The HAL HF-24 Marut ("Spirit of the Tempest") was an Indian
fighter-bomber
A fighter-bomber is a fighter aircraft that has been modified, or used primarily, as a light bomber or attack aircraft. It differs from bomber and attack aircraft primarily in its origins, as a fighter that has been adapted into other roles, wh ...
aircraft
An aircraft is a vehicle that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines ...
of the 1960s. Developed by
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) is an Indian state-owned aerospace and defence (military), defence company, headquartered in Bangalore, India. Established on 23 December 1940, HAL is one of the oldest and largest aerospace and defence manuf ...
(HAL), with
Kurt Tank
Kurt Waldemar Tank (24 February 1898 – 5 June 1983) was a German aeronautical engineer and test pilot who led the design department at Focke-Wulf from 1931 to 1945. He was responsible for the creation of several important Luftwaffe aircraft of ...
as lead designer. The Project Engineer from
HAL was George William Benjamin. It is the first Indian-developed jet aircraft, and the first
Asia
Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an area ...
n jet
fighter (outside Russia/Soviet Union) to go beyond the test phase and into successful production and active service. On 17 June 1961, the type conducted its
maiden flight
The maiden flight, also known as first flight, of an aircraft is the first occasion on which it leaves the ground under its own power. The same term is also used for the first launch of rockets.
The maiden flight of a new aircraft type is alwa ...
; on 1 April 1967, the first production Marut was officially delivered to the IAF.
While the Marut had been envisioned as a
supersonic
Supersonic speed is the speed of an object that exceeds the speed of sound ( Mach 1). For objects traveling in dry air of a temperature of 20 °C (68 °F) at sea level, this speed is approximately . Speeds greater than five times ...
-capable combat aircraft, it would never manage to exceed
Mach 1. This limitation was principally due to the engines used, which in turn had been limited by various political and economic factors; multiple attempts to develop improved engines or to source alternative powerplants were fruitless. The Marut's cost and lack of capability in comparison to contemporary aircraft were often criticised.
A total of 147 Maruts were manufactured, the majority for the
Indian Air Force
The Indian Air Force (IAF) is the air arm of the Indian Armed Forces. Its complement of personnel and aircraft assets ranks third amongst the air forces of the world. Its primary mission is to secure Indian airspace and to conduct aerial w ...
(IAF). While initially envisioned as a capable
interceptor aircraft
An interceptor aircraft, or simply interceptor, is a type of fighter aircraft designed specifically for the defensive interception role against an attacking enemy aircraft, particularly bombers and reconnaissance aircraft. Aircraft that are cap ...
, it was primarily used for ground attack missions. In this role, the Marut saw combat during the
Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 was a military confrontation between India and Pakistan that occurred during the Bangladesh Liberation War in East Pakistan from 3 December 1971 until the
Pakistani capitulation in Dhaka on 16 Decem ...
, notably participating in the
Battle of Longewala
The Battle of Longewala (4–7 December 1971) was one of the first major engagements in the western sector during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, fought between assaulting Pakistani forces and Indian defenders at the Indian border post of Longewa ...
. By 1982, the Marut was increasingly obsolescent, and was gradually phased out during the late 1980s.
Design and development
Origins
During the 1950s, Hindustan Aircraft Limited (HAL) had developed and produced several types of trainer aircraft, such as the
HAL HT-2. However, elements within the firm were eager to expand into the then-new realm of supersonic fighter aircraft.
[Satish 2015, p. 480.] Around the same time, the Indian government was in the process of formulating a new Air Staff Requirement for a Mach 2-capable combat aircraft to equip the Indian Air Force (IAF).
[Gupta 1997, p. 34.] However, as HAL lacked the necessary experience in both developing and manufacturing frontline combat fighters, it was clear that external guidance would be invaluable; this assistance was embodied by
Kurt Tank
Kurt Waldemar Tank (24 February 1898 – 5 June 1983) was a German aeronautical engineer and test pilot who led the design department at Focke-Wulf from 1931 to 1945. He was responsible for the creation of several important Luftwaffe aircraft of ...
.
In 1956, HAL formally began design work on the supersonic fighter project.
[Smith 1994, p. 160.] The Indian government, led by
Jawaharlal Nehru
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru (; ; ; 14 November 1889 – 27 May 1964) was an Indian anti-colonial nationalist, secular humanist, social democrat—
*
*
*
* and author who was a central figure in India during the middle of the 20t ...
, authorised the development of the aircraft, stating that it would aid in the development of a modern aircraft industry in India.
[Rajagopalan 2014, p. 116.] The first phase of the project sought to develop an airframe suitable for travelling at supersonic speeds, and able to effectively perform combat missions as a fighter aircraft, while the second phase sought to domestically design and produce an engine capable of propelling the aircraft.
Early on, there was an explicit adherence to satisfying the IAF's requirements for a capable fighter bomber; attributes such as a twin-engine configuration and a speed of Mach 1.4 to 1.5 were quickly emphasised.
During development, HAL designed and constructed a full-scale two-seat wooden glider to act as a flying demonstrator. Designated ''HAL X-241'', this replicated production aircraft in terms of dimensions, control configuration, and aerofoil sections. The wheel brakes, air brakes, flaps, and retractable undercarriage were all actuated using compressed gas, with sufficient gas storage aboard for multiple actuations per flight.
On 3 April 1959, the X-241 flew for the first time, having been launched by aero-tow behind a
Douglas Dakota Mk.IV BJ 449. A total of 86 flights were conducted prior to the X-241 receiving considerable damage as the result of a landing accident, after the nose undercarriage failed to extend.
On 24 June 1961, the first prototype Marut conducted its maiden flight. It was powered by the same Bristol Siddeley Orpheus
The Bristol Siddeley Orpheus was a single-spool turbojet developed by Bristol Siddeley for various light fighter/trainer applications such as the Folland Gnat and the Fiat G.91. Later, the Orpheus formed the core of the first Bristol Pegasus ve ...
703 turbojet
The turbojet is an airbreathing jet engine which is typically used in aircraft. It consists of a gas turbine with a propelling nozzle. The gas turbine has an air inlet which includes inlet guide vanes, a compressor, a combustion chamber, and ...
s that had powered the Folland Gnat
The Folland Gnat is a British compact swept-wing subsonic fighter aircraft that was developed and produced by Folland Aircraft. Envisioned as an affordable light fighter in contrast to the rising cost and size of typical combat aircraft, it wa ...
, also being manufactured by HAL at that time. On 1 April 1967, the first production Marut was delivered to the IAF.[Singh, Sushant]
"Tejas is not India's first indigenous fighter, that would be the HF-24 Marut."
''Times of India'', 1 July 2016. While originally intended only as an interim measure during testing, HAL decided to power production Maruts with a pair of unreheated Orpheus 703s, meaning the aircraft could not attain supersonic speed. Although originally conceived to operate around Mach 2, the Marut in fact was barely capable of reaching Mach 1 due to the lack of suitably powerful engines.
The IAF were reluctant to procure a fighter aircraft only marginally superior to its existing fleet of British-built Hawker Hunter
The Hawker Hunter is a transonic British jet-powered fighter aircraft that was developed by Hawker Aircraft for the Royal Air Force (RAF) during the late 1940s and early 1950s. It was designed to take advantage of the newly developed Rolls-R ...
s; however, in 1961, the Indian Government decided to procure 16 pre-production and 60 production Maruts. Only 147 aircraft, including 18 two-seat trainers, were completed out of a planned 214. After the Indian Government conducted its first nuclear tests
Nuclear weapons tests are experiments carried out to determine nuclear weapons' effectiveness, yield, and explosive capability. Testing nuclear weapons offers practical information about how the weapons function, how detonations are affected by ...
at Pokhran
Pokhran is a village and a municipality located, outside of Jaisalmer city in the Jaisalmer district of the Indian state of Rajasthan. It is a remote location in the Thar Desert region and served as the site for India's first underground nucle ...
, international pressure prevented the import of better engines, or at times, even spares for the Orpheus engines; this situation was one of the main reasons for the aircraft's early demise. The Marut never realised its full potential due to insufficient power. The Marut "was technically obsolete by the time it was first delivered in 1964". Other authors have also commented on the Marut's relative obsolescence by the time it reached production.
Termination and criticisms
The Marut was described as "essentially a very long-drawn-out failure", and the aircraft's shortcomings were considered to be due to multiple factors.[Smith 1994, pp. 160–162.] Among these were the difficulties experienced in securing a suitable engine, which was principally a political issue; while arrangements were successfully established with the United Kingdom and Bristol Siddeley
Bristol Siddeley Engines Ltd (BSEL) was a British aero engine manufacturer. The company was formed in 1959 by a merger of Bristol Aero-Engines Limited and Armstrong Siddeley Motors Limited. In 1961 the company was expanded by the purchase of t ...
for HAL to domestically produce the Orpheus, it was only suitable as an interim measure as it lacked the power to enable the Marut to achieve supersonic speed.[Smith 1994, pp. 160–161.] The Indian Government refused a proposal made by Rolls-Royce
Rolls-Royce (always hyphenated) may refer to:
* Rolls-Royce Limited, a British manufacturer of cars and later aero engines, founded in 1906, now defunct
Automobiles
* Rolls-Royce Motor Cars, the current car manufacturing company incorporated in ...
to finance further development of the Orpheus, which had been specifically aimed at producing a more suitable engine for the Marut.
Other envisioned alternative engines that might have been sourced from the Soviet Union, Egypt, or various European nations did not result in anything of substance. The Gas Turbine Research Establishment
Gas Turbine Research Establishment (GTRE) is a laboratory of the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO). Located in Bengaluru, its primary function is research and development of aero gas-turbines for military aircraft. As a spin- ...
also pursued their own development program to improve the Orpheus without external aid, which proceeded to the testing phase with some favourable results, but proved incompatible with the Marut. As the particularities of a given airframe are typically heavily dependent on the engine used, the inability to improve the Marut's powerplant damaged its performance.[Smith 1994, p. 161.] Despite experimentation with various engines, the Marut was never able to achieve supersonic speeds, which was viewed as a major failure. IAF had anticipated the Marut being fitted with a considerably superior engine.
The project was negatively affected by a lack of direction and management from the Indian Ministry of Defence. A lack of coordination between the military, politicians, and industry is alleged to have been typical throughout the entirety of the programme, leaving many issues down to industry alone without guidance. Specifically, the government never sanctioned the development of an engine design team, nor were there assessments of HAL's capability to reverse engineer
Reverse engineering (also known as backwards engineering or back engineering) is a process or method through which one attempts to understand through deductive reasoning how a previously made device, process, system, or piece of software accompli ...
or to apply technologies from other projects, such as the work performed for the Folland Gnat. HAL is claimed to have struggled to convince both the IAF and MoD that the design of the Marut was acceptable; much attention was given to the unacceptably high level of trail drag the airframe produced, as well as dissatisfaction with the Marut's speed and manoeuvrability, both of which were below IAF specification upon the aircraft's introduction.
Tank had a major influence on the project, and accordingly of its shortcomings. While working on the Marut, he was criticized for a rigid stance on aspects of the design,[Smith 1994, pp. 160, 162.] and he typically had little interest in lobbying the Indian government for funding to refine the design. In addition, however, elements of the IAF have been alleged to have held dismissive attitudes toward Tank and of his abilities, rarely coordinated with him on issues with the aircraft, which in turn exacerbated the type's performance issues.[Smith 1994, p. 162.] The level of technological transfer between Germany and India on the project was subject to criticism as well.
Limitations within the Indian aerospace industry, which lacked the infrastructure and scientific base to successfully produce an effective indigenous combat aircraft at that time, forced a heavy reliance on foreign technologies and imported components. HAL's willingness to undertake overly-ambitious defence projects may also be partially responsible for the project's outcome. The Marut was not only heavily dependent on foreign-sourced materials, but was more expensive to manufacture the type in India than to have imported completed aircraft. The level of indigenous components increased over time, reportedly reaching 70 per cent by December 1973. The allocation of scarce resources to reproducing components that could have been readily imported represented a high level of opportunity cost
In microeconomic theory, the opportunity cost of a particular activity is the value or benefit given up by engaging in that activity, relative to engaging in an alternative activity. More effective it means if you chose one activity (for example ...
to India.
The IAF reportedly showed little confidence or interest in indigenous fighter technology, having openly expressed its preference for the French-built Dassault Ouragan
The Dassault M.D.450 Ouragan (french: Hurricane) is a French fighter-bomber developed and produced by Dassault Aviation. It has its origins in a private venture by Dassault to produce an all-French aircraft which would make use of jet propulsio ...
as an alternative. By the time the Marut entered mass production, the IAF had already purchased foreign-built fighters such as the Hawker Hunter
The Hawker Hunter is a transonic British jet-powered fighter aircraft that was developed by Hawker Aircraft for the Royal Air Force (RAF) during the late 1940s and early 1950s. It was designed to take advantage of the newly developed Rolls-R ...
and Sukhoi Su-7
The Sukhoi Su-7 ( NATO designation name: Fitter-A) is a swept wing, supersonic fighter aircraft developed by the Soviet Union in 1955. Originally, it was designed as a tactical, low-level dogfighter, but was not successful in this role. On the ...
.[Arnett 1997, p. 120.] Following on from the Marut, HAL proceeded to produce larger quantities of both European and Soviet combat aircraft under license, such as the SEPECAT Jaguar
The SEPECAT Jaguar is an Anglo-French jet attack aircraft originally used by the British Royal Air Force and the French Air Force in the close air support and nuclear strike role. It is still in service with the Indian Air Force.
Originall ...
, Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21
The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 (russian: Микоян и Гуревич МиГ-21; NATO reporting name: Fishbed) is a supersonic jet aircraft, jet fighter aircraft, fighter and interceptor aircraft, designed by the Mikoyan, Mikoyan-Gurevich OKB, De ...
, and Mikoyan MiG-27
The Mikoyan MiG-27 (russian: Микоян МиГ-27; NATO reporting name: Flogger-D/J) is a variable-sweep ground-attack aircraft, originally built by the Mikoyan-Gurevich design bureau in the Soviet Union and later licence-produced in Ind ...
.
Operational history
The Marut was used in combat in a ground attack role, where its safety features such as manual controls whenever the hydraulic systems failed, and twin engines, increased survivability. According to aviation author Pushpindar Singh, the Marut had excellent low-level flying characteristics, but its maneuverability suffered due to the lack of engine power; maintenance issues also resulted in the type being problematic in service.
In 1967, a single Marut was used as a testbed for the Egyptian indigenously-developed Brandner E-300
The Brandner E-300 was an Egyptian turbojet engine, developed for the Helwan HA-300 light jet fighter.
Development
Austrian engineer Ferdinand Brandner, who had worked in the Soviet Union, leading the development of the Kuznetsov NK-12 turboprop ...
engine.[Taylor 1969, p. 671.] The Indian team was recalled in July 1969, while the Egypt-based Marut was abandoned.
Given the limited number of Marut units, most Marut squadrons were considerably over-strength for the duration of their lives. According to Brian de Magray, at peak strength No.10 Squadron had on charge 32 Maruts, although the squadron probably did not hold a unit-establishment of more than 16. The Marut squadrons participated in the 1971 war and none were lost in air-to-air combat, although three were lost to ground fire, and one was destroyed on the ground. Three Marut pilots were awarded the Vir Chakra
Vir Chakra (pronunciation: ʋ iː ɾ a tʃ a kɾa) is an Indian wartime military bravery award presented for acts of conspicuous gallantry in the presence of the enemy on the battlefield and is third in precedence in wartime gallantry awards a ...
commendation.
Maruts constantly found themselves under heavy and concentrated fire from the ground during their low-level attack missions. On at least three occasions, Maruts regained their base after one engine had been lost to ground fire. On one of these, a Marut returned to base without escort on one engine, from about inside hostile territory. On another occasion, a pilot flying his Marut through debris that erupted into the air as he strafed a convoy felt a heavy blow to the rear fuselage of the aircraft, the engine damage warning lights immediately illuminated, and one engine cut out. Fortunately, the Marut attained a safe and reasonable recovery speed on one engine. Consequently, the pilot had no difficulty in flying his crippled fighter back to base. Another safety factor was the automatic reversion to manual control in the event of a failure in the hydraulic flying control system, and there were several instances of Maruts being flown back from a sortie manually. The Marut had a good survivability record in enemy airspace.
In the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 was a military confrontation between India and Pakistan that occurred during the Bangladesh Liberation War in East Pakistan from 3 December 1971 until the
Pakistani capitulation in Dhaka on 16 Decem ...
, some Maruts and Hawker Hunter
The Hawker Hunter is a transonic British jet-powered fighter aircraft that was developed by Hawker Aircraft for the Royal Air Force (RAF) during the late 1940s and early 1950s. It was designed to take advantage of the newly developed Rolls-R ...
aircraft were used to give close support to an Indian border post in the decisive Battle of Longewala
The Battle of Longewala (4–7 December 1971) was one of the first major engagements in the western sector during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, fought between assaulting Pakistani forces and Indian defenders at the Indian border post of Longewa ...
, on the morning of 5 December 1971. The aerial attack was credited with destroying a large number of tanks that had been deployed by Pakistani ground forces. More than 300 combat sorties were flown by the Maruts during a two-week period in the war.
According to Indian reports, one aerial kill was recorded as having been achieved by a Marut. On 7 December 1971, Squadron Leader KK Bakshi of No. 220 Squadron shot down a PAF F-86 Sabre (reportedly flown by Flying Officer Hamid Khwaja of No. 15 Squadron of the Pakistan Air Force
, "Be it deserts or seas; all lie under our wings" (traditional)
, colours =
, colours_label =
, march =
, mascot =
, anniversaries = ...
), however according to Pakistani reports, the F-86F
The North American F-86 Sabre, sometimes called the Sabrejet, is a transonic jet fighter aircraft. Produced by North American Aviation, the Sabre is best known as the United States' first swept-wing fighter that could counter the swept-wing ...
Sabre (Serial No. 4030) had suffered an Engine flameout while chasing an Indian Hawker Hunter
The Hawker Hunter is a transonic British jet-powered fighter aircraft that was developed by Hawker Aircraft for the Royal Air Force (RAF) during the late 1940s and early 1950s. It was designed to take advantage of the newly developed Rolls-R ...
over Khushalgarh.
By 1982, the IAF was proposing that the Marut fleet be phased out on the basis that the type was "no longer operationally viable". Supporters such as Air Commodore Jasjit Singh pointed out that the type had performed well in the 1971 combat, and had enjoyed superior safety records to other IAF aircraft such as the Gnat. Some aircraft had less than 100 recorded flight hours when the retirement of the Marut was being mooted.
Variants
;HAL X-241:A full scale research glider replicating the proposed production aircraft, with identical dimensions, control configuration and aerofoil sections.[
;Marut Mk.1: Single-seat ground-attack fighter.
;Marut Mk.1A: The third pre-production aircraft fitted with an afterburning ]Bristol Siddeley Orpheus 703
The Bristol Siddeley Orpheus was a single-spool turbojet developed by Bristol Siddeley for various light fighter/trainer applications such as the Folland Gnat and the Fiat G.91. Later, the Orpheus formed the core of the first Rolls-Royce Pegasu ...
with 18% boost at thrust.
;Marut Mk.1 BX:A single Mk.1 converted as a flying test-bed for the Brandner E-300
The Brandner E-300 was an Egyptian turbojet engine, developed for the Helwan HA-300 light jet fighter.
Development
Austrian engineer Ferdinand Brandner, who had worked in the Soviet Union, leading the development of the Kuznetsov NK-12 turboprop ...
turbojet engine.[
;Marut Mk.1T: Two-seat training version.][
;Marut Mk.1R: Two HF-24s fitted with two afterburning ]Bristol Siddeley Orpheus 703
The Bristol Siddeley Orpheus was a single-spool turbojet developed by Bristol Siddeley for various light fighter/trainer applications such as the Folland Gnat and the Fiat G.91. Later, the Orpheus formed the core of the first Rolls-Royce Pegasu ...
s with 18% boost at thrust.[
;Marut Mk.2:A projected ]Rolls-Royce Turbomeca Adour
The Rolls-Royce Turbomeca Adour is a two-shaft low bypass turbofan aircraft engine developed by Rolls-Royce Turbomeca Limited, a joint venture between Rolls-Royce (UK) and Turbomeca (France). The engine is named after the Adour, a river in so ...
powered derivative.[
]
Former operators
;
* Indian Air Force
The Indian Air Force (IAF) is the air arm of the Indian Armed Forces. Its complement of personnel and aircraft assets ranks third amongst the air forces of the world. Its primary mission is to secure Indian airspace and to conduct aerial w ...
** No. 10 Squadron IAF
No. 10 Squadron (Daggers) was a fighter squadron equipped with MiG-27. It was based at Jodhpur Air Force Station. The squadron was number plated in March 2019.
History
No. 10 Squadron, Indian Air Force was the last squadron of the Indian Air Fo ...
** No. 31 Squadron IAF
** No. 220 Squadron IAF
No. 220 Squadron (Desert Tigers) is a fighter squadron and is equipped with Su-30 MKIs and based at Halwara Air Force Station.
History
From its birth until just short of the Indo-Pak war of 1965, the role of the squadron was Operational Conversi ...
– last unit with the type, relinquished aircraft mid-1990[Bharat-Rakshak.com]
HINDUSTAN FIGHTER HF-24 MARUT
, accessed July 2009
Surviving aircraft
There are several surviving Maruts open to public inspection:
* Visvesvaraya Industrial and Technological Museum
The Visvesvaraya Industrial and Technological Museum (VITM), Bangalore, India, a constituent unit of the National Council of Science Museums (NCSM), Ministry of Culture, Government of India, was established in memory of Bharat Ratna Sir M. V ...
, Bangalore.
* HAL Museum, Bangalore
* Kamla Nehru Park, Pune.
* Nehru Science Centre, Mumbai
Mumbai (, ; also known as Bombay — the official name until 1995) is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra and the ''de facto'' financial centre of India. According to the United Nations, as of 2018, Mumbai is the second- ...
.
* Periyar Science and Technology Centre, Chennai
* ASTE (Aircraft & Systems Testing Establishment), Bangalore
* Air Force Academy, Dundigul
Indian Air Force Academy, Dundigal is a Defence Service training institute located in Medchal-Malkajgiri district from Hyderabad, in the Indian state of Telangana.
The academy was set up to train cadets from Indian Airforce Service cadre o ...
* Deutsches Museum Flugwerft Schleissheim
Flugwerft Schleissheim is an aviation museum located in the German town of Oberschleißheim near Munich, it forms part of the Deutsches Museum collection and complements the aviation exhibits on display at the main site. The museum was opened on ...
now on display at Museum für Luftfahrt und Technik
The Museum für Luftfahrt und Technik Wernigerode is an aviation museum located in the German town of Wernigerode near Halberstadt. Many aerospace exhibits are on display including fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters and aircraft engines. The main di ...
Wernigerode
Wernigerode () is a town in the district of Harz, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. Until 2007, it was the capital of the district of Wernigerode. Its population was 35,041 in 2012.
Wernigerode is located southwest of Halberstadt, and is picturesquely s ...
* Indian Air Force Museum, Palam
The Indian Air Force Museum, Palam, is the museum of the Indian Air Force, and is located at the Palam Air Force Station in Delhi, India.
The museum was the only one of its kind in India until the opening of the Naval Aviation Museum in Goa in ...
Specifications (Marut Mk.1)
See also
References
Citations
Bibliography
* Arnett, Eric H. ''Military Capacity and the Risk of War: China, India, Pakistan, and Iran''. Oxford University Press, 1997. .
"Maruta: India's Hindustan HF-24 Joins the IAF"
''Flight International
''Flight International'' is a monthly magazine focused on aerospace. Published in the United Kingdom and founded in 1909 as "A Journal devoted to the Interests, Practice, and Progress of Aerial Locomotion and Transport", it is the world's oldes ...
'', 2 July 1964, Vol. 86, No. 2886. pp. 16–17.
* Donald, David (editor). ''The Encyclopedia of World Aircraft''. London:Aerospace, 1997. .
* Gupta, Amit. ''Building an Arsenal: The Evolution of Regional Power Force Structures''. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997. .
* Kumar, Satish. ''India's National Security: Annual Review 2013''. Routledge, 2015. .
* Nordeen, Lon O. ''Air warfare in the missile age''. Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002. .
* Rajagopalan, Swarna. ''Security and South Asia: Ideas, Institutions and Initiatives''. Routledge, 2014. .
* Smith, Chris. ''India's Ad Hoc Arsenal: Direction Or Drift in Defence Policy?'' Oxford University Press, 1994. .
* Taylor, John W. R. ''Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1969–70''. London:Jane's Yearbooks, 1969.
* Taylor, John W.R. (editor). ''Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1976–77''. London:Jane's Yearbooks, 1976, .
* Thomas, Raju G.C. ''Indian Security Policy''. Princeton University Press, 2014. .
External links
FAS page on HAL HF-24 Marut
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hal Hf-24 Marut
Marut
1960s Indian fighter aircraft
Twinjets
Low-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1961