Hate crime laws in the United States are state and federal laws intended to protect against hate crimes (also known as bias crimes). Although state laws vary, current statutes permit federal prosecution of hate crimes committed on the basis of a person's characteristics of

race Race, RACE or "The Race" may refer to: * Race (biology), an informal taxonomic classification within a species, generally within a sub-species * Race (human categorization), classification of humans into groups based on physical traits, and/or s ...

religion Religion is usually defined as a social- cultural system of designated behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that generally relates humanity to supernatural, ...

, ethnicity,

nationality Nationality is a legal identification of a person in international law, establishing the person as a subject, a ''national'', of a sovereign state. It affords the state jurisdiction over the person and affords the person the protection of the ...

gender Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to femininity and masculinity and differentiating between them. Depending on the context, this may include sex-based social structures (i.e. gender roles) and gender identity. Most cultures ...

sexual orientation Sexual orientation is an enduring pattern of romantic or sexual attraction (or a combination of these) to persons of the opposite sex or gender, the same sex or gender, or to both sexes or more than one gender. These attractions are generall ...

, and/or

gender identity Gender identity is the personal sense of one's own gender. Gender identity can correlate with a person's assigned sex or can differ from it. In most individuals, the various biological determinants of sex are congruent, and consistent with the ...

. The

U.S. Department of Justice The United States Department of Justice (DOJ), also known as the Justice Department, is a federal executive department of the United States government tasked with the enforcement of federal law and administration of justice in the United State ...

(DOJ),

Federal Bureau of Investigation The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is the domestic intelligence and security service of the United States and its principal federal law enforcement agency. Operating under the jurisdiction of the United States Department of Justice, ...

(FBI) and campus police departments are required to collect and publish hate crime statistics.

Federal

Title I of the Civil Rights Act of 1968

Title I of the Civil Rights Act of 1968 The Civil Rights Act of 1968 () is a landmark law in the United States signed into law by United States President Lyndon B. Johnson during the King assassination riots. Titles II through VII comprise the Indian Civil Rights Act, which applie ...

, enacted (b)(2), permits federal prosecution of anyone who "willfully injures, intimidates or interferes with, or attempts to injure, initimidate or interfere with ... any person because of his race, color, religion or national origin" or because of the victim's attempt to engage in one of six types of federally protected activities, such as attending school, patronizing a public place/facility, applying for employment, acting as a juror in a state court or voting. Persons violating this law face a fine or imprisonment of up to one year, or both. If bodily injury results or if such acts of intimidation involve the use of firearms, explosives or fire, individuals can receive prison terms of up to 10 years, while crimes involving kidnapping, sexual assault, or murder can be punishable by life in prison or the death penalty. U.S. District Courts provide for criminal sanctions only. The

Violence Against Women Act The Violence Against Women Act of 1994 (VAWA) is a United States federal law (Title IV of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, ) signed by President Bill Clinton on September 13, 1994. The Act provided $1.6 billion toward investi ...

of 1994 contained a provision at which allowed victims of gender-motivated hate crimes to seek "compensatory and punitive damages, injunctive and declaratory relief, and such other relief as a court may deem appropriate".

Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act (1994)

The

Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, commonly referred to as the 1994 Crime Bill, the Clinton Crime Bill, or the Biden Crime Law, is an Act of Congress dealing with crime and law enforcement; it became law in 1994. It is t ...

, enacted in
note Sec. 280003
requires the

United States Sentencing Commission The United States Sentencing Commission is an independent agency of the judicial branch of the U.S. federal government. It is responsible for articulating the U.S. Federal Sentencing Guidelines for the federal courts. The Commission promulgate ...

to increase the penalties for hate crimes committed on the basis of the actual or perceived race, color, religion, national origin, ethnicity, or gender of any person. In 1995, the Sentencing Commission implemented these guidelines, which only apply to federal crimes.

Church Arson Prevention Act (1996)

The S. 1980 (104th)
Church Arson Prevention Act of 1996
was introduced to Congress on June 19, 1996, but died because the Senate Committee found some places for improvement of the bill. It was sponsored by Republican Duncan Faircloth. On May 23, 1996, the House of Representatives introduced H.R. 3525 (104th): Church Arson Prevention Act. The Act was passed by both houses in Congress and signed by President

Bill Clinton William Jefferson Clinton ( né Blythe III; born August 19, 1946) is an American politician who served as the 42nd president of the United States from 1993 to 2001. He previously served as governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981 and agai ...

on July 3, 1996. This bill became law number Pub.L. 104–155. It was sponsored by Republican

Henry Hyde Henry John Hyde (April 18, 1924 – November 29, 2007) was an American politician who served as a Republican member of the United States House of Representatives from 1975 to 2007, representing the 6th District of Illinois, an area of Chicago's ...

. The bill was summarized by the Congressional Research Service as follows: "

he Church Arson Prevention Act of 1996 He or HE may refer to: Language * He (pronoun), an English pronoun * He (kana), the romanization of the Japanese kana へ * He (letter), the fifth letter of many Semitic alphabets * He (Cyrillic), a letter of the Cyrillic script called ''He'' ...

makes Federal criminal code prohibitions against, and penalties for, damaging religious property or obstructing any person's free exercise of religious beliefs applicable where the offense is in, or affects, interstate commerce." One of the changes in the bill was the sentence increase for "defacing or destroying any religious real property because of race, color, or ethnic characteristics…" from 10 to 20 years. It also changed the statute of limitations from five years to seven years after the date the crime was committed. It reauthorizes the Hate Crimes Statistics Act.

Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act (2009)

On October 28, 2009, President Obama signed the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act, attached to the

National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2010 The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2010 (, , 123 Stat. 2190.) is a law in the United States signed by President Barack Obama on October 28, 2009. As a bill it was H.R. 2647 in the 111th Congress. The overall purpose of the la ...

, which expanded existing United States federal hate crime law to apply to crimes motivated by a victim's actual or perceived gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, or disability, and dropped the prerequisite that the victim be engaging in a federally protected activity.

Emmett Till Antilynching Act

On March 29, 2022, President Joe Biden signed the Emmett Till Antilynching Act, which expanded existing United States federal hate crime law to apply to the crime of lynching, defining it as an act of two or more people in a conspiracy to maim or kill a person based on real or perceived traits of a victim as protected under federal law. It was the first anti-lynching bill to be passed by Congress following over 200 bills filed since the Reconstruction era.

State and district

Forty-seven states and the

District of Columbia ) , image_skyline = , image_caption = Clockwise from top left: the Washington Monument and Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall, United States Capitol, Logan Circle, Jefferson Memorial, White House, Adams Morgan, ...

have statutes criminalizing various types of bias-motivated violence or intimidation (the exceptions being

Arkansas Arkansas ( ) is a landlocked state in the South Central United States. It is bordered by Missouri to the north, Tennessee and Mississippi to the east, Louisiana to the south, and Texas and Oklahoma to the west. Its name is from the O ...

South Carolina )'' Animis opibusque parati'' ( for, , Latin, Prepared in mind and resources, links=no) , anthem = " Carolina";" South Carolina On My Mind" , Former = Province of South Carolina , seat = Columbia , LargestCity = Charleston , LargestMetro = ...

, and

Wyoming Wyoming () is a state in the Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It is bordered by Montana to the north and northwest, South Dakota and Nebraska to the east, Idaho to the west, Utah to the southwest, and Colorado to the s ...

Georgia Georgia most commonly refers to: * Georgia (country), a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia * Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the Southeast United States Georgia may also refer to: Places Historical states and entities * Related to the ...

, whose hate crime statute was struck down by the Georgia Supreme Court in 2004, passed a new hate crime law in June 2020. Each of these statutes covers bias on the basis of race, religion, and ethnicity; 34 cover

disability Disability is the experience of any condition that makes it more difficult for a person to do certain activities or have equitable access within a given society. Disabilities may be cognitive, developmental, intellectual, mental, physical, ...

; 34 of them cover sexual orientation; 30 cover gender; 22 cover transgender/gender-identity; 14 cover age; 6 cover political affiliation. and 3 along with Washington, D.C. cover homelessness. Thirty-four states and the District of Columbia have statutes creating a civil cause of action, in addition to the criminal penalty, for similar acts. Thirty states and the District of Columbia have statutes requiring the state to collect hate crime statistics; 20 of these cover sexual orientation. Twenty-seven states plus the District of Columbia have statutes that specifically cover gender. Eighteen states have hate crime laws regarding gender identity. Three states and the District of Columbia cover homelessness.

Sexual orientation and gender identity

Map of LGBT-related hate crime law in the United States

; 1983 : No LGBT hate crime statute at the state level ; 1984 : California: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute ; 1987 : Connecticut: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute ; 1988 : Wisconsin: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute ; 1989 : Minnesota: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute : Nevada: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute : Oregon: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute ; 1990 : District of Columbia: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute : New Jersey: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute : Vermont: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute ; 1991 : Florida: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute : Illinois: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute : New Hampshire: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute ; 1992 : Iowa: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute : Michigan: Sexual orientation included in hate crime data collection only ; 1993 : Maine: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute : Minnesota: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute : Texas: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute : Washington: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute ; 1996 : Massachusetts: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute ; 1997 : Delaware: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute : Louisiana: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute : Nebraska: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute ; 1998 : California: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute : Rhode Island: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute ; 1999 : Missouri: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute : Vermont: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute ; 2000 : Indiana: Sexual orientation included in hate crime data collection only : Kentucky: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute : New York: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute : Tennessee: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute ; 2002 : Kansas: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute : Pennsylvania: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute : Puerto Rico: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute ; 2003 : Arizona: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute : Hawaii: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute : New Mexico: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute ; 2004 : Connecticut: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute : Georgia: Sexual orientation and gender identity no longer explicitly listed as protected class in hate crime statute by the

Supreme Court of Georgia (U.S. state) The Supreme Court of Georgia is the highest judicial authority of the U.S. state of Georgia. The court was established in 1845 as a three-member panel. Since 1896, the justices (increased in number to six, then to seven in 1945, and finally to n ...

; 2005 : Colorado: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute : Maryland: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute ; 2008 : New Jersey: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute : Oregon: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute : Pennsylvania: Sexual orientation and gender identity no longer explicitly listed as protected class in hate crime statute by the

Supreme Court of Pennsylvania The Supreme Court of Pennsylvania is the highest court in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania's Unified Judicial System. It also claims to be the oldest appellate court in the United States, a claim that is disputed by the Massachusetts Supreme Ju ...

; 2012 : Massachusetts: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute : Rhode Island: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute ; 2013 : Delaware: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute : Nevada: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute ; 2016 : Illinois: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute ; 2019 : Tennessee: Gender Identity covered in hate crime statute : Indiana: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute : Utah: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute : Maine: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute : New Hampshire: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute : Washington State: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute : New York State: Gender identity covered in hate crime statute ; 2020 : Georgia: Sexual orientation covered in hate crime statute : Virginia: Sexual orientation and gender identity covered in hate crime statute

Police and firefighters

On May 26, 2016,

Louisiana Louisiana , group=pronunciation (French: ''La Louisiane'') is a state in the Deep South and South Central regions of the United States. It is the 20th-smallest by area and the 25th most populous of the 50 U.S. states. Louisiana is borde ...

was the first state to add

police officers A police officer (also called a policeman and, less commonly, a policewoman) is a warranted law employee of a police force. In most countries, "police officer" is a generic term not specifying a particular rank. In some, the use of the ...

and firefighters to their state hate crime statute, when Governor

John Bel Edwards John Bel Edwards (born September 16, 1966) is an American politician and attorney serving as the 56th governor of Louisiana since 2016. A member of the Democratic Party, he previously served as the Democratic leader of the Louisiana House of ...

signed an amendment from the legislature into law. This amendment was added, in part, as a response to the

Black Lives Matter Black Lives Matter (abbreviated BLM) is a decentralized political and social movement that seeks to highlight racism, discrimination, and racial inequality experienced by black people. Its primary concerns are incidents of police br ...

movement, which seeks to end police brutality against black people, with some advocates of the amendment using the slogan "

Blue Lives Matter Blue Lives Matter (also known as Police Lives Matter) is a countermovement in the United States advocating that those who are prosecuted and convicted of killing law enforcement officers should be sentenced under hate crime statutes. It was ...

". Since the inception of Black Lives Matter, critics have found some of the movement's rhetoric anti-police, with the author of the amendment,

Lance Harris John Lance Harris (born June 11, 1961) is an American businessman and politician from Alexandria, Louisiana. He is a Republican member of the Louisiana House of Representatives for District 25 in Rapides Parish. In 2020, Harris ran for Congress ...

, stating some "were employing a deliberate campaign to terrorize our officers". Despite the killing of a Texas sheriff in 2015 and the killings of two NYPD officers in the previous year, in response to the

death of Eric Garner On July 17, 2014, Eric Garner was killed in the New York City borough of Staten Island after Daniel Pantaleo, a New York City Police Department (NYPD) officer, put him in a prohibited chokehold while arresting him. Video footage of the incide ...

and the shooting of Michael Brown, there was little to no data suggesting hate crimes against law enforcement were a common problem when the bill was passed. A little less than two months after the amendment was passed, Baton Rouge was in the national spotlight after the Baton Rouge Police killing of

Alton Sterling On July 5, 2016, Alton Sterling, a 37-year-old black man, was shot and killed by two Baton Rouge Police Department officers in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. The officers, who were attempting to control Sterling's arms, shot Sterling while Sterling al ...

by two white police officers. This sparked protests in Baton Rouge, resulting in hundreds of arrests and increased racial tension nationally. In the week during those protests, five police officers were killed in Dallas, and the week after the protests, three more officers were killed in Baton Rouge. Both perpetrators were killed and the motives behind both shootings were responses to the recent killings of Black men by police officers. In 2017, Kentucky became the second state making it a hate crime to attack police officers or emergency responders. This was part of a trend in "

blue lives matter Blue Lives Matter (also known as Police Lives Matter) is a countermovement in the United States advocating that those who are prosecuted and convicted of killing law enforcement officers should be sentenced under hate crime statutes. It was ...

" legislation, encouraged by

The Heritage Foundation The Heritage Foundation (abbreviated to Heritage) is an American conservative think tank based in Washington, D.C. that is primarily geared toward public policy. The foundation took a leading role in the conservative movement during the presiden ...

and ideologues such as

Edwin Meese Edwin Meese III (born December 2, 1931) is an American attorney, law professor, author and member of the Republican Party who served in official capacities within the Ronald Reagan's gubernatorial administration (1967–1974), the Reagan pre ...

and

Bernard Kerik Bernard Bailey Kerik (born September 4, 1955) is an American consultant and former police officer who was the 40th Commissioner of the New York Police Department from 2000 to 2001. As a convicted felon, he obtained a presidential pardon from Pre ...

. That same year, Mississippi expanded its hate crime law to cover law enforcement officers, firefighters, and emergency workers. In 2019, Utah added status as a police officer or emergency responder to the list of protected classes. In 2020, Georgia enacted a new law creating the crime of bias-motivated intimidation, applying to attacks on police officers, firefighters, or emergency medical technicians.

Data collection statutes

Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990

The Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990 , requires the Attorney General to collect data on crimes committed because of the victim's race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or ethnicity. The bill was signed into law in 1990 by George H. W. Bush, and was the first federal statute to "recognize and name gay, lesbian and bisexual people." Since 1992, the Department of Justice and the FBI have jointly published an annual report on hate crime statistics.

Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994

In 1994, the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act expanded the scope of required FBI data to include hate crimes based on

, and the FBI began collecting data on disability bias crimes on January 1, 1997. In 1996, Congress permanently reauthorized the Act.

Campus Hate Crimes Right to Know Act of 1997

The Campus Hate Crimes Right to Know Act of 1997 enacted , which requires campus security authorities to collect and report data on hate crimes committed on the basis of race, gender, religion, sexual orientation, ethnicity, or disability. This bill was brought to the forefront by Senator

Robert Torricelli Robert Guy Torricelli (born August 27, 1951), is an American attorney and former politician. A Democrat, Torricelli served as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from New Jersey's 9th district from 1983 to 1997 and as a United States s ...

Prevalence

The DOJ and the FBI have gathered statistics on hate crimes reported to law enforcement since 1992 in accordance with the

Hate Crime Statistics Act The Hate Crime Statistics Act28 U.S.C. § 534(HCSA), passed in 1990 and modified in 2009 by the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act, requires the Attorney General to collect data on crimes committed because of the victim' ...

. The FBI's

Criminal Justice Information Services Division The Criminal Justice Information Services Division (or CJIS) is a division of the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) located in Clarksburg, Harrison County, West Virginia. The CJIS was established in February 1992 and is the lar ...

has annually published these statistics as part of its Uniform Crime Reporting program. According to these reports, of the over 113,000 hate crimes since 1991, 55% were motivated by racial bias, 17% by religious bias, 14% sexual orientation bias, 14% ethnicity bias, and 1% disability bias.

David Ray Hate Crimes Prevention Act The David Ray Hate Crimes Prevention Act of 2009 () or David's Law, was a bill first introduced in the United States House of Representatives on January 7, 2009, by Rep. Sheila Jackson-Lee of Texas. It was designed to enhance Federal enforcement of ...

Please note that the figures in the table below do not contain data from all reporting agencies every year. 2004 figures covered a population of 254,193,439, 2014 covered 297,926,030.

Covering homeless people

Florida, Maine, Maryland, and Washington, D.C. have hate crime laws that include the homeless status of an individual. May 18, 2010, ''Orlando Sentinel'', Quote: "Florida becomes only the fourth jurisdiction to make attacks on homeless people a hate crime – behind Maryland, Maine and Washington, D.C." A 2007 study found that the number of violent crimes against the homeless is increasing.

National Coalition for the Homeless National may refer to: Common uses * Nation or country ** Nationality – a ''national'' is a person who is subject to a nation, regardless of whether the person has full rights as a citizen Places in the United States * National, Maryland, c ...

, The rate of such documented crimes in 2005 was 30% higher than of those in 1999. 75% of all perpetrators are under the age of 25. Studies and surveys indicate that homeless people have a much higher criminal victimization rate than the non-homeless, but that most incidents never get reported to authorities. In recent years, largely due to the efforts of the

(NCH) and academic researchers the problem of violence against the homeless has gained national attention. The NCH called deliberate attacks against the homeless hate crimes in their report ''Hate, Violence, and Death on Mainstreet USA'' (they retain the definition of the American Congress). The ''Center for the Study of Hate & Extremism'' at

California State University The California State University (Cal State or CSU) is a public university system in California. With 23 campuses and eight off-campus centers enrolling 485,550 students with 55,909 faculty and staff, CSU is the largest four-year public univers ...

, San Bernardino in conjunction with the NCH found that 155 homeless people were killed by non-homeless people in "hate killings", while 76 people were killed in all the other traditional hate crime homicide categories such as race and religion, combined. The CSHE contends that negative and degrading portrayals of the homeless contribute to a climate where violence takes place.

Debate

Penalty-enhancement hate crime laws are traditionally justified on the grounds that, in Chief Justice Rehnquist's words, "this conduct is thought to inflict greater individual and societal harm.... bias-motivated crimes are more likely to provoke retaliatory crimes, inflict distinct emotional harms on their victims, and incite community unrest." Wisconsin v. Mitchell, 508 U.S. 476 (1993).

Coverage of white people

In a 2001 report, ''Hate crimes on campus: the problem and efforts to confront it,'' by

Stephen Wessler Stephen or Steven is a common English first name. It is particularly significant to Christians, as it belonged to Saint Stephen ( grc-gre, Στέφανος ), an early disciple and deacon who, according to the Book of Acts, was stoned to death; ...

and Margaret Moss of the

Center for the Prevention of Hate Violence Center or centre may refer to: Mathematics * Center (geometry), the middle of an object * Center (algebra), used in various contexts ** Center (group theory) ** Center (ring theory) * Graph center, the set of all vertices of minimum eccentrici ...

at the

University of Southern Maine The University of Southern Maine (USM) is a public university with campuses in Portland, Gorham and Lewiston in the U.S. state of Maine. It is the southernmost of the University of Maine System. It was founded as two separate state universit ...

, the authors note that "although there are fewer hate crimes directed against Caucasians than against other groups, they do occur and are prosecuted." The case in which the Supreme Court upheld hate crimes legislation against

First Amendment First or 1st is the ordinal form of the number one (#1). First or 1st may also refer to: *World record, specifically the first instance of a particular achievement Arts and media Music * 1$T, American rapper, singer-songwriter, DJ, and reco ...

attack, ''

Wisconsin v. Mitchell ''Wisconsin v. Mitchell'', 508 U.S. 476 (1993), was a case in which the United States Supreme Court held that enhanced penalties for hate crimes do not violate criminal defendants' First Amendment rights.. It was a landmark precedent pertaining t ...

'', 508 U.S. 476 (1993), involved a white victim. Hate crime statistics published in 2002, gathered by the FBI under the auspices of the Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990, documented over 7,000 hate crime incidents, in roughly one-fifth of which the victims were white people. However, these statistics have caused dispute. The FBI's hate crimes statistics for 1993, which similarly reported 20% of all hate crimes to be committed against white people, prompted Jill Tregor, executive director of Intergroup Clearinghouse, to decry it as "an abuse of what the hate crime laws were intended to cover", stating that the white victims of these crimes were employing hate crime laws as a means to further penalize minorities.

James B. Jacobs James Barrett Jacobs (April 25, 1947 – March 19, 2020) was the Warren E. Burger Professor of Constitutional Law and the Courts at New York University School of Law, where he was a faculty member since 1982. He was a specialist in criminal law, cr ...

and Kimberly Potter note that white people, including those who may be sympathetic to the plight of those who are victims of hate crimes ''by'' white people, bristle at the notion that hate crimes against whites are somehow inferior to, and less worthy than, hate crimes against other groups. They observe that while, as stated by Altschiller, no hate crime law makes any such distinction, the proposition has been argued by "a number of writers in prominent publications", who have advocated the removal of hate crimes against whites from the category of hate crime, on the grounds that hate crime laws, in their view, are intended to be affirmative action for "protected groups". Jacobs and Potter firmly assert that such a move is "fraught with potential for social conflict and constitutional concerns." The FBI listed 775 victims of anti-white hate crimes in 2019, more than victims of anti-Asian or anti-Arab hate crimes but less than victims of anti-black hate crimes. Between 2008 and 2012, anti-white hate crimes were the 3rd most common form of hate crimes, behind anti-black and anti-LGBT hate crimes (see detailed Hate crime#Victims in the United States).

References

External links

Database of hate crime statutes by state
via Anti-Defamation League * ate Crimes Bill S. 1105 detailed information on hate crimes bill.
"Hate Crime." Oxford Bibliographies Online: Criminology.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hate Crime Laws In The United States Hate crime United States criminal law by topic Anti-discrimination law in the United States