and immigration in the last 400 years have been causing steady population growth in formerly less populated mountain areas in Africa, Australia, New Zealand, South America, Canada and the Western United States.
Physical adaptation and health
![Quechua Woman in Peru](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Quechua_Woman_in_Peru.JPG)
Many of the high-elevation people grow slowly and have small bodies.
This may reduce their energy requirements without affecting their ability to handle
hypoxia, cold and work demands.
Long term high-elevation residents have expanded lungs and hearts, higher levels of
hemoglobin
Hemoglobin (haemoglobin BrE) (from the Greek word αἷμα, ''haîma'' 'blood' + Latin ''globus'' 'ball, sphere' + ''-in'') (), abbreviated Hb or Hgb, is the iron-containing oxygen-transport metalloprotein present in red blood cells (erythrocyt ...
in their blood and shorter limbs.
There is no strong evidence that people who live at high elevations have become genetically adapted to the low levels of oxygen.
They are not genetically isolated from the people of the lowlands, and typically move through a much wider range of elevations than other mountain species.
However, studies have shown that some positive selected genes or gene regions do contribute to adaptation to high altitude in Andeans and Tibetans.
Studies in Peru of
aerobic capacity
VO2 max (also maximal oxygen consumption, maximal oxygen uptake or maximal aerobic capacity) is the maximum rate of oxygen consumption attainable during physical exertion. The name is derived from three abbreviations: "V̇" for volume (the dot ap ...
, the body's ability to obtain oxygen, show that there is little difference between natives born at high elevations and lowlanders who move to high elevations when they were young children, although the lowlanders had more European ancestry than the high elevation natives. Aerobic capacity was lower with migrants who moved up in their adolescence, and lower again in those who moved as adults. Genetics are obviously important, but there is not yet evidence that inheritance is a strong factor in
high-altitude adaptation in humans
High-altitude adaptation in humans is an instance of evolutionary modification in certain human populations, including those of Tibet in Asia, the Andes of the Americas, and Ethiopia in Africa, who have acquired the ability to survive at altitudes ...
.
The people of the tropical high mountains experience more exposure to
solar irradiance than lowlanders, and must adapt to wider temperature extremes between day and night.
Seasonal weather imposes periods of low and high activity, and of scarce and plentiful food.
Unpredictable droughts, periods of intense cold, plant and animal disease, and so on make food availability uncertain.
An estimated 245 million mountain people are thought to be at risk of food shortages.
87% of these live below .
Water boils at lower temperatures at higher altitudes, so it takes longer to cook food and requires more water and fuel.
Gathering fuel in turn requires energy.
Compared to non-mountain populations, the mountain people suffer more from malnutrition due to food shortage and deficiencies in micronutrients (vitamins and minerals), and suffer from respiratory diseases caused by the severe climate and smoke in their shelters during the cold periods.
These problems are compounded by poor access to primary health care.
Rural economy
Land usage
![This is The Andes (Unsplash)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/This_is_The_Andes_%28Unsplash%29.jpg)
Based on a detailed GIS survey, in mountain regions of developing and transitional countries the types of land cover and actual land use are:
17% of the mountain population grows crops or combines crop, livestock and tree farming.
19% subsist from sparsely vegetated barren land, protected areas and closed forests.
44% of mountain land is used for grazing and is home to 64% of rural mountain people.
At a global level, the average population density on grazing land below meets or exceeds the critical density of 25 people per km
2.
The growing mountain population in developing and transition countries is creating serious environmental problems in forest and grazing lands.
Some of the forest or grazing land could be converted to crops for subsistence or cash, but 78% is unsuitable for this purpose, or only marginally suitable.
From Hunting and gathering to farming and forestry
Paleolithic hunters and gatherers followed the mountain fauna as they moved from summer to winter pastures, fished, gathered edible plants and used the abundant timber for fire and shelter.
The
Dayaks
The Dayak (; older spelling: Dajak) or Dyak or Dayuh are one of the native groups of Borneo. It is a loose term for over 200 riverine and hill-dwelling ethnic groups, located principally in the central and southern interior of Borneo, each w ...
of
Kalimantan still follow a traditional hunting and gathering lifestyle, although they are under growing pressure from the outside world.
Later human settlers in the mountains practiced a combination of hunting and gathering, raising crops and tending livestock, with most families involved in all these activities.
As specialist workers have emerged, the members of each household perform fewer activities, but there are more occupations within the community as a whole.
This trend has accelerated in the last 400 years, driven by the industrial revolution and colonialism, the transition to commercial produce such as furs and minerals, and the recent growth of tourism.
During this period large numbers of
Han Chinese
The Han Chinese () or Han people (), are an East Asian ethnic group native to China. They constitute the world's largest ethnic group, making up about 18% of the global population and consisting of various subgroups speaking distinctiv ...
settlers migrated to the mountain areas in the southwest and west of China, while European settlers moved into South and North America.
The indigenous people were often forced to work in commercial agricultural and mining enterprises.
This transition was not entirely negative, but devastated many of the traditional mountain communities.
Maize
Maize ( ; ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''mays'', from es, maíz after tnq, mahiz), also known as corn (North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. The ...
,
millet,
potato
The potato is a starchy food, a tuber of the plant ''Solanum tuberosum'' and is a root vegetable native to the Americas. The plant is a perennial in the nightshade family Solanaceae.
Wild potato species can be found from the southern Unit ...
es,
tomato
The tomato is the edible berry of the plant ''Solanum lycopersicum'', commonly known as the tomato plant. The species originated in western South America, Mexico, and Central America. The Mexican Nahuatl word gave rise to the Spanish word ...
es and
wheat
Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain that is a worldwide staple food. The many species of wheat together make up the genus ''Triticum'' ; the most widely grown is common wheat (''T. aestivum''). The archaeologi ...
have their origins in mountain regions, as do
tea
Tea is an aromatic beverage prepared by pouring hot or boiling water over cured or fresh leaves of ''Camellia sinensis'', an evergreen shrub native to East Asia which probably originated in the borderlands of southwestern China and north ...
,
coffee
Coffee is a drink prepared from roasted coffee beans. Darkly colored, bitter, and slightly acidic, coffee has a stimulating effect on humans, primarily due to its caffeine content. It is the most popular hot drink in the world.
Seeds of ...
and
quinoa
Quinoa (''Chenopodium quinoa''; , from Quechua ' or ') is a flowering plant in the amaranth family. It is a herbaceous annual plant grown as a crop primarily for its edible seeds; the seeds are rich in protein, dietary fiber, B vitamins, a ...
.
A comparison of crops grown in southern
Switzerland, the
Peru
, image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg
, image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg
, other_symbol = Great Seal of the State
, other_symbol_type = National seal
, national_motto = "Firm and Happy f ...
vian Andes and the Central
Nepal
Nepal (; ne, :ne:नेपाल, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne,
सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in S ...
Himalaya shows strong similarities.
At low elevations crops in all three regions include fruits, and at mid elevations they all include cereals such as
barley
Barley (''Hordeum vulgare''), a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally. It was one of the first cultivated grains, particularly in Eurasia as early as 10,000 years ago. Globally 70% of barley p ...
and wheat, and maize and
rice
Rice is the seed of the grass species '' Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice) or less commonly ''Oryza glaberrima'' (African rice). The name wild rice is usually used for species of the genera '' Zizania'' and '' Porteresia'', both wild and domesticat ...
in the Andes and Himalaya.
Higher up the production gives way to tubers such as potatoes, then to forest, and then at high elevations to pasture for
sheep
Sheep or domestic sheep (''Ovis aries'') are domesticated, ruminant mammals typically kept as livestock. Although the term ''sheep'' can apply to other species in the genus '' Ovis'', in everyday usage it almost always refers to domesticated ...
,
cattle
Cattle (''Bos taurus'') are large, domesticated, cloven-hooved, herbivores. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus ''Bos''. Adult females are referred to as cows and adult ma ...
,
goat
The goat or domestic goat (''Capra hircus'') is a domesticated species of goat-antelope typically kept as livestock. It was domesticated from the wild goat (''C. aegagrus'') of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the a ...
s, and in Peru for
camelid
Camelids are members of the biological family Camelidae, the only currently living family in the suborder Tylopoda. The seven extant members of this group are: dromedary camels, Bactrian camels, wild Bactrian camels, llamas, alpacas, vicuñas, ...
s.
The people of the Andes maintain what
John Victor Murra calls "vertical control", in which groups of people use kinship and other arrangements to access the resources of a range of ecological zones at different elevations, and thus to access a variety of crops and animals.
This gives more security than dependence on a single resource.
The volcanic mountain region of
Java
Java (; id, Jawa, ; jv, ꦗꦮ; su, ) is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea to the north. With a population of 151.6 million people, Java is the world's mos ...
supports dense populations who take advantage of the rich soils and diverse altitude-based ecological zones.
They accept a trade-off against the high potential for disastrous eruptions.
Near the equator the sun is almost overhead all year, so the orientation of slopes is unimportant.
Further away, the amount of sunlight varies considerably.
In the Alps the south-facing slopes are preferred for settlements and farming, while the north-facing slopes are used for forestry and ski resorts.
In mountain regions with seasonal climates, including Europe, North America, the southern Andes and most of the Himalayas, high pastures can only be used in the summer and the people work in the lower forest zones during the winter.
Nearer the equator in the central Andes, East Africa and Southeast Asia there may be less seasonal variation, and permanent settlements as high as are practical, with economies based on herding and cold-resistant grains and tubers.
Where crops were previously grown only for local consumption, with improved transportation it is practical to grow cash crops such as
carrots,
cabbage,
beans,
garlic and
apple
An apple is an edible fruit produced by an apple tree (''Malus domestica''). Apple trees are cultivated worldwide and are the most widely grown species in the genus ''Malus''. The tree originated in Central Asia, where its wild ancestor, ' ...
s for sale in distant markets.
In Africa there is strong pressure on the mid-elevation environment from commercial and subsistence farming.
Rapid population growth in East Africa is mainly concentrated in the fertile farmlands of the mountain regions.
Although the public has come to value the presence in the mountains of large predators such as
bears,
wolves
The wolf (''Canis lupus''; : wolves), also known as the gray wolf or grey wolf, is a large canine native to Eurasia and North America. More than thirty subspecies of ''Canis lupus'' have been recognized, and gray wolves, as popularly un ...
and
snow leopard
The snow leopard (''Panthera uncia''), also known as the ounce, is a felid in the genus '' Panthera'' native to the mountain ranges of Central and South Asia. It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List because the global population is es ...
s, the local people tend not share that view, since the wildlife preys upon their livestock and crops.
Mining
![Round Mountain gold mine, aerial](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Round_Mountain_gold_mine%2C_aerial.jpg)
Mining has been an important part of mountain economies throughout history, with prospectors seeking precious stones, ores, coal and salt in the mountains of Europe and the Americas.
In many places rock, gravel and sand quarries are also economically important.
In North America, coal mining in the
Appalachians
The Appalachian Mountains, often called the Appalachians, (french: Appalaches), are a system of mountains in eastern to northeastern North America. The Appalachians first formed roughly 480 million years ago during the Ordovician Period. They ...
and mining for metal ores in the western mountains resulted in growth of settlements between 1850 and 1930.
Many of these were abandoned during the
Great Depression, but mining is still an important part of the mountain economy of the Americas.
Although mining in the mountains has a very long history, the local communities often resent the exploitation of common lands by mining companies and the associated environmental damage.
So far, there has been relatively little mining in the
Hindu Kush
The Hindu Kush is an mountain range in Central and South Asia to the west of the Himalayas. It stretches from central and western Afghanistan, Quote: "The Hindu Kush mountains run along the Afghan border with the North-West Frontier Province ...
,
Karakoram and
Himalayas
The Himalayas, or Himalaya (; ; ), is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the planet's highest peaks, including the very highest, Mount Everest. Over 10 ...
, although this seems likely to change.
Migration
Many of the mountain people in developing countries are poor and depend on scarce or diminishing food resources from agriculture or livestock.
They may be partially employed in forestry, mining and service jobs.
In the past
Gurkha
The Gurkhas or Gorkhas (), with endonym Gorkhali ), are soldiers native to the Indian subcontinent, Indian Subcontinent, chiefly residing within Nepal and some parts of Northeast India.
The Gurkha units are composed of Nepalis and Indian Go ...
s,
Swiss and
Scottish highlanders
The Highlands ( sco, the Hielands; gd, a’ Ghàidhealtachd , 'the place of the Gaels') is a historical region of Scotland. Culturally, the Highlands and the Lowlands diverged from the Late Middle Ages into the modern period, when Lowland Sc ...
served as mercenaries in foreign countries.
Today many people from the South Asian mountains work in other countries such as the
Gulf States and send part of their earnings home.
Men in the Andes often find seasonal work in the lowland farms and oilfields, or work in developed countries such as Spain.
This creates a fragile economy where the old people, women and children who remain behind depend on remittances from the men.
The situation in Europe and North America used to be similar, but with improved transportation today the mountain people are quite prosperous.
The mountains are visited seasonally by nomadic pastoralists such as the
Gaddis
The Gaddi is a semi-pastoral Indo-Aryan ethno-linguistic tribe living mainly in the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir.
Overview
The origin of the Gaddi Tribe is Gaderiya ( Dhangar) they also additionally believe that ...
and
Gurjar
Gurjar or Gujjar (also transliterated as ''Gujar, Gurjara and Gujjer'') is an ethnic nomadic, agricultural and pastoral community, spread mainly in India, Pakistan and Afghanistan, divided internally into various clan groups. They were tra ...
s in the western Himalayas.
A similar seasonal pattern was followed by North American hunters and gatherers in the past.
Other semi-permanent residents in the developed countries include young people who find jobs in the ski resorts or as tree planters and people with second homes in the mountains they use for recreation.
In South and East Asia, much of the labor for construction, road building and road maintenance is supplied by poor laborers from the lowlands.
The
Sherpas in the region near
Mount Everest
Mount Everest (; Tibetic languages, Tibetan: ''Chomolungma'' ; ) is List of highest mountains on Earth, Earth's highest mountain above sea level, located in the Mahalangur Himal sub-range of the Himalayas. The China–Nepal border ru ...
can often afford to employ
Rai
RAI – Radiotelevisione italiana (; commercially styled as Rai since 2000; known until 1954 as Radio Audizioni Italiane) is the national public broadcasting company of Italy, owned by the Ministry of Economy and Finance. RAI operates many ter ...
workers for most manual tasks.
Urban areas
![Calle Jaen La Paz Bolivia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Calle_Jaen_La_Paz_Bolivia.jpg)
Almost 30% of mountain people live in towns or cities.
The largest cities are on the margins of the mountains, or are on high plateaus, sometimes very high.
Examples of large (over 1 million people) cities in or beside the mountains in Latin America include
Mexico City
Mexico City ( es, link=no, Ciudad de México, ; abbr.: CDMX; Nahuatl: ''Altepetl Mexico'') is the capital city, capital and primate city, largest city of Mexico, and the List of North American cities by population, most populous city in North Amer ...
at , with about 21 million people,
Bogotá at ,
Quito at ,
La Paz at ,
Caracas and
Santiago
Santiago (, ; ), also known as Santiago de Chile, is the capital and largest city of Chile as well as one of the largest cities in the Americas. It is the center of Chile's most densely populated region, the Santiago Metropolitan Region, whos ...
.
In North America they include
Denver
Denver () is a consolidated city and county, the capital, and most populous city of the U.S. state of Colorado. Its population was 715,522 at the 2020 census, a 19.22% increase since 2010. It is the 19th-most populous city in the Unit ...
,
Vancouver
Vancouver ( ) is a major city in western Canada, located in the Lower Mainland region of British Columbia. As the List of cities in British Columbia, most populous city in the province, the 2021 Canadian census recorded 662,248 people in the ...
and
Calgary.
Geneva
, neighboring_municipalities= Carouge, Chêne-Bougeries, Cologny, Lancy, Grand-Saconnex, Pregny-Chambésy, Vernier, Veyrier
, website = https://www.geneve.ch/
Geneva ( ; french: Genève ) frp, Genèva ; german: link=no, Genf ; it, Ginevr ...
and
Zürich
, neighboring_municipalities = Adliswil, Dübendorf, Fällanden, Kilchberg, Maur, Oberengstringen, Opfikon, Regensdorf, Rümlang, Schlieren, Stallikon, Uitikon, Urdorf, Wallisellen, Zollikon
, twintowns = Kunming, San Francisco
Zürich ...
are among European mountain cities, and
Addis Ababa
Addis Ababa (; am, አዲስ አበባ, , new flower ; also known as , lit. "natural spring" in Oromo), is the capital and largest city of Ethiopia. It is also served as major administrative center of the Oromia Region. In the 2007 census, t ...
and
Nairobi
Nairobi ( ) is the capital and largest city of Kenya. The name is derived from the Maasai phrase ''Enkare Nairobi'', which translates to "place of cool waters", a reference to the Nairobi River which flows through the city. The city proper h ...
among African mountain cities.
The list in Asia includes
Tehran
Tehran (; fa, تهران ) is the largest city in Tehran Province and the capital of Iran. With a population of around 9 million in the city and around 16 million in the larger metropolitan area of Greater Tehran, Tehran is the most popul ...
,
Chandigarh
Chandigarh () is a planned city in India. Chandigarh is bordered by the state of Punjab to the west and the south, and by the state of Haryana to the east. It constitutes the bulk of the Chandigarh Capital Region or Greater Chandigarh, which a ...
,
Dehradun,
Siliguri
Siliguri, ) is a major tier-II city in West Bengal. It forms "Twin Cities" with the neighboring district capital of Jalpaiguri. The city spans areas of the Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts in the Indian state of West Bengal. Known as the ' ...
,
Kathmandu
, pushpin_map = Nepal Bagmati Province#Nepal#Asia
, coordinates =
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdivision_name =
, subdivision_type1 = Province
, subdivision_name1 = Bagmati Prov ...
,
Chengdu
Chengdu (, ; simplified Chinese: 成都; pinyin: ''Chéngdū''; Sichuanese pronunciation: , Standard Chinese pronunciation: ), alternatively romanized as Chengtu, is a sub-provincial city which serves as the capital of the Chinese pro ...
and
Kunming.
The large cities are more or less influenced by the mountains, including the low-lying Vancouver and Chandigarh, but to a lesser degree than the smaller cities and towns within the mountains.
The smaller cities, typically in mountain valleys, are more closely linked to the mountain culture, although they have often diversified into tourism and recreation services, mineral processing, manufacturing, administration and services.
The mountain cities, particularly in developing countries, are magnets to migrants from the rural areas of the mountains seeking work, security and other benefits.
Many are ringed by densely-populated squatter communities.
Statistics
Classes of mountain region
Mountain regions are classified by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) based on absolute elevation, slope and Local Elevation Range (LER), which is the range of elevations within a radius, and indicates how hilly the land is.
Populations by geographical region and elevation
The 2003 FAO report gives the following mountain area populations by geographical region and elevation:
Population densities by geographical region and class
The 2003 FAO report gives the following mountain area population densities by geographical region and class of mountain region:
Area and population by geographical region
The 2003 FAO report gives the following area and population estimates:
See also
*
Andean civilizations
The Andean civilizations were complex societies of many cultures and peoples mainly developed in the river valleys of the coastal deserts of Peru. They stretched from the Andes of southern Colombia southward down the Andes to Chile and northwest ...
*
Appalachia
*
Hill tribes of Northeast India
*
Khmer Loeu
The Khmer Loeu ( km, ជនជាតិខ្មែរលើ ; "upper Khmers") is the collective name given to the various indigenous ethnic groups residing in the highlands of Cambodia. The Khmer Loeu are found mainly in the northeastern pro ...
*
Lao Sung
Lao Sung or more commonly Lao Soung ( Laotian: ລາວສູງ ) is an official Laotian designation for highland dwelling peoples of Hmong, Yao and Tibeto-Burman origins in Laos (the others being the Lao Loum and the Lao Theung). Lao Soung ma ...
*
Montagnard (Vietnam)
Montagnard () is an umbrella term for the various indigenous peoples of the Central Highlands of Vietnam. The French term () signifies a mountain dweller, and is a carryover from the French colonial period in Vietnam. In Vietnamese, they ar ...
*
Peoples of the Caucasus
*
Southeast Asian Massif
The term Southeast Asian Massif was proposed in 1997 by anthropologist Jean Michaud to discuss the human societies inhabiting the lands above approximately in the southeastern portion of the Asian landmass, thus not merely in the uplands of conven ...
*
Zomia
The term Southeast Asian Massif was proposed in 1997 by anthropologist Jean Michaud to discuss the human societies inhabiting the lands above approximately in the southeastern portion of the Asian landmass, thus not merely in the uplands of conven ...
References
Sources
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External links
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Hill People
Anthropology
Montane ecology