Hadith terminology

Hadith terminology ( ar, مصطلح الحديث, muṣṭalaḥu l-ḥadīth) is the body of terminology in Islam which specifies the acceptability of the sayings (''hadith'') attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad by other early Islamic figures of significance such as the companions and followers/ successors. Individual terms distinguish between those ''hadith'' considered rightfully attributed to their source or detail the faults of those of dubious provenance. Formally, it has been defined by Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani as: "knowledge of the principles by which the condition of the narrator and the narrated are determined." This page comprises the primary terminology used within hadith studies.

Classification of Hadith

Terminology pertaining to a narration's origin

Different terms are used for the origin of a narration. These terms specify whether a narration is attributed to Muhammad, a companion, a successor or a latter historical figure.

Marfūʿ

Ibn al-Salah said: "''Marfūʿ'' ( ar, , ) refers to a narration attributed specifically to the Prophet uhammad This term does not refer to other than him unless otherwise specified. The category of ''marfuʻ'' is inclusive of narrations attributed to the Prophet regardless of their being ''muttasil'', ''munqatiʻ'' or ''mursal'' among other categories."''Muqadimah Ibn al-Salah'', by Ibn al-Salah, along with ''Muhasin al-Istilah'' by al-Bulqini, edited by 'Aishah bint 'Abd al-Rahman, pg. 193-5, ''Dar al-Ma'arif'', Cairo.

''Mawquf''

According to Ibn al-Salah, "''Mawquf'' ( ar, , ) refers to a narration attributed to a companion, whether a statement of that companion, an action or otherwise."

''Maqtu‘''

Ibn al-Salah defined ''maqtu‘'' (, ) as a narration attributed to a Tabi‘i (a successor of one of Muhammad's companions), whether it is a statement of that successor, an action or otherwise. In spite of the linguistic similarity, it is distinct from ''munqatiʻ''.

Terminology relating to the number of narrators in an ''isnad''

In ''hadith'' terminology, a ''hadith'' is divided into two categories based, essentially, upon the number of narrators mentioned at each level in a particular ''isnād''. Consideration is given to the fewest narrators at any level of the chain of narration; thus if ten narrators convey a ''hadith'' from two others who have conveyed it from ten, it is considered '' ʻaziz'', not '' mashhur''.''Nuzhah al-Nathar'', by Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, printed with: ''Al-Nukat Ala Nuzhah al-Nathr'', pgs. 51–70, by Ali ibn Hasan ibn Ali, ''Dar Ibn al-Jawzi'', Dammam, Saudi Arabia, sixth edition, 1422.

''Mutawatir''

The first category is ''mutawatir'' (, ; successive) narration. A successive narration is one conveyed by narrators so numerous that it is not conceivable that they have agreed upon an untruth thus being accepted as unquestionable in its veracity. The number of narrators is unspecified in its maximum but in the minimum it is not less than 3 ( or 5 in some scholars opinions).
A ''hadith'' is said to be ''mutawatir'' if it was reported by a significant, though unspecified, number of narrators at each level in the chain of narration, thus reaching the succeeding generation through multiple chains of narration leading back to its source. This provides confirmation that the ''hadith'' is authentically attributed to its source at a level above reasonable doubt. This is due to its being beyond historical possibility that narrators could have conspired to forge a narration. In contrast, an ''ahaad hadith'' is a narration the chain of which has not reached a number sufficient to qualify as ''mutawatir''.

Types of ''mutawatir''

''Hadiths'' can be ''mutawatir'' in both actual text and meaning:

; ''Mutawatir'' in wording (Mutawatir al-Lafzi)
: A ''hadith'' whose words are narrated by such a large number as is required for a ''mutawatir'', in a manner that all the narrators are unanimous in reporting it with the same words without any substantial discrepancy.
: For example: " uhammad said:Whoever intentionally attributes a lie against me, should prepare his seat in the Fire." This is a ''mutawatir hadith'' in its wordings because it has a minimum of seventy-four narrators. In other words, seventy-four companions of Muhammad have reported this ''hadith'' at different occasions, all with the same words. The number of those who received this ''hadith'' from the Companions is many times greater, because each of the seventy four Companions has conveyed it to a number of his students. Thus the total number of narrators of this ''hadith'' has been increasing in each successive generation and has never been less than seventy-four. All these narrators who now are hundreds in number, report it in the same words without even a minor change. This ''hadith'' is therefore mutawatir in its wording, because it cannot be imagined reasonably that such a large number of people have colluded to coin a fallacious sentence in order to attribute it to Muhammad.
; ''Mutwatir'' in meaning (Mutawatir al-Ma'Nawi)
: A ''hadith'' which is not reported by multiple narrators using the same words. The words of the narrators are different. Sometimes even the reported events are not the same. But all the narrators are unanimous in reporting a basic concept, which is common in all reports. This common concept is also ranked as a ''mutawatir'' concept.
: For example: It is reported by such a large number of narrators that Muhammad enjoined Muslims to perform two '' ra'kat'' in Fajr, four ra'kat in Dhuhr and Esha and three ra'kat in the Maghrib prayer, yet the narrations of all the reporters who reported the number of ra'kat are not in the same words. Their words are different and even the events reported by them are different. But the common feature of all the reports is the same: the exact number of ra'kat. The ''hadith'' is thus said to be ''mutawatir'' in meaning.

''Ahaad''

The second category, ''ahaad'' (, ; singular) narration, refers to any ''hadith'' not classified as ''mutawatir''. Linguistically, ''hadith ahad'' refers to a ''hadith'' narrated by only one narrator. In ''hadith'' terminology, it refers to a ''hadith'' not fulfilling all of the conditions necessary to be deemed ''mutawatir''. ''Hadith ahad'' consists of three sub-classifications also relating to the number of narrators in the chain or chains of narration:

''Mashhur''

The first category is ''mashhur'' (, ; famous). This refers to ''hadith'' conveyed by three or more narrators but not considered ''mutawatir''.

''ʻAziz''

An ''ʻaziz'' (, ) ''hadith'' is any ''hadith'' conveyed by two narrators at every point in its ''isnād'' (chain of narrators).

''Gharib''

A ''gharib'' (, ) ''hadith'' is one conveyed by only one narrator. Al-Tirmidhi's understanding of a ''gharib hadith'', concurs to a certain extent with that of the other traditionists. According to him a ''hadith'' may be classified as ''gharib'' for one of the following three reasons:
# Firstly, a ''hadith'' may be classified as ''gharib'' since it is narrated from one chain only. Al-Tirmidhi mentions as an example a tradition from Hammad ibn Salamah from Abu 'Usharai on the authority of his father who enquired from the Prophet whether the slaughtering of an animal is confined to the gullet and throat. The Prophet replied that stabbing the thigh will also suffice.
# Secondly, a tradition can be classified as ''gharib'' due to an addition in the text, though it will be considered a sound tradition, if that addition is reported by a reliable reporter. The example cited by al-Tirmidhi is a tradition narrated through the chain of Malik (died 179  AH) from Nafi' (died 117 AH) on the authority of Ibn 'Umar (died 73 AH) who stated that the Prophet declared alms-giving at the end of Ramadan obligatory upon every Muslim, male or female, whether a free person or slave from the Muslims. However, this tradition has also been narrated by Ayyub Sakhtiyani and 'Ubaid Allah ibn 'Umar, without the addition "from the Muslims", hence the above-mentioned example due to the addition of "from the Muslims" in the text is classified as ''gharib''.
# Thirdly, a tradition may be declared ''gharib'' since it is narrated through various chains of transmitters but having within one of its chains an addition in the ''isnād''.

Impact on Islamic law

There are differing views as to the level of knowledge achieved by each of the two primary categories ''mutawatir'' and ''ahaad''. One view, expressed by Ibn Hajar and others, is that a ''hadith mutawatir'' achieves certain knowledge, while ''ahad hadith'', unless otherwise corroborated, yields speculative knowledge upon which action is not mandated. A second view, held by Dawud al-Zahiri, Ibn Hazm and othersand, reportedly, the position of Malik ibn Anasis that ''hadith ahad'' achieves certain knowledge as well. According to Ibn Hazm, narration conveyed by a single, upright narrator conveying from another of a similar description until reaching the Prophet mandates both knowledge and action."

Terminology relating to the authenticity of a ''hadith''

Ibn al-Salah said, "''Hadith'', in the view of scholars of this discipline, fall into the divisions of 'sound' (''ṣaḥīḥ''), 'fair' (''ḥasan''), and 'weak' (''ḍaʻīf'')." While these divisions are further broken down into sub-categories each with their own terminology, the final outcome is essentially to determine whether a particular ''hadith'' is ''ṣaḥīḥ'' or ''ḍaʻīf''.

The individual terms are numerous, with Ibn al-Salah including sixty-five in his ''Introduction to the Science of Hadith'' and then commenting: "This is the end of them, but not the end of what is possible, as this is subject to further particularization to an innumerable extent." Al-Bulqini commented on this by saying, "We have added five more categories, making it seventy." Ibn al-Mulaqqin counted the various types as being "more than eighty" and al-Suyuti included ninety-three in ''Tadrib al-Rawi''. Muḥammad al-Ḥāzimī acknowledged the numerous terms, reaching almost 100 by his own count, saying: "Be aware that the science of ''hadith'' consists of numerous types reaching almost a hundred. Each type is an independent discipline in and of itself and were a student to devote his life to them he would not reach their end."

''Ṣaḥīḥ''

''Sahih'' ( ar, , ) may be translated as "authentic" or "sound." Ibn Hajar defines a ''hadith'' that is ' ("''ṣaḥīḥ'' in and of itself") as a singular narration (''ahaad''; see below) conveyed by a trustworthy, completely competent person, either in his ability to memorize or to preserve what he wrote, with a '' muttaṣil'' ("connected") '' isnād'' ("chain of narration") that contains neither a serious concealed flaw (''ʻillah,'' Arabic:علة) nor irregularity (''shādhdh''). He then defines a ''hadith'' that is ''ṣaḥīḥ lighairihi'' ("''ṣaḥīḥ'' due to external factors") as a ''hadith'' "with something, such as numerous chains of narration, strengthening it."

Ibn Hajar's definitions indicate that there are five conditions to be met for a particular ''hadith'' to be considered ''ṣaḥīḥ'':
# Each narrator in the chain of narration must be trustworthy;
# Each narrator must be reliable in his ability to ''preserve'' that narration, be it in his ability to memorize to the extent that he can recall it as he heard it, or, that he has written it as he heard it and has preserved that written document unchanged;
# The ''isnād'' must be connected (''muttasil'') insofar as it is at least possible for each narrator in the chain to have received the ''hadith'' from a predecessor;
# The ''hadith'', including its ''isnād'', is free of ''ʻillah'' (hidden detrimental flaw or flaws, e.g. the establishment that two narrators, although contemporaries, could not have shared the ''hadith'', thereby breaking the ''isnād''.)
# The ''hadith'' is free of irregularity, meaning that it does not contradict another ''hadith'' already established (accepted).

A number of books were authored in which the author stipulated the inclusion of ''ṣaḥīḥ hadith'' alone.

According to Sunni Islam, which reflects the beliefs followed by 80–90% of adherents of Islam worldwide, this was only achieved by the first two books in the following list:

# '' Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī''. Considered the most authentic book after the Quran.
# '' Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim''. Considered the next most authentic book after Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī.
# '' Ṣaḥīḥ ibn Khuzaymah''. Al-Suyuti was of the opinion that ''Ṣaḥīḥ Ibn Khuzaymah'' was at a higher level of authenticity than ''Ṣaḥīḥ Ibn Ḥibbān''.''Tadrib al-Rawi'', vol. 1, pg. 148, ''Dar al-'Asimah'', Riyadh, first edition, 2003.
# '' Ṣaḥīḥ Ibn Ḥibbān''. Al-Suyuti also concluded that ''Ṣaḥīḥ Ibn Ḥibbān'' was more authentic than ''Al-Mustadrak alaa al-Ṣaḥīḥain''.
# '' al-Mustadrak ʻalā al-Ṣaḥīḥayn'', by Hakim al-Nishaburi.
# ''Al-Āhādith al-Jiyād al-Mukhtārah min mā laysa fī Ṣaḥīḥain'' by Ḍiyāʼ al-Dīn al-Maqdisī, authenticity considered.
Different branches of Islam refer to different collections of hadiths or give preference to different ones.

''Ḥasan''

''Ḥasan'' ( meaning "good") is used to describe ''hadith'' whose authenticity is not as well-established as that of ''ṣaḥīḥ hadith'', but sufficient for use as supporting evidence.

Ibn Hajar defines a ''hadith'' that is ''ḥasan lithatihi''"''ḥasan'' in and of itself"with the same definition a ''ṣaḥīḥ hadith'' except that the competence of one of its narrators is less than complete; while a ''hadith'' that is ''ḥasan ligharihi'' ("ḥasan due to external factors") is determined to be ''ḥasan'' due to corroborating factors such as numerous chains of narration. He states that it is then comparable to a ''ṣaḥīḥ hadith'' in its religious authority. A ''ḥasan hadith'' may rise to the level of being ''ṣaḥīḥ'' if it is supported by numerous ''isnād'' (chains of narration); in this case that ''hadith'' would be ''ḥasan lithatihi'' ("''ḥasan'' in and of itself") but, once coupled with other supporting chains, becomes ''ṣaḥīḥ ligharihi'' ("''ṣaḥīḥ'' due to external factors").

Related terms

''Musnad''

The early scholar of ''hadith'', Muhammad ibn Abdullah al-Hakim, defines a ''musnad'' (, ; supported) ''hadith'' as:

=''Musnad'' format of ''hadith'' collection

=
A ''musnad hadith'' should not be confused with the type of ''hadith'' collection similarly termed ''musannaf'', which is arranged according to the name of the companion narrating each ''hadith''. For example, a ''musnad'' might begin by listing a number of the ''hadith'', complete with their respective ''sanads'', of Abu Bakr, and then listing a number of ''hadith'' from Umar, and then Uthman ibn Affan and so on. Individual compilers of this type of collection may vary in their method of arranging those Companions whose ''hadith'' they were collecting. An example of this type of book is the ''Musnad of Ahmad''.

''Muttaṣil''

''Muttasil'' (, ) refers to a continuous chain of narration in which each narrator has heard that narration from his teacher.

''Ḍaʻīf''

''Da‘if'' (, ) is the categorization of a ''hadith'' as "weak". Ibn Hajar described the cause of a ''hadith'' being classified as weak as "either due to discontinuity in the chain of narrators or due to some criticism of a narrator."''Nuzhah al-Nuthr'', published with ''Al-Nukat'', pg. 108, ''Dar ibn al-Jawzi'', al-Damam, 6th edition. This discontinuity refers to the omission of a narrator occurring at different positions within the ''isnād'' and is referred to using specific terminology accordingly as discussed below.

Categories of discontinuity

= ''Muʻallaq''

=
Discontinuity in the beginning of the ''isnād'', from the end of the collector of that ''hadith'', is referred to as ''muʻallaq'' ( meaning "suspended"). ''Muʻallaq'' refers to the omission of one or more narrators. It also refers to the omission of the entire ''isnād'', for example, (an author) saying only: "The Prophet said..." In addition, this includes the omission of the ''isnād'' except for the companion, or the companion and successor together.

=''Mursal''

=
''Mursal'' ( meaning "sent or transmitted"): if the narrator between the Successor and Muhammad is omitted from a given ''isnād'', the ''hadith'' is ''mursal'', e.g., when a Successor says, "The Prophet said ..." Since Ahlus-Sunnah (Sunnis) believe in the uprightness of all ''Sahaba'', they do not view it as a necessary problem if a Successor does not mention what ''Sahaba'' he received the ''hadith'' from. This means that if a ''hadith'' has an acceptable chain all the way to a Successor, and the successor attributes it to an unspecified companion, the ''isnād'' is considered acceptable. There are, however, different views in some cases: If the Successor is a young one and it is probable that he omitted an elder Successor who in turn reported from a companion. The opinion held by Imam Malik and all Maliki jurists is that the ''mursal'' of a trustworthy person is valid, just like a ''musnad hadith''. This view has been developed to such an extreme that to some of them, the mursal is even better than the musnad, based on the following reasoning: "The one who reports a musnad ''hadith'' leaves you with the names of the reporters for further investigation and scrutiny, whereas the one who narrates by way of ''irsal'' (the absence of the link between the successor and the Prophet), being a knowledgeable and trustworthy person himself, has already done so and found the ''hadith'' to be sound. In fact, he saves you from further research." Others reject the ''mursal'' of a younger Successor.

= ''Muʻḍal''

=
''Mu‘dal'' (, ; problematic) describes the omission of two or more consecutive narrators from the ''isnād''.

= ''Munqaṭiʻ''

=
A ''hadith'' described as ''munqaṭiʻ'' (; disconnected) is one in which the chain of people reporting the ''hadith'' (the ''isnād'') is disconnected at any point. The ''isnād'' of a ''hadith'' that appears to be '' muttaṣil'' but one of the reporters is known to have never heard ''hadith'' from his immediate authority, even though they lived at the same time, is ''munqaṭiʻ''. It is also applied when someone says "A man told me...".

Other types of weakness

=''Munkar''

=
''Munkar'' ( denounced) – According to Ibn Hajar, if a narration which goes against another authentic ''hadith'' is reported by a weak narrator, it is known as ''munkar''. Traditionists as late as Ahmad used to simply label any ''hadith'' of a weak reporter as ''munkar''.

= ''Shādh''

=
''Shādh'' (; anomalous) — According to al-Shafi'i, a ''shādhdh hadith'' is one which is reported by a trustworthy person who contradicts the narration of a person more reliable than he is. It does not include a ''hadith'' which is unique in its ''matn'' and is not narrated by someone else.

= ''Muḍṭarib''

=
''Mudtarib'' (, ; shaky) – According to Ibn Kathir, if reporters disagree about a particular shaikh, or about some other points in the ''isnād'' or the ''matn'', in such a way that none of the opinions can be preferred over the others, and thus there is irreconcilable uncertainty, such a ''hadith'' is called ''muḍṭarib''.

An example is the following ''hadith'' attributed to Abu Bakr:

"O Messenger of Allah! I see you getting older?" He (may Allah bless him and grant him peace) replied, "What made me old are Surah Hud and its sister surahs."

The ''hadith'' scholar Al-Daraqutni commented: "This is an example of a ''muḍṭarib hadith''. It is reported through Abu Ishaq, but as many as ten different opinions are held regarding this ''isnād''. Some report it as ''mursal'', others as ''muttasil''; some take it as a narration of Abu Bakr, others as one of Sa'd or ʻA'ishah. Since all these reports are comparable in weight, it is difficult to prefer one above another. Hence, the ''hadith'' is termed as ''muḍṭarib''."

= ''Mawḍūʻ''

=

A ''hadith'' that is ''mawḍūʻ'' () is one determined to be fabricated and cannot be attributed to its origin. Al-Dhahabi defines ''mawḍūʻ'' as a ''hadith'' of which the text contradicts established norms of the Prophet's sayings or of which the reporters include a liar.

Recognizing fabricated ''hadith''

# Some of these ''hadith'' were known to be spurious by the confession of their inventors. For example, Muhammad ibn Sa`id al-Maslub used to say, "It is not wrong to fabricate an ''isnād'' for a sound statement." Another notorious inventor, ʻAbd al-Karim Abu 'l-Auja, who was killed and crucified by Muhammad ibn Sulaiman ibn ʻAli, governor of Basra, admitted that he had fabricated four thousand ''hadith'' declaring lawful the prohibited and vice versa.
# ''Mawḍūʻ'' narrations are also recognised by external evidence related to a discrepancy found in the dates or times of a particular incident. For example, when the second caliph, Umar ibn al-Khattab decided to expel the Jews from Khaybar, some Jewish dignitaries brought a document to Umar attempting to prove that the Prophet had intended that they stay there by exempting them from the jizya (tax on non-Muslims under the rule of Muslims); the document carried the witness of two companions, Sa'd ibn Mua'dh and Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan. Umar rejected the document outright, knowing that it was fabricated because the conquest of Khaybar took place in 6 AH, whereas Sa'd ibn Mua'dh died in 5 AH just after the Battle of the Trench, and Mu'awiyah embraced Islam in 8 AH, after the conquest of Mecca.

Collections

A number of ''hadith'' specialists have collected fabricated ''hadith'' separately in order to distinguish them from other ''hadith''. Examples include:
* '' Al-Maudu`at'' by Abul-Faraj Ibn Al-Jawzi.
* ''Kitab al-Abatil'' by al-Jauraqany.
* ''Al-La'ali al- Masnu'ah fi 'l-Ahadith al-Mawduʻah'' by al-Suyuti.
* ''Al-Mawduʻat'' by Ali al-Qari.
* ''Al-Fawaid al-Majmu'ah fi al-Ahaadeeth al-Mawdu'ah'' by Muhammad ash-Shawkani.

Sunni ''hadith'' terminology literature

As in any Islamic discipline, there is a rich history of literature describing the principles and fine points of ''hadith'' studies. Ibn Hajar provides a summation of this development with the following:

See also

* Biographical evaluation
* Criticism of Hadith
* Hadith
* List of hadith authors and commentators
* Oral Torah
* Prophetic biography

References

Further reading

* ''An Introduction to the Science of Hadith'', by Ibn al-Salah, translated by Dr. Eerik Dickinson;
* ''Studies in Hadith Methodology and Literature'', by Muhammad Mustafa Al-A'zami;

The Canonization of Al-Bukhari and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunni Hadith Canon
by Jonathan Brown, BRILL, 2007

{{Sunni hadith literature , collapsed

Terminology
Arabic words and phrases

fr:Hadithologie