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An ''hacienda'' ( or ; or ) is an estate (or '' finca''), similar to a Roman '' latifundium'', in
Spain , image_flag = Bandera de España.svg , image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg , national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond") , national_anthem = (English: "Royal March") , i ...
and the former
Spanish Empire The Spanish Empire ( es, link=no, Imperio español), also known as the Hispanic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Hispánica) or the Catholic Monarchy ( es, link=no, Monarquía Católica) was a colonial empire governed by Spain and its prede ...
. With origins in
Andalusia Andalusia (, ; es, Andalucía ) is the southernmost Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community in Peninsular Spain. It is the most populous and the second-largest autonomous community in the country. It is officially recognised as a ...
, ''haciendas'' were variously
plantation A plantation is an agricultural estate, generally centered on a plantation house, meant for farming that specializes in cash crops, usually mainly planted with a single crop, with perhaps ancillary areas for vegetables for eating and so on. The ...
s (perhaps including animals or orchards), mines or factories, with many ''haciendas'' combining these activities. The word is derived from Spanish ''hacer'' (to make, from Latin ''facere'') and ''haciendo'' (making), referring to productive business enterprises. The term ''hacienda'' is imprecise, but usually refers to landed estates of significant size, while smaller holdings were termed ''
estancias An estancia is a large, private plot of land used for farming or raising cattle or sheep. Estancias in the southern South American grasslands, the ''pampas'', have historically been estates used to raise livestock, such as cattle or sheep. In Pu ...
'' or ''
ranch A ranch (from es, rancho/Mexican Spanish) is an area of land, including various structures, given primarily to ranching, the practice of raising grazing livestock such as cattle and sheep. It is a subtype of a farm. These terms are most often ...
os''. All colonial ''haciendas'' were owned almost exclusively by Spaniards and criollos, or rarely by
mestizo (; ; fem. ) is a term used for racial classification to refer to a person of mixed Ethnic groups in Europe, European and Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Indigenous American ancestry. In certain regions such as Latin America, it may also r ...
individuals. In Mexico, as of 1910, there were 8,245 haciendas in the country. In Argentina, the term ''estancia'' is used for large estates that in Mexico would be termed ''haciendas''. In recent decades, the term has been used in the United States for an architectural style associated with the traditional estate manor houses. The ''hacienda'' system of
Argentina Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, th ...
,
Bolivia , image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg , flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center , flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...
,
Chile Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east a ...
,
Colombia Colombia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country in South America with insular regions in North America—near Nicaragua's Caribbean coast—as well as in the Pacific Ocean. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Car ...
,
Guatemala Guatemala ( ; ), officially the Republic of Guatemala ( es, República de Guatemala, links=no), is a country in Central America. It is bordered to the north and west by Mexico; to the northeast by Belize and the Caribbean; to the east by H ...
,
El Salvador El Salvador (; , meaning " The Saviour"), officially the Republic of El Salvador ( es, República de El Salvador), is a country in Central America. It is bordered on the northeast by Honduras, on the northwest by Guatemala, and on the south b ...
,
Mexico Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...
,
New Granada New Granada may refer to various former national denominations for the present-day country of Colombia. *New Kingdom of Granada, from 1538 to 1717 *Viceroyalty of New Granada, from 1717 to 1810, re-established from 1816 to 1819 *United Provinces of ...
, and
Peru , image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg , image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg , other_symbol = Great Seal of the State , other_symbol_type = Seal (emblem), National seal , national_motto = "Fi ...
was an economic system of large land holdings. A similar system existed on a smaller scale in
Puerto Rico Puerto Rico (; abbreviated PR; tnq, Boriken, ''Borinquen''), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ( es, link=yes, Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, lit=Free Associated State of Puerto Rico), is a Caribbean island and Unincorporated ...
and other territories. In Puerto Rico, ''haciendas'' were larger than ''estancias''; ordinarily grew sugar cane, coffee, or cotton; and exported their crops abroad.


Origins and growth

''Haciendas'' originated during the ''
Reconquista The ' (Spanish, Portuguese and Galician for "reconquest") is a historiographical construction describing the 781-year period in the history of the Iberian Peninsula between the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in 711 and the fall of the Nasrid ...
'' of
Andalusia Andalusia (, ; es, Andalucía ) is the southernmost Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community in Peninsular Spain. It is the most populous and the second-largest autonomous community in the country. It is officially recognised as a ...
in Spain. The sudden acquisition of conquered land allowed kings to grant extensive holdings to nobles, mercenaries, and religious military orders to reward their military service. Andalusian ''haciendas'' produced wine, grain, oils, and livestock, and were more purely agricultural than what was to follow in Spanish America. During the
Spanish colonization of the Americas Spain began colonizing the Americas under the Crown of Castile and was spearheaded by the Spanish . The Americas were invaded and incorporated into the Spanish Empire, with the exception of Brazil, British America, and some small regions ...
, the ''hacienda'' model was exported to the New World, continuing the pattern of the ''Reconquista''. As the Spanish established cities in conquered territories, the crown distributed smaller plots of land nearby, while in farther areas the
conquistador Conquistadors (, ) or conquistadores (, ; meaning 'conquerors') were the explorer-soldiers of the Spanish and Portuguese Empires of the 15th and 16th centuries. During the Age of Discovery, conquistadors sailed beyond Europe to the Americas, O ...
es were allotted large land grants which became haciendas and
estancia An estancia is a large, private plot of land used for farming or raising cattle or sheep. Estancias in the southern South American grasslands, the ''pampas'', have historically been estates used to raise livestock, such as cattle or sheep. In Pu ...
s.Villalobos ''et al''. 1974, p. 87. Haciendas were developed as profit-making enterprises linked to regional or international markets. Estates were integrated into a
market-based economy A market economy is an economic system in which the decisions regarding investment, production and distribution to the consumers are guided by the price signals created by the forces of supply and demand, where all suppliers and consumers are ...
aimed at the Hispanic sector and cultivated crops such as
sugar Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. Simple sugars, also called monosaccharides, include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Compound sugars, also called disaccharides or double ...
,
wheat Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain that is a worldwide staple food. The many species of wheat together make up the genus ''Triticum'' ; the most widely grown is common wheat (''T. aestivum''). The archaeologi ...
, fruits and vegetables and produced animal products such as meat,
wool Wool is the textile fibre obtained from sheep and other mammals, especially goats, rabbits, and camelids. The term may also refer to inorganic materials, such as mineral wool and glass wool, that have properties similar to animal wool. As ...
, leather, and
tallow Tallow is a rendering (industrial), rendered form of beef or mutton fat, primarily made up of triglycerides. In industry, tallow is not strictly defined as beef or mutton fat. In this context, tallow is animal fat that conforms to certain techn ...
.James Lockhart and
Stuart Schwartz Stuart Schwartz was a long-time Senior Producer for ABC News known for his work on ''World News Tonight'', ''Nightline'', ''Day1'', ''20/20'' and ''Good Morning America''. Over his career, he earned 15 Emmy Awards, four Peabody Awards, two DuPont ...
, ''Early Latin America: A History of Colonial Spanish America and Brazil,'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983, pp. 134–142.
The system in Mexico is considered to have started when the Spanish crown granted to
Hernán Cortés Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro Altamirano, 1st Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca (; ; 1485 – December 2, 1547) was a Spanish ''conquistador'' who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large portions of w ...
the title of
Marquis A marquess (; french: marquis ), es, marqués, pt, marquês. is a nobleman of high hereditary rank in various European peerages and in those of some of their former colonies. The German language equivalent is Markgraf (margrave). A woman wi ...
of the Valley of Oaxaca in 1529, including the entire present state of
Morelos Morelos (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Morelos ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Morelos), is one of the 32 states which comprise the Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided into 36 municipalities and its capital city is Cuer ...
, as well as vast encomienda labor grants. Although haciendas originated in grants to the elite, many ordinary Spaniards could also petition for land grants from the crown. New haciendas were formed in many places in the 17th and 18th centuries as most local economies moved from mining toward agriculture and husbandry.Villalobos ''et al''. 1974, pp. 160–165. Distribution of land happened in parallel to the distribution of indigenous people who entered servitude under the
encomienda The ''encomienda'' () was a Spanish labour system that rewarded conquerors with the labour of conquered non-Christian peoples. The labourers, in theory, were provided with benefits by the conquerors for whom they laboured, including military ...
system.Villalobos ''et al''. 1974, pp. 109–113. Although the hacienda was not directly linked to the
encomienda The ''encomienda'' () was a Spanish labour system that rewarded conquerors with the labour of conquered non-Christian peoples. The labourers, in theory, were provided with benefits by the conquerors for whom they laboured, including military ...
, many Spanish holders of encomiendas lucratively combined the two by acquiring land or developing enterprises to employ that forced labor. As the crown moved to eliminate encomienda labor, Spaniards consolidated private landholdings and recruited labor on a permanent or casual basis. Eventually, the hacienda became secure private property, which survived the colonial period and into the 20th century.


Personnel

In Spanish America, the owner of an hacienda was called the ''hacendado'' or ''patrón''. Most owners of large and profitable haciendas preferred to live in Spanish cities, often near the hacienda, but in Mexico, the richest owners lived in Mexico City, visiting their haciendas at intervals. Onsite management of the rural estates was by a paid administrator or manager, which was similar to the arrangement with the encomienda. Administrators were often hired for a fixed term of employment, receiving a salary and at times some share of the profits of the estate. Some administrators also acquired landholdings themselves in the area of the estate they were managing. The work force on haciendas varied, depending on the type of hacienda and where it was located. In central Mexico near indigenous communities and growing crops to supply urban markets, there was often a small, permanent workforce resident on the hacienda. Labor could be recruited from nearby indigenous communities on an as-needed basis, such as planting and harvest time. The permanent and temporary hacienda employees worked land that belonged to the ''patrón'' and under the supervision of local labor bosses. In some places small scale cultivators or ''campesinos'' worked small holdings belonging to the hacendado, and owed a portion of their crops to him. Stock raising was central to ranching haciendas, the largest of which were in areas without dense indigenous populations, such as northern Mexico, but as indigenous populations declined in central areas, more land became available for grazing. Livestock were animals originally imported from Spain, including cattle, horses, sheep, and goats were part of the
Columbian Exchange The Columbian exchange, also known as the Columbian interchange, was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, commodities, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas between the New World (the Americas) in ...
and produced significant ecological changes. Sheep in particular had a devastating impact on the environment due to overgrazing. Mounted ranch hands variously called ''
vaquero The ''vaquero'' (; pt, vaqueiro, , ) is a horse-mounted livestock herder of a tradition that has its roots in the Iberian Peninsula and extensively developed in Mexico from a methodology brought to Latin America from Spain. The vaquero became t ...
s'' and '' gauchos'' (in the
Southern Cone The Southern Cone ( es, Cono Sur, pt, Cone Sul) is a geographical and cultural subregion composed of the southernmost areas of South America, mostly south of the Tropic of Capricorn. Traditionally, it covers Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay, bou ...
), among other terms worked for pastoral haciendas. Where the hacienda included working
mine Mine, mines, miners or mining may refer to: Extraction or digging * Miner, a person engaged in mining or digging *Mining, extraction of mineral resources from the ground through a mine Grammar *Mine, a first-person English possessive pronoun ...
s, as in Mexico, the ''patrón'' might gain immense wealth. The unusually large and profitable
Jesuit , image = Ihs-logo.svg , image_size = 175px , caption = ChristogramOfficial seal of the Jesuits , abbreviation = SJ , nickname = Jesuits , formation = , founders ...
''hacienda'' Santa Lucía, near Mexico City, established in 1576 and lasting to the expulsion in 1767, has been reconstructed by Herman Konrad from archival sources. This reconstruction has revealed the nature and operation of the hacienda system in Mexico, its labor force, its systems of land tenure and its relationship to larger Hispanic society in Mexico. The
Catholic Church The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
and
orders Order, ORDER or Orders may refer to: * Categorization, the process in which ideas and objects are recognized, differentiated, and understood * Heterarchy, a system of organization wherein the elements have the potential to be ranked a number of d ...
, especially the
Jesuits The Society of Jesus ( la, Societas Iesu; abbreviation: SJ), also known as the Jesuits (; la, Iesuitæ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...
, acquired vast ''hacienda'' holdings or preferentially loaned money to the hacendados. As the hacienda owners' mortgage holders, the Church's interests were connected with the landholding class. In the history of Mexico and other
Latin America Latin America or * french: Amérique Latine, link=no * ht, Amerik Latin, link=no * pt, América Latina, link=no, name=a, sometimes referred to as LatAm is a large cultural region in the Americas where Romance languages — languages derived f ...
n countries, the masses developed some hostility to the church; at times of gaining independence or during certain political movements, the people confiscated the church haciendas or restricted them. Haciendas in the
Caribbean The Caribbean (, ) ( es, El Caribe; french: la Caraïbe; ht, Karayib; nl, De Caraïben) is a region of the Americas that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean Se ...
were developed primarily as sugar
plantation A plantation is an agricultural estate, generally centered on a plantation house, meant for farming that specializes in cash crops, usually mainly planted with a single crop, with perhaps ancillary areas for vegetables for eating and so on. The ...
s, dependent on the labor of
African African or Africans may refer to: * Anything from or pertaining to the continent of Africa: ** People who are native to Africa, descendants of natives of Africa, or individuals who trace their ancestry to indigenous inhabitants of Africa *** Ethn ...
slaves Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave—someone forbidden to quit one's service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as property. Slavery typically involves slaves being made to perf ...
imported to the region, were staffed by slaves brought from
Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...
.African Aspects of the Puerto Rican Personality by (the late) Dr. Robert A. Martinez, Baruch College
(Archived fro

on 20 July 2007). Retrieved 13 July 2012.
In Puerto Rico, this system ended with the abolition of slavery on 22 March 1873.


Caribbean and South American haciendas

In
South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the southe ...
, the ''hacienda'' remained after the
collapse Collapse or its variants may refer to: Concepts * Collapse (structural) * Collapse (topology), a mathematical concept * Collapsing manifold * Collapse, the action of collapsing or telescoping objects * Collapsing user interface elements ** ...
of the colonial system in the early 19th century when nations gained independence. In some places, such as
Dominican Republic The Dominican Republic ( ; es, República Dominicana, ) is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean region. It occupies the eastern five-eighths of the island, which it shares wit ...
, with independence came efforts to break up the large plantation holdings into a myriad of small subsistence farmers' holdings, an agrarian revolution. In
Bolivia , image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg , flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center , flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...
, haciendas were prevalent until the 1952 Revolution of Víctor Paz Estenssoro. He established an extensive program of land distribution as part of the Agrarian Reform. Likewise,
Peru , image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg , image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg , other_symbol = Great Seal of the State , other_symbol_type = Seal (emblem), National seal , national_motto = "Fi ...
had haciendas until the Agrarian Reform (1969) of
Juan Velasco Alvarado Juan Francisco Velasco Alvarado (June 16, 1910 – December 24, 1977) was a Peruvian general who served as the President of Peru after a successful coup d'état against Fernando Belaúnde's presidency in 1968. Under his presidency, nationalism ...
, who expropriated the land from the hacendados and redistributed it to the peasants.


Chile

The first haciendas of Chile formed during the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. The
Destruction of the Seven Cities The Destruction of the Seven Cities ( es, Destrucción de las siete ciudades) is a term used in Chilean historiography to refer to the destruction or abandonment of seven major Spanish outposts in southern Chile around 1600, caused by the Mapuc ...
following the battle of Curalaba (1598) meant for the Spanish the loss of both the main gold districts and the largest sources of indigenous labour.Salazar & Pinto 2002, p. 15. After those dramatic years the colony of Chile became concentrated in
Central Chile Central Chile (''Zona central'') is one of the five natural regions into which CORFO divided continental Chile in 1950. It is home to a majority of the Chilean population and includes the three largest metropolitan areas—Santiago, Valparaís ...
which became increasingly populated, explored and economically exploited. Much land in Central Chile was cleared with fire during this period. On the contrary open fields in southern Chile were overgrown as indigenous populations declined due to diseases introduced by the Spanish and intermittent warfare.Otero 2006, p. 25. The loss of the cities meant Spanish settlements in Chile became increasingly rural with the hacienda gaining importance in economic and social matters. As Chilean mining activity declined in the 17th centuryVillalobos ''et al''. 1974, p. 168. more haciendas were formed as the economy moved away from mining and into agriculture and husbandry. Beginning in the late 17th century Chilean haciendas begun to export wheat to Peru. While the immediate cause of this was Peru being struck by both an earthquake and a stem rust
epidemic An epidemic (from Ancient Greek, Greek ἐπί ''epi'' "upon or above" and δῆμος ''demos'' "people") is the rapid spread of disease to a large number of patients among a given population within an area in a short period of time. Epidemics ...
,Villalobos ''et al.'', 1974, pp. 155–160. Chilean soil and climatic conditions were better for cereal production than those of Peru and Chilean wheat was cheaper and of better quality than Peruvian wheat.Collier, Simon and Sater William F. 2004. ''A History of Chile: 1808-2002''
Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press is the university press of the University of Cambridge. Granted letters patent by Henry VIII of England, King Henry VIII in 1534, it is the oldest university press A university press is an academic publishing hou ...
. p. 10.
Initially Chilean haciendas could not meet the wheat demand due to a labour shortage, so had to incorporate temporary workers in addition to the permanent staff. Another response by the latifundia to labour shortages was to act as merchants, buying wheat produced by independent farmers or from farmers that hired land. In the period 1700 to 1850, this second option was overall more lucrative. It was primarily the haciendas of Central Chile, La Serena and Concepción that came to be involved in cereal export to Peru. In the 19th and early 20th century haciendas were the main prey for Chilean banditry. 20th century Chilean haciendas stand out for the poor conditions of workersSalazar & Pinto 2002, pp. 106–107. and being a backward part of the economy. The hacienda and inquilinaje institutions that characterized large parts of Chilean agriculture were eliminated by the
Chilean land reform The Chilean land reform ( es, Reforma agraria chilena) was a process of land ownership restructuring that occurred from 1962 to 1973 in different phases. For much of the 20th century agriculture was one of the most backward sectors of Chilean eco ...
(1962–1973).Rytkönen, P. Fruits of Capitalism: Modernization of Chilean Agriculture, 1950-2000. ''Lund Studies in Economic History'', 31, p. 43.


Puerto Rico

Haciendas in
Puerto Rico Puerto Rico (; abbreviated PR; tnq, Boriken, ''Borinquen''), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ( es, link=yes, Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, lit=Free Associated State of Puerto Rico), is a Caribbean island and Unincorporated ...
developed during the time of Spanish colonization. An example of these was the 1833 Hacienda Buena Vista, which dealt primarily with the cultivation, packaging, and exportation of coffee. Today, Hacienda Buena Vista, which is listed in the United States
National Register of Historic Places The National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) is the United States federal government's official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures and objects deemed worthy of preservation for their historical significance or "great artistic v ...
, is operated as a museum,
Museo Hacienda Buena Vista Museo Hacienda Buena Vista is a historic coffee plantation farm museum in Barrio Magueyes, Ponce, Puerto Rico. The museum opened in 1987, and receives some 40,000 visitors a year.
. The 1861 Hacienda Mercedita was a sugar
plantation A plantation is an agricultural estate, generally centered on a plantation house, meant for farming that specializes in cash crops, usually mainly planted with a single crop, with perhaps ancillary areas for vegetables for eating and so on. The ...
that once produced, packaged and sold sugar in the ''Snow White'' brand name. In the late 19th century, Mercedita became the site of production of Don Q rum. Its profitable rum business is today called
Destilería Serrallés Destilería Serrallés is a rum producer located in Ponce, Puerto Rico, and best known for its Don Q rum brand. The company is Puerto Rico's oldest family-owned company and has revenues of over 100 million dollars. In 2011, it was responsible f ...
. The last of such haciendas decayed considerably starting in the 1950s, with the industrialization of Puerto Rico via '' Operation Bootstrap''. At the turn of the 20th century, most coffee haciendas had disappeared. The sugar-based haciendas changed into ''centrales azucarelas.''"Economy: Sugar in Puerto Rico"
, ''Encyclopedia Puerto Rico'', "Economy." Fundación Puertorriqueña para las Humanidades. Retrieved 13 July 2012.
Yet by the 1990s, and despite significant government fiscal support, the last 13 Puerto Rican ''centrales azucares'' were forced to shut down. This marked the end of haciendas operating in Puerto Rico. In 2000, the last two sugar mills closed, after having operated for nearly 100 years.Benjamin Bridgman, Michael Maio, James A. Schmitz, Jr. "What Ever Happened to the Puerto Rican Sugar Manufacturing Industry?"
Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis, Staff Report 477, 2012.
An ''"
estancia An estancia is a large, private plot of land used for farming or raising cattle or sheep. Estancias in the southern South American grasslands, the ''pampas'', have historically been estates used to raise livestock, such as cattle or sheep. In Pu ...
"'' was a similar type of food farm. An ''estancia'' differed from an hacienda in terms of crop types handled, target market, machinery used, and size. An estancia, during Spanish colonial times in
Puerto Rico Puerto Rico (; abbreviated PR; tnq, Boriken, ''Borinquen''), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ( es, link=yes, Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, lit=Free Associated State of Puerto Rico), is a Caribbean island and Unincorporated ...
(1508 - 1898), was a plot of land used for cultivating ''"frutos menores"'' (minor crops). That is, the crops in such ''estancia'' farms were produced in relatively small quantities and thus were meant, not for wholesale or exporting, but for sale and consumption locally, where produced and its adjacent towns. Haciendas, unlike estancias, were equipped with industrial machinery used for processing its crops into derivatives such as juices, marmalades,
flour Flour is a powder made by grinding raw grains, roots, beans, nuts, or seeds. Flours are used to make many different foods. Cereal flour, particularly wheat flour, is the main ingredient of bread, which is a staple food for many culture ...
s, etc., for wholesale and exporting.Guillermo A. Baralt. ''Buena Vista: Life and work in a Puerto Rican Hacienda, 1833-1904.'' Translated from the Spanish by Andrew Hurley. (Originally published in 1988 by Fideicomiso de Conservación de Puerto Rico as ''La Buena Vista: Estancia de Frutos Menores, fabrica de harinas y hacienda cafetalera''.) 1999. Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA: University of North Carolina Press. p. 1. Some ''"frutos menores"'' grown in estancias were
rice Rice is the seed of the grass species ''Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice) or less commonly ''Oryza glaberrima ''Oryza glaberrima'', commonly known as African rice, is one of the two domesticated rice species. It was first domesticated and grown i ...
,
corn Maize ( ; ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''mays'', from es, maíz after tnq, mahiz), also known as corn (North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. Th ...
,
bean A bean is the seed of several plants in the family Fabaceae, which are used as vegetables for human or animal food. They can be cooked in many different ways, including boiling, frying, and baking, and are used in many traditional dishes th ...
s, batatas,
ñame Yam is the common name for some plant species in the genus ''Dioscorea'' (family Dioscoreaceae) that form edible tubers. Yams are perennial herbaceous vines cultivated for the consumption of their starchy tubers in many temperate and tropica ...
s, yautías, and
pumpkin A pumpkin is a vernacular term for mature winter squash of species and varieties in the genus ''Cucurbita'' that has culinary and cultural significance but no agreed upon botanical or scientific meaning. The term ''pumpkin'' is sometimes use ...
s; among fruits were plantains,
banana A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in the genus ''Musa''. In some countries, bananas used for cooking may be called "plantains", distinguis ...
s, oranges,
avocado The avocado (''Persea americana'') is a medium-sized, evergreen tree in the laurel family (Lauraceae). It is native to the Americas and was first domesticated by Mesoamerican tribes more than 5,000 years ago. Then as now it was prized for i ...
s, and
grapefruit The grapefruit (''Citrus'' × ''paradisi'') is a subtropical citrus tree known for its relatively large, sour to semi-sweet, somewhat bitter fruit. The interior flesh is segmented and varies in color from pale yellow to dark pink. Grapefruit is ...
s.Eduardo Neumann Gandia. ''Verdadera y Autentica Historia de la Ciudad de Ponce: Desde sus primitivos tiempos hasta la época contemporánea. San Juan, Puerto Rico: Instituto de Cultural Puertorriqueña. 1913. Reprinted 1987. p. 67. Most haciendas in Puerto Rico produced sugar, coffee, and tobacco, which were the crops for exporting. Some estancias were larger than some haciendas, but generally this was the exception and not the norm.Ivette Perez Vega. ''Las Sociedades Mercantiles de Ponce (1816-1830).'' Academia Puertorriqueña de la Historia. San Juan, PR: Ediciones Puerto. 2015. p. 389.


Other meanings

In the present era, the ' is the government department in
Spain , image_flag = Bandera de España.svg , image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg , national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond") , national_anthem = (English: "Royal March") , i ...
that deals with
finance Finance is the study and discipline of money, currency and capital assets. It is related to, but not synonymous with economics, the study of production, distribution, and consumption of money, assets, goods and services (the discipline of fina ...
and taxation, as in Mexico ', and which is equivalent to the Department of the Treasury in the United States or
HM Treasury His Majesty's Treasury (HM Treasury), occasionally referred to as the Exchequer, or more informally the Treasury, is a department of His Majesty's Government responsible for developing and executing the government's public finance policy and ec ...
in the United Kingdom.


List of haciendas

*
Hacienda Cocoyoc The Hacienda de Cocoyoc, now known as the Hotel Hacienda Cocoyoc, is a private hacienda resort located in the state of Morelos, México. In the 17th and 18th centuries it became one of the most important haciendas in the nation and has been de ...
(Mexico) * Hacienda Buena Vista (Puerto Rico) * Hacienda Juriquilla (Mexico) * Hacienda Mercedita (Puerto Rico) * Hacienda Napoles (Colombia) *
Hacienda San Antonio de Petrel Hacienda San Antonio de Petrel was a Chilean hacienda located between Topocalma and Nilahue, in current Pichilemu, O'Higgins Region. It was created in 1611 by Bartolomé de Rojas y Puebla, who owned the terrains, and who later bought more lands ...
(Chile) *
Palacio San José Palacio (''palace'') is a Spanish habitational name. It may have originated from many places in Spain, especially in Galicia and Asturies. Notable people with the surname include: * Agustina Palacio de Libarona (1825-1880), Argentine writer, st ...
(Argentina) * Hacienda San Jose Chactún (Mexico) * Hacienda Yorba (USA) *
Sánchez Navarro latifundio The Sánchez Navarro latifundio (1765-1866) in Mexico was the largest privately owned estate or latifundio in all of Latin America. At its maximum extent, the Sánchez Navarro family owned more than of land, an area almost as large as the Republ ...
(Mexico)


See also

*
Cortijo A ''cortijo'' is a type of traditional rural dwelling (akin to the German ''Bauernhof'', also known as a Farmhouse in English) in the southern half of Spain, including all of Andalusia and parts of Extremadura and Castile-La Mancha.Antonio Alc ...
*
Encomienda The ''encomienda'' () was a Spanish labour system that rewarded conquerors with the labour of conquered non-Christian peoples. The labourers, in theory, were provided with benefits by the conquerors for whom they laboured, including military ...
*
Estancia An estancia is a large, private plot of land used for farming or raising cattle or sheep. Estancias in the southern South American grasslands, the ''pampas'', have historically been estates used to raise livestock, such as cattle or sheep. In Pu ...
*
Fazenda A ''fazenda'' () is a plantation found throughout Brazil during the colonial period (16th - 18th centuries). They were concentrated primarily in the northeastern region, where sugar was produced in the ''engenhos'', expanding during the 19th ...
*
Feudalism Feudalism, also known as the feudal system, was the combination of the legal, economic, military, cultural and political customs that flourished in medieval Europe between the 9th and 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a way of structur ...
*
Mit'a Mit'a () was mandatory service in the society of the Inca Empire. Its close relative, the regionally mandatory Minka is still in use in Quechua communities today and known as ''faena'' in Spanish. Historians use the Hispanicized term ''mita'' to ...
, a form of tribute to the Inca government in the form of labor, abused by the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru *
Plantation A plantation is an agricultural estate, generally centered on a plantation house, meant for farming that specializes in cash crops, usually mainly planted with a single crop, with perhaps ancillary areas for vegetables for eating and so on. The ...
*
Ranch A ranch (from es, rancho/Mexican Spanish) is an area of land, including various structures, given primarily to ranching, the practice of raising grazing livestock such as cattle and sheep. It is a subtype of a farm. These terms are most often ...
* Repartimiento, a colonial forced labor system imposed upon the indigenous population of Spanish America * Roman villa * Latifundium * " My Adobe Hacienda"


Notes


References


Further reading


General

* Mörner, Magnus. "The Spanish American Hacienda: A Survey of Recent Research and Debate," ''Hispanic American Historical Review'' (1973), 53#2, pp. 183–21
in JSTOR
* Van Young, Eric, "Mexican Rural History Since Chevalier: The Historiography of the Colonial Hacienda," ''Latin American Research Review'', 18 (3) 1983; 5-61. * Villalobos, Sergio; Silva, Osvaldo; Silva, Fernando; Estelle, Patricio (1974). ''Historia De Chile'' (14th ed.).
Editorial Universitaria Editorial Universitaria is Chilean university press based in Santiago. It was established in 1947 with funds from private people and from the University of Chile. During its existence, it has published the works of generations influential Chilean sc ...
. .


Haciendas in Mexico

*
Bartlett, Paul Alexander Paul Alexander Bartlett (13 July 1909 – 19 April 1990) was an American writer, artist, and poet. He made a large-scale study of more than 350 hacienda, Mexican haciendas, published novels, short stories, and poetry, and worked as a fine artist ...
. ''The Haciendas of Mexico: An Artist's Record''. Niwot, CO: University Press of Colorado, 199
in Project Gutenberg
* Bauer, Arnold. "Modernizing landlords and constructive peasants: In the Mexican countryside", ''Mexican Studies / Estudios Mexicanos'' (Winter 1998), 14#1, pp. 191–212. * D. A. Brading, ''Haciendas and Ranchos in the Mexican Bajío''. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1978. * Chevalier, François. ''Land and Society in Colonial Mexico''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963. *. "The Hacienda in New Spain." In Leslie Bethell (ed.), ''The Cambridge History of Latin America'', vol. 4, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984. *Florescano, Enrique. ''Precios de maíz y crisis agrícolas en México, 1708 – 1810''. Mexico City: Colegio de México, 1969. * Gibson, Charles. ''The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule''. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1964. *Harris, Charles H. ''A Mexican Family Empire: The Latifundio of the Sánchez Navarros, 1765 – 1867''. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1975, . *Konrad, Herman W. ''A Jesuit Hacienda in Colonial Mexico: Santa Lucía, 1576–1767''. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1980. * Lockhart, James. "Encomienda and Hacienda: The Evolution of the Great Estate in the Spanish Indies," ''Hispanic American Historical Review,'' 1969, 59: 411–29, *Miller, Simon. ''Landlords and Haciendas in Modernizing Mexico''. Amsterdam: CEDLA, 1995. *Morin, Claude. ''Michoacán en la Nueva España del Siglo XVIII: Crecimiento y dissigualidad en una economía colonial''. Mexico City:
Fondo de Cultura Económica Fondo de Cultura Económica (FCE or simply "Fondo") is a Spanish language, non-profit publishing group, partly funded by the Mexican government. It is based in Mexico but it has subsidiaries throughout the Spanish-speaking world. It was founded in ...
, 1979. *Schryer, Frans J. ''The Rancheros of Pisaflores''. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978. * Taylor, William B. ''Landlord and Peasant in Colonial Oaxaca''. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1972. *Tayor, William B. "Landed Society in New Spain: A View from the South," ''Hispanic American Historical Review'' (1974), 54#3, pp. 387–41
in JSTOR
*Tutino, John. ''From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986. * Van Young, Eric. ''Hacienda and Market in Eighteenth-Century Mexico''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981. *Wasserman, Mark. ''Capitalists, Caciques, and Revolution''. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984. *Wells, Allen. ''Yucatán's Gilded Age''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1985.


Haciendas in Puerto Rico

* Balletto, Barbara ''Insight Guide Puerto Rico'' * De Wagenheim, Olga J. ''Puerto Rico: An Interpretive History from Precolumbia Times to 1900'' * Figueroa, Luis A. ''Sugar, Slavery and Freedom in Nineteenth Century Puerto Rico'' * Scarano, Francisco A. ''Sugar and Slavery in Puerto Rico: The Plantation Economy of Ponce, 1800–1850'' * Schmidt-Nowara, Christopher ''Empire and Antislavery: Spain, Cuba and Puerto Rico, 1833–1874'' * Soler, Luis M. D. ''Historia de la esclavitud negra en Puerto Rico''


South America

*Lyons, Barry J
''Remembering the Hacienda: Religion, Authority and Social Change in Highland Ecuador''
(2006) * * Salazar, Gabriel; Pinto, Julio (2002). ''Historia contemporánea de Chile III. La economía: mercados empresarios y trabajadores.''
LOM Ediciones LOM Ediciones («Lom», means in yaghan language: «sun») is a Chilean press based in Santiago. It was established in 1990. Several Chileans and Latin American writers published in this press, like Pedro Lemebel, Tomas Moulian and Enrique Lihn ...
. .


External links


historic Fazendas in Brazil
* {{Authority control Encomenderos Spanish colonization of the Americas Unfree labour Debt bondage History of Colombia Culture in Rio Grande do Sul Economic history of Mexico History of agriculture in Brazil Country estates