Hajib (singer)

Hajib or hadjib (also spelled Khajib) ( ar, الحاجب, al-ḥājib "to block, the prevent someone from entering somewhere"; referring to "the person who prevents a person from entering a place, the doorman") was a post that appeared under the Umayyad Caliphate, but gained in influence and prestige in the more settled court of the Abbasids, under whom it ranked as one of the senior offices of the state, alongside the vizier. From the Caliphates, the post spread to other areas under Muslim dominion: in al-Andalus the ''hajib'' was always superior to the vizier and by the 10th century had come to wield enormous power; in the eastern dynasties, the Samanids, Buyids and Ghaznavids, the title acquired a mainly military role; under the Seljuks, Ilkhanids and Timurids it reverted to its role as a court official; in Fatimid Egypt, the chief ''hajib'', styled ''Sahib al-bab'' ("Master of the Gate") or ''hajib al-hujjab'' ("chamberlain of chamberlains, head chamberlain") was also an important official; under the Mamluks, they acquired important judicial duties.

Origin

The office has its origins in pre-Islamic Arabia, where doorkeeping (''ḥijāba'', "concealing") was one of the duties of domestic slaves or clients (''mawālī'', singular ''mawlā'') of an Arab household. Modern scholars have traditionally regarded the office of ''hajib'' in a courtly setting as an innovation of the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), but in reality it is widely attested in the sources for the pre-Islamic Ghassanid and Lakhmid kings, the prophet Muhammad, Sajah, various early Muslim provincial governors and political figures, including all early caliphs and anti-caliphs such as Hasan ibn Ali and Ibn al-Zubayr. However, in Arabic historiography, their existence is often obscured or euphemistically paraphrased, since the office was ill regarded in early Muslim society, with its strong egalitarian tendencies.

Indeed, the formalization of the ''hajib'' is part of the consolidation and stratification process of the Muslim society after the early Muslim conquests, when the ruler began to be separated from the ruled, and surrounded by an increasingly elaborate ceremonial, borrowed in large part from Sassanid Persian practic.

Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates

In the Umayyad and early Abbasid periods, up to the early 9th century, most of the occupants of the office were still ''mawālī''. During this time, the ''hajib'' still occupied a lower rung in the court hierarchy than the Arab aristocracy or the great ministers of state. His main duties were those of a master of ceremonies, organizing and supervising caliphal audiences, and bringing visitors to the caliph's presence. He was also head of the palace staff, and might sometimes be employed by the caliph as a trusted agent in eliminating certain of the caliph's subjects.

With the rise of the Abbasids, the ''mawālī'' gained in prestige at court, despite their often very humble origin. With the introduction of the vizier as the head of government, a kind of separation of powers emerged, where the vizier—usually drawn from the secretarial class—headed the administration, while the ''hajib'' controlled courtly affairs. The holders of the two offices often vied for control of the administration; thus the ''hajib''s al-Rabi' ibn Yunus and his son al-Fadl ibn al-Rabi' both became viziers after the dismissal of their rivals who previously held the office. This division and the rivalry between the two offices was strengthened during the "Samarra period", when the office of ''hajib'' began to be occupied by Turkish slave soldiers (''ghilman'', sing. ''ghulam''), whose "background, formation, and interests differed starkly from those of the bureaucratic vizier". Under Caliph al-Mutawakkil, the Turkish ''hijab'' Itakh served as chief minister, since the Caliph did not nominate a vizier.

In the late 9th century, the position of the vizier was strengthened, as the powers of the office became more formalized and he emerged as the head of the civilian administration, underpinned by a highly specialized secretarial class. Another contender for authority also emerged in the commander-in-chief of the army. However, the ''hajib'' remained a powerful official, especially during palace coups, as he controlled a part of the caliphal bodyguard, notably the ''Maṣāffiyya''. Under al-Muqtadir (), the ''hajib'' Nasr al-Qushuri became a major power-broker, since he occupied his post continuously from 908–929, whereas the viziers changed rapidly during this period. He not only had a role in the selection of several viziers, but also was responsible for arresting them when they were dismissed.

After 929, the commanders-in-chief supplanted the viziers in power and began dominating the government, becoming the main rivals of the ''hajib'', who now also assumed a more military character. Thus the ''hajib'' Yaqut had his son Muhammad ibn Yaqut appointed '' sahib al-shurta'' in his rivalry with the commander-in-chief Mu'nis al-Muzaffar, before they were both dismissed at the latter's insistence. Under al-Qahir () the ''hajib'' Ibn Yalbaq was a soldier who tried to impose his pro-Shi'a beliefs on the caliph. Under ar-Radi, Muhammad ibn Yaqut made a comeback, combining the positions of ''hajib'' and commander-in-chief, but despite their dominant position in Baghdad, the lack of financial resources meant that the ''hajib'' could not compete with provincial governors who controlled the sources of revenue. Thus in 936 it was Ibn Ra'iq who was selected as '' amir al-umara'', and became the ''de facto'' ruler of the caliphate. Having lost the struggle for power, the chamberlains were recompensed with an increase in titulature: from 941, the head chamberlain was known as ''hajib al-hujab'' ("chamberlain of chamberlains").

Al-Andalus

In the Umayyad Emirate of Cordoba and in the succeeding Caliphate of Cordoba, the ''hajib'' was from the outset the most senior minister of the state, at the head of his own court (''majlis''), where he received petitioners and messengers. The ''hajib'' was the chief aide of the emir or caliph and the head of the administration, supervising the three main branches into which it was divided: the royal household, the chancery, and the financial department. Several of the holders of the office also commanded armies. Unlike the Islamic East, the title of vizier was given to lower-ranking counsellors tasked with various matters, and subordinate to the ''hajib''; the latter was almost always chosen from the viziers. A number of ordinary ''hajib''s was tasked with the doorkeeping duties and directing court ceremonies.

Notable ''hajib''s were Abd al-Karim ibn Abd al-Wahid ibn Mughith, who served in the post in the successive reigns of Hisham I (), al-Hakam I (), and Abd al-Rahman II (); the famously incorruptible Isa ibn Shuhayd, who served under Abd al-Rahman II and into the reign of Muhammad I (); and finally Almanzor, who as the ''hajib'' assumed quasi-regal authority and was the ''de facto'' ruler of the Caliphate of Cordoba 978 until his death in 1002.

Following the collapse of the caliphate and the political fragmentation of al-Andalus into the competing taifa kingdoms, some of the taifa rulers, who were not members of the Umayyad dynasty and could not claim the title of caliph, imitated Almanzor and used the title of ''hajib'', rather than ''malik'' ("king"), thus maintaining the fiction that they were simply representatives of the long-vanished caliph.

Eastern Islamic dynasties

Many of the dynasties that emerged in the eastern Islamic world after the fragmentation of the Abbasid Caliphate in the mid 9th–10th centuries modelled their administrative and courtly practices on the Abbasids. Thus the title of ''hajib'' was still used for masters of ceremonies and intermediaries between the ruler to the bureaucracy, but also as a military rank given to generals and provincial governors.

Thus in the Samanid dynasty (819–999), which also relied on a Turkic-dominated ghilman corps, the title was originally restricted to the ruler's household, but by the mid-10th century had come to acquire a military role: the "chief" or "great ''hajib''" (''al-hajib al-kabir'', ''hajib al-hudjjab'', ''hajib-i buzurg'') was the second man in the state, combining in his person the functions of head of the palace and commander-in-chief. Ordinary ''hajib''s served as generals and, occasionally, provincial governors. According to Nizam al-Mulk's account on the training of ''ghilman'', a ''ghulam'' could rise through the ranks to ''withaq-bashi'' ("tent leader"), ''khayl-bashi'' ("detachment commander"), before attaining the rank of ''hijab'', and then become '' amir'' of a province. The Samanid practice was emulated by the successor Ghaznavid dynasty (977–1186) as well, with the ''hajib-i buzurg'' as the commander-in-chief in the Sultan's stead, commanding several ordinary ''hajib''s as generals; all of them were distinguished by a black cloak, a specific type of belt, and a two-pointed cap. However, unlike the Samanids, the Ghaznavid ''hajib-i buzurg'' did not exercise direct control over the palace administration, which was in the hands of the ''wakil-i khass'', nor over the palace guard, which was entrusted to the ''salar-i ghulaman-i saray''. In the Buyid emirates (934–1062), which lacked the sophisticated central government of the Abbasid type, ''hajib'' was exclusively a military title. The account of Miskawayh implies that here too there was a succession of ranks, from '' naqib'' to ''qa'id'' and then to ''hajib''.

In the Seljuk Empire (1037–1194), however, the mainly military role of the chief ''hajib'' receded somewhat, although, given the military character of the Seljuk court, its occupant was still a Turkish commander (''amir''), with a staff mostly drawn from ''ghilman''. The ''amir hajib'' might still participate in campaigns and command parts of an army, but he was once again mostly a court official, commanding generals being designated as ''sipahsalar'' or ''isfahsalar''. The office's role under the Seljuks is described in the writings of Nizam al-Mulk and Muhammad bin Ali Rawandi. Anachronistically ascribing its existence to the practices of the Sasanian court, the latter writes that the ''hajib'' was the official responsible for administering punishment. The ''amir hajib'' was the highest-ranking court official, and apart from ceremonies and protocol, he was also responsible for military discipline. Under Muhammad I Tapar, the ''amir hajib'' is recorded as acting as the intermediary between the Seljuk sultan and his officials, including the vizier. Nizam al-Mulk also mentions the existence of a ''hajib-i dargah'', responsible for ceremonies and order at court; it is unclear whether that was a distinct office from that of ''amir hajib''. From the names of ''amir hajib''s provided by Rawandi, the office was not hereditary—with only one exception: Ali Bar, ''hajib'' of Muhammad I, was succeeded by his son Muhammad, under Mahmud II—and was often held by some of the most powerful ''amir'' of the day, while others are rather unknown. There were also a number of junior chamberlains with the simple title of ''hajib'' in the Seljuk court. In time, the most important generals and provincial governors, as well as other prominent men of the realm, also acquired ''hajib''s in their retinues. These were not always military men.

Under the Ilkhanids (1256–1357), the ''hajib'' was again a chamberlain, although both in the royal court as well as in the lesser provincial courts these men were drawn from the military class. The ''hajib''s remained court officials under the Timurids, while under the Safavids the chief chamberlain was known as '' ishik-aqasi bashi'' and held the duties of a master of ceremonies analogous to the ''hajib-i dargah''.

Egypt and the Levant

In the Fatimid Caliphate, the ''hajib''s were chamberlains, with the chief chamberlain known as the "Lord of the Gate" (''sahib al-bab'') or, occasionally, as "Chief Chamberlain" (''hajib al-hujjab''). Furthermore, the writer Ibn al-Sayrfi mentions the existence of a ''hajib al-diwan'', tasked with preventing unauthorized visitors and preserving state secrets.

The military ''hajib'' was introduced to the Levant by the Seljuks, and this model was followed by the Zengids and the Ayyubids after them. However, the use of the title ''hajib'' for chamberlains continued in Egypt until the 13th century.

Maghreb

References

Sources

*D. Sourdel, ''Le vizirat 'Abbaside'', Damascus 1959-1960.
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*{{EI2 , last1=Sourdel , first1=D. , authorlink1=Dominique Sourdel , last2=Bosworth , first2=C.E. , authorlink2=C. E. Bosworth , last3=Lambton , first3=A.K.S. , authorlink3=A.K.S. Lambton , title=Ḥādjib , volume=3 , pages=45–49 , url = https://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0250

Arabic words and phrases
Medieval Islamic world